英语语言学笔记
默认分类 2008-01-10 22:25 阅读1191 评论3
字号：大中小
一、绪论
语言学的定义
语言学的研究范畴
几对基本概念
语言的定义
语言的甄别特征
What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particu lar language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不
是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴
Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmat ics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学
Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性
Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
Prescripti ve: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavior.
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoke
n data.
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language
Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.
Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:
(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing
(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language
Language and parole 语言与言语
Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech c
ommunity
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use
Competence and performance 能力与运用
Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication
What is language? 什么是语言？
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication
Characteristics of language: 语言的特性
Language is a rule-governed system
Language is basically vocal
Language is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by
any other name would smell as sweet.”)
Language is used for human communication
Design features of language 语言的甄别特征
American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:
1) arbitrariness 武断性
2) productivity 创造性
3) duality 二重性
4) displacement移位性
5) cultural transmission 文化传递性
二、音系学
语言的声音媒介
什么是语音学
发音器官
音标……宽式和严式标音法
英语语音的分类
音系学和语音学
语音、音位、音位变体
音位对立、互补分部、最小对立
几条音系规则
超切分特征
Two major media of communication: speech and writing
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of inte rest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这
些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerne
d with all th
e sounds that occur in the world’s language.
Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, a uditory phonetics 听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学
Organs of speech 发音器官
The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavit
ies:
The pharyngeal cavity咽腔----the throat
The oral cavity口腔----the mouth
The nasal cavity 鼻腔---the nose
Vibration of the vocal cords (声带) results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音and some consonants 辅音。
单词补充：
01) velum: The soft palate. 软腭
02) uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft pal
ate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块
03) larynx: n. 喉
04) vocal cord: 声带
05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecti ng regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连
接各种区域、结构或动植物器官
06) the soft palate: 软腭
07) the hard palate: 硬腭
08) the teeth ridge: 齿龈
09) alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床
10) the teeth: 牙齿
11) the lips: 上下唇
12) blade of tongue: 舌面
13) back of tongue: 舌根
14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔
15) nasal cavity: 鼻腔
16) velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在good中的(g)以及在cu
p中的(k)
17) the tip of the tongue: 舌尖
18) the upper front teeth: 上齿
19) the roof of the mouth: 上颚
20) the lower lip: 下唇
音标……宽式和严式标音法
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
The vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs) 元音（单元音&双元音）
The constants 辅音
Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. (in dictionaries and teaching textbo
oks)
用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.
但实际上，同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同，比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。
在宽式标音的基础上，再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式
标音法。
Classification of English speech sounds
英语语音的分类
The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the for mer the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the n ose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.
Classification of English constants
英语辅音分类
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Classification of English vowels
:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低
:the openness of the mouth,口的张开程度
:the shape of the lips园唇与否
:length of the vowels元音的长度
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Phonology 音系学
Phonology and phonetics
音系学和语音学
Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all huma
n languages.
语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。
Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discove r how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey m
eaning in linguistic communication.
音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。
Phone，phoneme and allophone
语音，音位，音位变体
Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a lang
uage.
语音是语音学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。
Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意
义的作用。
The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called t
he allophones of that phoneme.
音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现，同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变
体，也就是语音。
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对
rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish m
eaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.
可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止，产生意义差别。
/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary
distribution.
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which o ccurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. [pen] and
[ben]
最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。
Some rules in phonology几条音系规则
Sequential rules 序列规则：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not pos
sible.
Assimilation rules 同化规则
Deletion rule 省略规则
Sign, design, there is no {g} sound
Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.
Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant.
Suprasegmental features--- stress, tone, intonation
超切分特征——重音，声调，语调
the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegment
al features;
超切分特征指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。
三、MORPHOLOGY 形态学请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进行学习。
语素：语言最小的意义单位
语素的类型
复合词的类型
复合词的特征
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the r ules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and
lexical or derivational morphology.
形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支。
Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.
语素：语言最小的意义单位。
Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent)
自由语素可以作为单词独立使用。
Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词
Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(词缀)
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀)(inflectional morphemes):
affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀) A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix
An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , t
he result will be an adjective.
free=free root（自由词根）
Morpheme(词素)
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectional
Root and stem（词根和词干）
1) Root 2) Stem
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of id
entity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectio
nal morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Individualistic Undesirables
Individualist (stem) undesirable (stem)
Individual (stem) desirable (stem)
dividual (stem) desire (root, stem)
divide(root, stem)
Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.
Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1)'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.
2)''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.
3)'表示贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.
4)'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.
5)'表示方向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.
6)locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.
7)'表示时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.
8)'表示数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.
