毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译
学 院： 机械工程学院
专 业： 机械设计制造及其自动化 姓 名： 王继涛
学 号： 0702070127 外文出处： Department of Mechanical Engineering & Biomechanics The University of Texas
at San Antonio
附 件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
(用外文写
)
附件1：外文资料翻译译文
The finite element analysis system development present situation and prospect
Ravichandra Patchigolla and Yesh P. Singh
Along with the development of modern science and technology, people are constantly build more fast traffic tools, larger buildings, the more big span Bridges, the more power generator sets and more precision mechanical equipment. All these require engineer in the designing phase can accurately predict products and engineering technical performance, need to structure strength and static and dynamic temperature field, flow field, electromagnetic field and seepage analysis of technical parameters. For example analysis and calculation of the high-rise buildings and large span bridge during an earthquake, look at the implications will happen destructive accidents; Analysis and calculation of the temperature field of nuclear reactors, determine whether reasonable heat transfer and cooling system; Analysis of fluid dynamics in turbine blade, in order to improve the operation parameters of efficiency. These can be summed up in solving physical control problems partial differential equations is often impossible. In recent years in the computer technology and the numerical Analysis method supports developed under Finite Element Analysis (FEA) method and Finite Element, order is to solve the complicated engineering Analysis and calculation problem which provides an effective way. Our country of the ninth five-year plan period in promoting CAD technology, mechanical industry from the prevalence rate of large and medium-sized enterprises CAD 20% of the five-year "end" raised to current 70%. Along with the enterprise CAD widely applied, Engineering and technical personnel, and already gradually dump board will focus in how to optimize the design, improve product quality, Engineering and Computer Aided Engineering
analysis (CAE, Computer software and applicants Engineering) method will be the key technical factors. In engineering practice, finite element analysis software and the integrated application of CAD system make the design level occurred a qualitative leap, mainly displays in the following aspects: to increase the design function, reduce design cost;
? shorten design and analysis of cycle;
? increase the reliability of products and engineering;
? adopting the optimization design, reduce material consumption or cost; ?in products manufacturing or engineering construction advance found potential problem;
? simulate various test plan to reduce the time and money;
? mechanical accident analysis, found out the cause of the accident.
In promoting CAD technology today, from his bike to the space shuttle, all the design manufacture is inseparable from the finite element calculation and analysis, in the engineering design and analysis FEA will get more and more extensive attention. Below is the San Francisco bay bridge seismic response analysis of finite element analysis model.
Development direction and significant progress in early 20th century world at the end of the 1950s and early 1960s invested a lot of manpower and material resources development with powerful features of finite element analysis program. One of the most famous is by NASA (NASA) in 1965 entruststhe American computing science company and bel air system company developed the NASTRAN finite element analysis system. This system have been developed dozens of version, is the world's largest, the strongest function finite element analysis system. From then to now, the world's research institutions and universities are developing a batch of smaller but flexible, price lower special or general finite element analysis software, mainly in Germany PAFEC ASKA, British, French SYSTUS, American ABQUS, ADINA, ANSYS, BERSAFE, BOSOR COSMOS, ELAS, MARC, STARDYNE etc products with. Today's international development of the FEA method and software shows the following
some trends features:
1 from the pure structure mechanics calculation development to solve many problems of physical field finite element analysis method (from structured matrix analysis, evolved gradually extended to board, shell and entity etc continuum solid mechanics analysis, the practice has proved it is a very efficient numerical analysis method. And theoretically has also proof, as long as the unit used for solving the object of discrete small enough income can be enough solution in precision value approach. So in recent years has progressed to finite element method of fluid mechanics, temperature field, electric conduction, magnetic field, seepage and problems solving calculation of acoustic, and recently developed to solve several interdisciplinary problem. For example when air flows through a high tower, and the deformation of the tower in turn affect deformation airflow flow... This needs with solid mechanics and fluid dynamic finite element analysis results cross, the so-called "iteration fluidsolid coupled" problem.
