2014-2015学年第一学期
语用学与英语教学课程考核
（研究报告）
题目：An analysis of Pragmatic Failure with Cross-cultural Communications
学号（准考证号）：1230100054
姓名：焦凯丽
专业：英语(教法方向)
年级：2012级
学院：外国语学院
完成日期：2015年 1 月10日
Introduction
The Cross-cultural Pragmatics is a relatively young linguistic branch compared with the Traditional Linguistics and Structural Modern Linguistics. It attaches great importance to the research of cross-cultural characteristics. And the cross-cultural pragmatic failure is a common phenomenon in cross-cultural communication process. This paper focus on the analyzing of different kinds of pragmatic failures in our cross-cultural communication, at the same time, giving reflections and feedbacks on our English learning and Language teaching. Being in the rapid developed century of our human society, we should heighten the awareness of appropriating use of pragmatic language in our cross-cultural communication.
Part I Theoretical basis
Before Noam Chomsky, Traditional Linguistics and Structural Modern Linguistics regarded language as a system of completely self-sufficient blocking structure, which put an emphasis on the vision field of language researches on the description of linguistic entity and put the language teaching on a cultural vacuum to conduct a rigid practice. But this failed to attach the expected research on the Social culture which affects the language how it affects the construction, comprehension and expression. As a result, linguistic theories couldn't resolve realistic problems of language. And often communicators who have learned some basic knowledge such as phonetic, lexicon and grammar still couldn't carry out proper and effective communication. The birth of sociolinguistics breaks through the research restriction of traditional linguistics and pragmatics and structural. It deepens people?s realization to linguistic social nature and construct a high qualified platform for the study of the Intercultural Communication. However, all kinds of failure still occur in the intercultural communication which influences the quality of international communication because communications cannot master enough foreign knowledge or acknowledge the culture feature of foreign nation. So the research of pragmatic failure in the cross-cultural communication has become a problem of important theoretic meaning and realistic value in the contemporary linguistic study.
Cross-cultural Pragmatics is a relatively young linguistic branch, growing out of pragmatics and comparative linguistics, and introducing cultural factors into the research scope of pragmatics. It attracted great importance to the research of cross-cultural characteristics. Cross-cultural pragmatics is the study of the use of second language in cross-cultural speech communication when the pragmatic problem occurs. The conception pragmatic of pragmatic failure was formally proposed by the famous British scientist Jenny Thomas in her thesis "Cross一Cultural Pragmatic Failure" in 1983 which established a theoretical framework for the analysis of pragmatic failure and cultural transfer. She defines pragmatic failure as "inability to understand what is meant by what is said." Thus, Cross-cultural pragmatic failure can refer to the misunderstanding and even conflict arising in the communication process because of the hearer's failure to catch discourse
implication of the speaker accurately and because of his following improper output of utterances, which may be proper in his culture. The pioneer study of pragmatic failure in China goes to He Ziran and his fraternity. In 1984, they launched investigation into pragmatic differences between English and Chinese in reference to Thomas theory, and made known their results of investigation together with explanations about pragmatic failure. Cross-cultural pragmatic failure is a common phenomenon in cross-cultural communication process, in this process, the speaker disobeys the communication standard and social customs, ignores hearer's identity or status, harms the special cultural value of target language, causes the breaking off or failure of communication, makes communicating obstacles, then communication cannot achieve the expected results. Though there is no grammatical error, the wrong way of speaking or the improper performance makes the communication lose the expected effect.