9)'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-
Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes
Compounding复合法（also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Formation of compounds
Noun + noun（名词＋名词）———handbook, sunshine
Adjective + noun（形容词＋名词）———highway, deadline
Adjective + noun + -ed（形容词＋名词＋ed）———white-haired, red-eyed
Verb + noun(动词＋名词)———driveway, breakwater(挡水板)
Adverb + noun（副词＋名词）———downtown, overburden
Noun + verb（名词＋动词）———toothpick, snowfall
Verb + adverb（动词＋副词）———follow-up, kick-off
Noun + adjective（名词＋形容词）———world-famous, lifelong
-ing form + noun（ing+名词）———baking power, dining-room
other forms（其他）———go-between, father-in-law
Features of compounds复合词的特征
1.Orthographically书写特征
（Compounds are written in three ways: solid(airmail) hyphenated(air-conditioning) open(air f
orce, air raid)
2.Syntactically句法特征(复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性)
3.Semantically语义特征（复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和
总和）
4.Phonetically语音特征（复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上）
四、句法学
句子的构成
句子的类型
句子的线性排列与层次结构
词类
词组类
短语结构规则
短语结构规则的循环性
X标杆理论
名词词组移位与WH移位
其他类型的移位
深层结构与表层结构
移动a规则
普遍语法原则
普遍语法参数
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.
As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules th at allow wo rds to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.
句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite
verb or a verb phrase.
句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。
The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。
Types of sentences句子的类型
The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子
The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分
The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into th
e other.
The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成，其中之一为主要子句，其余为从属子句。
The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的线性排列与层次结构
The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的线性排列，句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看，所含的次都按线性次序排列。(表面上的排列)
The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same s yntactic category, such as noun phrase(NP),or verb phrase (VP), grouped together.
句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法成分单位构成的层次性结构。
Tree diagrams of sentence structure
S
NP VP
V S
NP VP
V NP
John suggested (that)Mary take the linguistics class.
The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分节
点）
Syntactic categories 句法类型
Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.
Lexical categories 词类
Major Lexical Categories主要词类
Noun(N)\ Verb(V)\Adjective(Adj)\Adverb(Adv) 名词、动词、形容词、副词
Minor Lexical Categories
Determiner(Det)\Auxiliary(Aux)\Preposition(Prep)\Pronoun(Pron)\Conjunction(Conj)\Interjection(Int)
限定词、助动词、介词、代名词、连接词、感叹词
Phrasal categories词组类
Noun phrase (NP)\Verb phrase (VP)\Prepositional phrase(PP)\Adjective phrase(AP)
名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语
Grammatical relations 语法关系
Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and l ogical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations.
语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。
The structural subject and the structural object结构主语与结构宾语The logic subject (the doer of the action) and the logical object (the recipient of the action)
逻辑主语（行动的执行者）与逻辑宾语（行动的接受者）
Combinational rules 组合规则
Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短语结构规则
短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。
NP?Det N (a/the man)
NP---Det Adj N PP S(the tall man with glasses that I met)
The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性
These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.根据短语结构规则，短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。
1.1. What is language?
“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a syst em, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the s ense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it r efers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”:“book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, b
ecause words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, beca use sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writin g systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can o nly learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primar ily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the de finition is meant to specify that languag
e is human specific.
1.2. What are design features of language?
“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the differ ence between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability
1.3. What is arbitrariness?
By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pi g. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some soun d-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, whi ch are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not e ntirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is l ess so, or more transparent or motivated than th e words that make it. So we can say “arbitrarin
ess” is a matter of degree.
1.4.What is duality?
Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, on e finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in ter ms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which c ombine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system o f two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the worki ngs of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anyt hing within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approac
hes this honour.
1.5.What is productivity?
Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely larg e number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, bu t that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elep hant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessar
y, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).
1.6.What is displacement?
“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact tha t one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other w ords, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. La nguage itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about s omething, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something t hat is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it
is an unspeakable tiny share.
1.7.What is cultural transmission?
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but t hat the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition de vice”, or LA D) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one ot her than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak t he wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the
ABC of a certain human language.
1.8.What is interchangeability?
Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Pleas e do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is s ex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different t hings, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woma n cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first sp eaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.
Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot?) , and certai n kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark.
Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.
1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?
First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Ch art that compares human language with some animals’ systems,from Wang Gang(1998,p.8).
Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brou ght up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan G ardner. She was taught “American sign Langu age”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle h
appy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.
Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even w hen he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)
1.10.What functions does language have?
Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressiv e, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main fu nctions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by whi ch people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, repr e sentative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and t extual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396).
1.11What is the phatic function?
The “phatic function” refers to language being used for se tting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Muc h of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you r
uin your friendship.