2 by solving linear engineering problems progressed to the analysis nonlinear problems with the development of science and technology, linear theory has far can't meet the design requirements. For example the high-rise building and construction industry, the emergence of large-span suspension bridge is asked to consider structure of large displacement and large strain etc geometrically nonlinear; Aerospace and power engineering of high temperature parts existing thermal deformation and thermal stress, also want to consider material nonlinear problem; Such as plastic, rubber and composite materials, etc. Various kinds of new material appears, only on linear computation theory would not be sufficient to solve the problems of using nonlinear finite element algorithm, only to solve. As is known to all, nonlinear numerical calculation is very complex, it involves a lot of special mathematics problems and operation skill, hard as general engineering technicians hands. Therefore in recent years abroad some company has spent a lot of manpower and investment and development such as
MARC, ABQUS and ADINA specializes in solving nonlinear problems such as the finite element analysis software, and widely used in engineering practice. These software in common is efficient nonlinear solver and rich and practical nonlinear CaiLiaoKu.
3 enhance visual lead modeling and rear data processing functions early finite element analysis software research emphasis on solving method is a new high efficiency and high accuracy unit. Along with the gradual improvement method of numerical analysis, particularly the rapid development of computer operation speed, the whole calculation system for solving operations less time, and data preparation and operation result performance problem is getting more and more outstanding. In today's engineering workstation, solving a contains 10 million equation with the finite element model requires only a few minutes. But if use manual way to build the model, and then the calculation result is handling large amounts of time needs a few weeks. It is no exaggeration to say, engineers in analysis and calculation have an engineering problem more than 80% of the energy is spent on data preparation and analysis of the results. So now almost all the commercial finite element program system has powerful lead modeling and rear data processing module. In emphasizing "visual" today, many procedures are established to very User friendly GUI (with), little User with visual graphic User can quickly way grid directly generate finite element analysis, automatic dividing the data, and required the amount of calculation results consolidation deformation figure, equivalent to cloud, facilitate extremum distribution list of search and required data output.
4 and seamless integration of CAD software of finite element analysis system today with general another characteristic is the integration of CAD software in use namely, complete with CAD software components and parts after the modelling design, automatically generating finite element mesh and calculate, if the analysis results do not comply with the design requirements are calculated to restart modelling and, until satisfaction,
thus greatly improve the design level and efficiency. Today, engineers can in the integration of CAD and FEA software environment quickly solve a in the past can deal with complex engineering analysis problem. So today's all commercial finite element system developed and famous auto-producers CAD software (for example Pro/e, SolidEdge, SolidWorks Unigraphics, Bentley and AutoCAD, IDEAS, etc) interface.
5 in the development of the Wintel platform of early finite element analysis software are basically in large and medium-sized computers (mainly Mainframe) on the development or operation, and later developed to Engineering workstations (EWS, Engineering WorkStation) as a platform, their common characteristic is all adopt the UNIX operating system. The PC has made the application of computer fundamental changes happened on her desk, the engineer eager to finish complex engineering analysis dreams to become a reality. But early PC using 16-bit CPU and DOS operating system, the memory data block limited public, so was the size of the calculation model should not exceed 1 000 order equation. Microsoft Windows operating system and the Intel Pentium processor 32-bit for will launch the PC provides necessary for finite element analysis software and hardware of the support platform. Therefore the internationally famous finite element program research and development institutions have their software shifted to the Wintel platform. The table below lists the ADINA V7.3 version with the PC's Windows NT environment and SGI workstation and four engineering example calculated the time needed to solve. It shows the latest high-grade PC already and the solving ability of neck-and-neck EWS cheap.
Table V7.3 edition ADINA running time of several machines comparison Characteristics of computational problems
Equation several NEQ
Running time (in seconds)
PentiumII450MHZ
PentiumIII450MHZ
Engineering workstations
Nonlinear 3d contact
(calculation step)
51159
219
188
219
Linear static analysis
58707
262
234
249
Dynamic analysis frequency calculation
31205
311
258
287
Three-dimensional flow analysis
36162
218
183
208
For large and medium-sized computers and EWS in developed on finite element program shifted to PE machine, often need to adopt the Hummingbird company Exceed a simulation software. The result more troublesome, and can't make full use of the PC software and hardware resources. So recently some companies, such as IDEAS, ADINA and R&D began in Windows platform development finite element program, called "Native Windows" versions, and on their PCS in the Linux operating system environment development of finite element program packages.