Part II Case studies
There are many kinds of pragmatic failure in our cross-culture communication. First is about the phonetic pragmatic failure. A teacher who teach Chinese in England recalled that, ”My student, John is a typical English gentleman. When we walk down stairs, he always said that '请小心裸体（楼梯），下流，一起下流（下楼）吧。…（Please be careful of the stairs, let's walk down together.) " Such phonetic pragmatic failure could cause misunderstanding and confusion. And to some extent, it is also very impolite of saying such words to our Chinese people. Another pragmatic failure is about the vocabulary. V ocabulary is the basic element of language. Choosing the correct and proper vocabulary is the critical factor for successful cross-cultural communication. Because the vocabulary not only has its conceptual meaning, but have the connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning and so on. For example, the word "dog" has a totally different pragmatic meaning in different culture. In English, dog is regarded as man's best friend, with the expressions like " Every dog has his day; Love me, love my dog; Dog does not eat dog; Help a lane dog over a stile." Well, in our Chinese culture, dog is almost given all the bad synonyms, like "走狗、狗汉奸、狗腿子、狗眼看人低". In our cross-cultural communication, if we use this kind of vocabulary improperly, conflict will occur. And when talking about the aspect of grammar, there still has pragmatic failure. The most common grammatical pragmatic failure is people cannot comprehend the multiple communicated functions of language. Like, "Couldn't you just eat up your dinner?" (你能不能把饭吃完？) This sentence does not simply acquire whether you have the ability to finish off your dinner. In most cases it expresses a complaint to other people?s behavior. The last one is about the social-cultural pragmatic failure. People from different cultural background may form their own different cultural pattern. If people just inset their own cultural pattern to other people who have a totally different cultural background, misunderstanding will occur. For example, a Chinese student says hello to his English foreign teacher, "Good morning, you must have had a tiring job." Such expressions will cause misinterpretation. The foreign teacher may comprehend this greeting as a humiliation. Because if a teacher feels tired after class that means he is very weak. Giving
only one lesson exhausts all of his energy. Such pragmatic failure may break down our communication with others.
Part III Reflections on English learning
As an English Language learner, realizing the pragmatic failure in our cross-cultural communication is not enough. The most important is we should have the awareness about the cross-cultural communicated ability. We have learned English for more than 10 years. We have acquired a large number of vocabulary and grammar rules. However, we still cannot communicate fluently with foreigners about the basic topic of our daily life. We should have a deep thinking about this phenomenon. Our language learning is not just a skill learning but an competence training. Cultivating the cross-cultural communicated ability is very essential for our further language learning. So, how to cultivate this communication ability? From my own perspective, especially from the Second language acquisition theory, the contrastive analysis could play an important role. We usually hear the native speaker's conversation like this:
A: Why did not you go to work yesterday?
B: Well, it was a blue Monday.
Such conversation could confuse our Chinese speaker. We think there is no cause-and-effect relationship between the question and answer. Our normal answer of this question is "Well, i had a bad cold, so...". However, in the natural communication of native speakers, there are not always the common cause-and-effect conversations. The word "blue" has its specific meaning in this sentence. It is used to described something bad or a person' bad emotion and feelings. Well, the word "blue" in our culture does not have such meaning. Our Chinese students may feel confused when we hear such answer. So, the contrastive analysis between our culture and western culture is very essential in the process of our language. Apart from the contrastive analysis to enhance our cross-cultural communicated ability, there are still many other methods to cultivate such ability. Like the non-linguistic communication also helpful when we communicate with foreigners. Some non-linguistic features have specific meaning in different culture, like the body language. So, the non-linguistic features also play an important role in our cross-culture communicated ability. Finding out the different meaning of the same non-linguistic language in different cultures
become essential.
Part IV Reflections on English teaching
Learning and teaching are totally the different aspects. We will be an English teacher in the future. So, how to instruct students to have the cross-cultural pragmatic awareness is as important as the language skill teaching. First and foremost is about the spoken language teaching. Some teachers think the speaking is the most easy one among the four language skills. However, it is the most difficult and complicated one in our teaching process. When students practice spoken language with their partner, they often produce sentences like: Have you had your meal? Where are you going? How much did the clothes cost you? Such sentences are very common in our culture. However, it is very impolite in western culture for such sentences involving the secret of people. So, as an instructor, we should heighten students' awareness of the improper expressions in spoken language. Furthermore, we need to draw students attention about the pragmatic failure in grammatical domain. There is a typical conversation between teacher and student.
T: Tom, would you like to read the passage for us?
S: No, I wouldn't.