1.1
2. What is the directive function?
The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do somethi ng. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Sear le’s “i ndrect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direc tion too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”
1.13.What is the informative function?
Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by t he use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth) or false(f alsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), on
e ought not to violate the “Maxim o
f Quality”, when he is informin
g at all.
1.14.What is the interrogative function?
When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This inclu des all questions that expect replies, sta tements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect spee ch act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.
1.15.What is the expressive function?
The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good hea vens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, th ough in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, apprais
es or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.
现代语言学 一绪论 1 Linguisitics: 语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: 语音学The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants 元音、辅音、声调、重音以及节奏、音变 3 Phonology: 音韵学The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone. 4 Morphology: 形态学The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher. 5 Syntax: 句法学The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example, ”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: 语义学The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example: “The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 同义词、反义词，同音词 7 Pragmatics: 语用学The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。 8 Sociolinguistics: 社会语言The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example:regional dialects, social variation in language.
语言学名词解释 Define the following terms: 1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,https://www.doczj.com/doc/4917291199.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.doczj.com/doc/4917291199.html,ying down rules for language use. 9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication. 13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language. 14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies. 15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include
英汉语言学词汇对照表 abbreviation ablative abrupt accent accusative acoustic phonetics acquisition action verb active active chart parser active knowledge active verb actor-action-goal actualization acute address adequacy adjacency pair adjective adjunct adjunction adverb adverbial idiom affective affirmative affix affixation affricate agent agentive-action verb agglutinative agreement AI (artificial intelligence) AI language Algebraic Linguistics algorithm alienable alignment allo- allomorph allophone alpha notation alphabetic writing alternation 缩写[省略语 ] 夺格 (的) 突发音 口音 /{Phonetics} 重音 受格（的） 声学语音学 习得 动作动词 主动语态 活动图句法剖析程序 主动知识 主动动词 施事 (者)-动作 -目标 实现 (化) 锐音 地址 { 信息科学 }/ 称呼（语） { 语言学 } 妥善性 邻对 形容词 附加语[ 附加修饰语 ] 加接 副词 副词词组 影响的 肯定（的；式） 词缀 加缀 塞擦音 施事 施事动作动词 胶着（性） 对谐 人工智能[人工智能 ] 人工智能语言[人工智能语言 ] 代数语言学 算法[算法 ] 可分割的 对照 [多国语言文章词；词组；句子翻译的 ] 同位 - 同位语素 同位音位 alpha 标记 拼音文字 交替
acronym: is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(e g. [t h] is an allophone of /t/ in English. When /t/ occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated [t]. Both [t h] and t] are allophones of the phoneme /t/. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, and other areas such as translation, the compiling of dictionaries, etc. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact”or “contiguous” assimilation. assimilation theory: language (sound, word, syntax, etc) change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial pars of the two words. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e. g. the plural morpheme in dogˊ s. broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription. category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc. creativity:by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. One of the reasons why language is actually a far more complicated entity than traffic lights is that we can use it to create new meanings. concord: also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntaetic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. compound: Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc. complementary
英语专业八级语言学总结来源：谢萌Fighting的日志 一、语言和语言学 1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language 任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系 二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成 创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造 移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点 2、语言的功能（不是很重要） 信息功能informative 人际功能interpersonal 施为功能performative 感情功能emotive function 寒暄功能phatic communication 娱乐功能recreational function 元语言功能metalingual function 3、语言学主要分支 语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音 音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列 形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则 句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则 语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义 语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义 4、宏观语言学macrolingustics 心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological li nguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics 5语言学中的重要区别 规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的 描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的 共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言 历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律 语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体 言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言 语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出) 能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备 运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用 二、语音学 1、语音学分支 发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生 声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性 听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知 2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的 三、音位学
胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表 1. 语言的普遍特征： 任意性arbitrariness 双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构 多产性productivity 移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西 文化传播性cultural transmission 2。语言的功能： 传达信息功能informative 人济功能：interpersonal 行事功能：Performative 表情功能：Emotive 寒暄功能：Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal 元语言功能metalingual 3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支 语音学Phonetics 音位学phonology 形态学Morphology 句法学syntax 语义学semantics 语用学pragmatics 4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure 提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语 5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky 提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance 1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language: a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain language b. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing. c. we can u se language to refer to something not present d. we can produce sentences that have never been heard befor e. 2.What is the most important function of language? a. interpersonal b. phatic c. informative d.metallingual 3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __ a informative b. phatic c. directive d. performative
《语言学》术语及英文解释 Define the following terms: 1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,https://www.doczj.com/doc/4917291199.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 3. etic: a term in contr ast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.doczj.com/doc/4917291199.html,ying down rules for language use. 9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication. 13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language. 14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies. 15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, a nthropological linguistics,et 16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. 17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation. 18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. 19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).
语言学术语（英-汉对照）表 Glossary and Index (备注：因教材改版，部分章节标注等内容有出入。) A abbreviation 缩写词，略语3.3.1 Abercrombie 10.3.2 ablative 夺格，离格4.1.1 abstractness 抽象性1.3.2 accent 重音（符）2.4.4；2.4.5 accuracy 正确性11.6.4 accusative 宾格4.1.1 achievement test 成绩测试11.6.3 acoustic phonetics 声学语音学1.7.1；2.1 acquisition 习得6.1.2 acronym 缩略语3.3.1 action process 动作过程12.2.3 actor 动作者4.4.2；12.2.3 addition 添加3.3.2 address form 称呼形式7.2.3 addressee 受话人1.4；9.4.1 addresser 发话人1.4；9.4.1 adjective 形容词3.1.2；4.1.1；5.5.2 adjunct 修饰成分；附加语12.2.3 adverb 副词3.1.2 affix 词缀3.2.1 affix hopping 词缀跳跃4.3.1 affixation词缀附加法7.1.4 affricate 塞擦音2.4.3；2.4.5；2.9.1 agreement 一致关系4.1.3 airstream 气流2 alliteration 头韵9.3.2；9.3.6 allomorph 词/语素变体3.2.4；4.3.1 allophone 音位变体2.8
A AcS (actor Subject), ReS (Receptor Subject) and DaS (dative vesubject) P85 Active deposit 活性沉积P393 adaptability制宜原则P39 adjustment 调整P135 AdjMr：Ajective Modifier 定语修饰语P19 Affixing morpheme of fixed position 定位性附加语素P342 Affixation 缀合法P29 All encompassing 无所不包P ix Aphasic 失语症患者P386 ApoP 同位短语式P188 Approximative system 近似体系P58 arbitrariness任意性; selectiveness 选择性P181 Aspect 体（tentative尝试体, inchoative开始体, successive继续体, perfect完成体, progressive 进行体）P114 Autonomy 自主权P53 B backshift后移P370/372 bilingualism 双语学P522 Blending 拼缀法P29 Bottom-up perception自下而上的感知，top-down perception自上而下的感知P493 C Cart Fames1980 对比分析P x circulativeness 周遍性P86 categorization范畴化, grouping 归为类P487 category word 范畴词P418/474/513 cleft sentence 分裂句P230 cognate equivalence同源对应P134/468，词根对应P478 cognitive schema认知图示P386 Cohesion 粘着性P62 Cohesion and coherence接应与连贯P74 Cohesive tie 联结关系接应词，additive 增补连接词，adversative 对比连接词，causal conjunction因果连接词，temporal conjunction 时间连接词P436 Combination (虚词功能)组合P452 Total combination完全结合，formal combination形式结合P464 Common value （语言）共同价值；special value 特征价值P47 Complement 补语P126Composition 合成法P29 Compactness of meaningful morpheme有义语素结合紧密度P299 Compressed predicate 紧缩式谓语P120 Compound （汉语）合成词P443 Conversion 转化法P29 Constant 常数（ie. tertium comparationis中间比较项）；variable变数；tertium 中间项P50
100个最常用的语言学术语（“欧美语言学”课） 1.语言language 2.语言学linguistics 3.语言学家linguist；philologist 4.语法grammar 5.语法单位grammatical unit 6.语法形式grammatical form 7.语法意义grammatical meaning 8.语法手段grammatical device 9.语法范畴grammatical category 10.元音vowel 11.辅音consonant 12.语文学philology 13.传统语法traditional grammar 14.历史比较语言学historical comparative linguistics 15.转换生成语法transformational generative grammar 16.结构主义语言学structural linguistics 17.应用语言学applied linguistic 18.方言dialect 19.语言教学language teaching 20.语言规划language planning 21.语言政策language policy 22.语言学习策略language learning strategy 23.发现程序discovery procedure 24.语境context；language environment 25.中介语interlanguage 26.音位phoneme 27.音节syllable 28.语素morpheme 29.词法morphology 30.句法syntax 31.交际法communicative approach 32.认知cognition 33.习得acquisition 34.第二语言second language 35.第二语言习得second language acquisition （SLA） 36.自由语素free morpheme 37.黏着语素bound morpheme 38.复合词compound word 39.普遍语法universal grammar，UG 40.词类part of speech
Define the following terms: 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. . 4. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 6. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 7. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 8. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 9. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 10. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 11. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 12. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 13. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 14. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 15. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 16. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 17. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 18. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 19. Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 20. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 21. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But