T: ......
Such conversation is failure because student thinks it is a question. And he has the freedom to say "Yes" and "No". However it is just an euphemistic request. So, our teacher's aim is not just to teach the grammatical form, at the same time does not ignore the communicated function of grammar. The last is about the reading instruction. Reading comprehension is regarded as the most difficult skills for students. They always cannot comprehend a reading material very well. Some teachers attribute this problem to the unfamiliar vocabulary. However, the cultural knowledge in the reading material plays an important for their incomprehension. So, passing on the cultural knowledge is the teacher's duty. For example, when the students read some information about "Spring Festival", teacher could introduce the western festival for them. Through the contrastive of the different cultural custom, students could have a better understanding of the "Spring Festival".
Part V Conclusion
Cross-cultural communication is a quite complicated process, and sometimes it can be quite painful. At present, as the globalization of world economy is developing faster than before, with the Internet breaking off national boundaries, cross-cultural communication is part of our daily life. At the same time, the cross-cultural pragmatic failure is occurring. As an English learner, only by paying attention to the pragmatic failure can we achieve success in cross-cultural communication.
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英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.doczj.com/doc/3913810188.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.doczj.com/doc/3913810188.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.doczj.com/doc/3913810188.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3913810188.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18
Positive Politeness Strategies in the Communication Theory Introduction In this paper, I would like to focus on the usage of the positive politeness strategies in oral communication. Then what is positive politeness strategies? To clear up the theory, we should take the terms, such as face, politeness theory into consideration. Politeness theory, which is developed by Levinson and Brown, is based on the concept that people have a social self-image and meanwhile, people consciously project and try to protect it. This sense of self-image is referred to as “face.” And the theory holds that people use various politeness strategies to protect the face of others. Under politeness theory, there is a positive and a negative face. Positive face is the need to be concerned, reflecting the desire to have one’s self-image accepted by others. While negative face is the need to be independent, reflecting the desire not to be imposed on by others. According to a person is dealing with another’s positive or negative face, the politeness strategies will differ, that is positive politeness strategies and negative politeness strategies. As to positive politeness strategies, it leads the requester to appeal to a common goal, and even friendship, by orienting to preserving the positive face of other people, briefly, it emphasizes the closeness between speaker and hearer in the communication. Using Positive Politeness Strategies in Oral Communication In order to make sense of what is said in communication, take my word for it, the positive politeness strategies should be given priority for its potential benefits. On one hand, the usage of positive politeness strategies is a good way to avoid being refused. To a great extent, the positive politeness strategies orients to preserving the positive face of the listener in the communication. Since the self-image of listener is concerned, he is likely willing to cooperate with the speaker, thus making the communication continuous. For example:
1. The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as _____linguistics. D A. applied B. diachronic C. comparative D. synchronic 2. The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a __C__ formula "S→NP VP". A. hierarchical B. linear C. tree diagram D. vertical 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A A. [p] B.[m] C.[b] D.[t] 4. The words ―make‖ and ―bus‖ are called _____D____because they can occur unattached. A. derivational morphemes B .inflectional morphemes C. bound morphemes D. free morphemes 5. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are____B______. A. gradable antonymy B. relational (converse) antonymy C. synonyms D. co-hyponyms 6. The semantic components of the word ―man‖ can be expressed as ____C___. A.＋animate,＋human,＋male,－adult; B.＋animate,＋human,－male,－adult; C.＋animate,＋human,＋male,＋adult D.—animate,＋human,－male,－adult 7. What kind of function does the sentence ―How do you do?‖ have? B A. Directive B. Phatic C. Informative D. Evocative 8. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______A____. A. lexical words B. grammatical words C. function words D. form words 9. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?______A_. A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use 10. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called __C? A. morphology B. sociolinguistics C. pragmatics D. psycholinguistics 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.
第一章作为语言学一个分支的语义学 语义学的建立以法国学者米歇尔·布勒阿尔1897年7月出版《语义学探索》为标记。 该书1900年翻译为英文“语义学：意义科学的研究（Semantics:Studies in the Science of Meaning）”。 这本专著材料丰富，生动有趣，重点在词义的历史发展方面，兼顾词汇意义和语法意义。 全书共三编：1，讲词义变化的定律，介绍变异、扩散、类推等概念；2，讲如何确定词义，介绍释义、比喻、多义、命名等；3，讲词类、词序、组合规则等，涉及语法意义。 除了语言学的语义学，还有逻辑学的语义学，哲学的语义学，还有心理学家对语义的研究。 a,逻辑学的语义学是对逻辑形式系统中符号解释的研究，又称“纯语义学”，对象并非自然语言的语义。 b,哲学的语义学围绕语义的本质展开涉及世界观的讨论。“语义学”或“语义哲学”又是本世纪前半叶盛行于西方的至今仍有影响的一个哲学流派的名称。 c,心理学家研究语义，主要是想了解人们在信息的发出和接收中的心理过程。 d,语言学的语义学把语义作为语言（乃至言语）的一个组成部分、一个方面进行研究，研究它的性质，内部结构及其变异和发展，语义间的关系等等。 布勒阿尔的书给语义的发展以重要地位，声称研究语义的变化构成了语义学。同时它把语义限制在“词语”的意义上，主要是词义上。这两个特点一直贯穿在他以后半个多世纪的若干代表性著作里。 继布勒阿尔之后，一部有世界影响的语义学专著是两位英国学者奥格登和理查兹合写，1923年出版的《意义的意义》（The Meaning of Meaning）。这两位学者还曾共同创制了后来遭到各种非议的“基本英语”(Basic English).
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。
ChapteroneIntroduction 1.1什么是语言学 语言学Linguistics Linguistics isgenerallydefinedas thescientificstudyoflanguage. scopeoflinguistics语言学分支必考P2
⑴arbitrariness Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.
P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunli mitedsourceofexpressions ⑵Productivity Animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend. ⑶Duality Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels. ⑷ ⑸ Context- Message- Contact- Code- ChapterTwoPhonology 2.2Phonetics（语音学） 2.2.1定义 Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’s languages. 是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音
2014-2015学年第一学期 语用学与英语教学课程考核 （研究报告） 题目：An analysis of Pragmatic Failure with Cross-cultural Communications 学号（准考证号）：1230100054 姓名：焦凯丽 专业：英语(教法方向) 年级：2012级 学院：外国语学院 完成日期：2015年 1 月10日
Introduction The Cross-cultural Pragmatics is a relatively young linguistic branch compared with the Traditional Linguistics and Structural Modern Linguistics. It attaches great importance to the research of cross-cultural characteristics. And the cross-cultural pragmatic failure is a common phenomenon in cross-cultural communication process. This paper focus on the analyzing of different kinds of pragmatic failures in our cross-cultural communication, at the same time, giving reflections and feedbacks on our English learning and Language teaching. Being in the rapid developed century of our human society, we should heighten the awareness of appropriating use of pragmatic language in our cross-cultural communication.
1. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do nobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language 答：On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means OK/YES for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying NO. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant. 2. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them (1)Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind. (2)colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people. (3)civilized : This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world. 答：They are undoubtedly descriptive, Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way antisexist advocators speak and write. 3.(1)What organs are involved in speech production 答：Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the luns, the trachea, the throat, the nose, and the mouth. (2)Why did George Bernard Shaw say he could spell the word ‘fish’ as ‘ghoti’ 答：This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in ‘enough’, o as [I] in women, and ti as [?] in nation. (3)How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels 答：Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. (4)To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ 答：Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (5)’Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulation’. Discuss. 答：Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation,
Chapter 5 Semantics Ⅰ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Dialectal（方言的）synonyms（同义关系）can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. F 2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. F 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. T 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. F 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. T 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. T 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. F 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. T 9. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument. T 10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. T Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called homophones（同音/形异义词）. 16. Relational opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. 17. Componential（指数）analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According to the naming theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete
英语语言学一、名词解释 第一课 共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课 形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课 语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课 语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.