Domestic development situation and prospects of the United States in 1979 SAP5 linear structure static, dynamic analysis program to introduce transplant success, domestic application lifted the universal finite element program to the climax of the analysis and calculation of engineering problems. The climax continued until 1981 ADINA nonlinear structural analysis program has been introduced, at that time many cannot solve engineering problems are solved. Everybody also began to understand the finite element analysis program is really engineer for the analysis of the application of computer the important tool. But was limited to domestic large and medium-sized computers seldom, only about the hangzhou steam turbine factory Siemens7738 and shenyang blower factory IBM4310 installation of the program, so the user calculate very inconvenient and expensive. PC's emergence and its performance miraculously enhance, for transplantation and development PC version of the finite element program provides the necessary operation platform. Say the development of domestic FEA is always fuss around PC platforms. In domestic development more successful and have more users (100 more) finite element analysis system has dalian university of technology FIFEX95, the department of engineering force of Beijing university of science and engineering mechanics SAP84, China academy of machinery science MAS5.0 and hangzhou automation technology institute MFEP4. 0, etc. But as described above, foreign many famous finite element analysis company has shrugged off to a PC platform from years of development for keen, change the FEA program developers development domestic PC version, and should no longer has the advantage from the following several aspects effort:
1 research and development solution of a solid mechanics and interdisciplinary FEA program after decades of research and development, and to solve the finite element method and the solid mechanics software has more mature, now the forefront of research problem is fluid dynamics, compressible and non-compressible fluid flow from solid mechanics and
interdisciplinary problem. No similar functions to the domestic commercial software, so foreign software, they sell very expensive. In order to break the monopoly situation, we must develop have independent copyright, used to analyze the fluid is not solid mechanics and interdisciplinary software. Because fluid mechanics problem is far more complex than solid and rarely have a ready-made software can reference, therefore requires a lot of manpower and funds. It must have countries and large enterprise groups to support.
2 development with Chinese characteristics automatic modeling technology and GUI development modeling technology and the investment than mere the foregoing subject to GUI much less, but can greatly improve the performance of the FEA software and user acceptance, thus plays twice the result with half the effort. The domestic many people in this respect did a lot of work, but it was the PC graphics support environment is limited, therefore the development effect be not all very ideal. Windows provides for OpenGL graphics standard, PC application in visual graphics technology to developing GUI provides powerful tools. Today's international OpenGL is generally recognized high-performance graphics and interactive visual processing standards, apply it to the 3d graphics software developed by the endearment of professional and technical personnel in the world, now dominant computer companies have adopted this standard. As mentioned, in recent years the FEA program has cast abroad some simulation software, directly on Windows platform development finite element program. Hangzhou automation technology institute 1997-1999 using OpenGL graphics standard and the corresponding Visual c + + programming tools, such as in PC successfully developed a set of visualization finite element program packages. It can directly through the "menu", "the window", "dialog box" and "icon" visual graphic pictures and symbols such as the operation, automatic establish finite element analysis model in an interactive method, and the calculation results of the type of realizing, and visualization
processor can greatly improve the efficiency of limited the analysis and accuracy, also facilitate the user study and control.
3 and has the independent copyright in front of CAD software integration today had been told, an important feature of the finite element method and seamless integration of CAD software. As the development of our country proper motion, firstly, we must consider the FEA program and our independent copyright CAD software integration. Because the finite element analysis is mainly used in shape more complex components, so want to and with three-dimensional modeling functions and CAD software integration, which makes the design and analysis of combine closely, as a whole.
2：外文原文（复印件）
有限元分析系统的发展现状与展望
随着现代科学技术的发展，人们正在不断建造更为快速的交通工具、更大规模的建筑物、更大跨度的桥梁、更大功率的发电机组和更为精密的机械设备。这一切都要求工程师在设计阶段就能精确地预测出产品和工程的技术性能，需要对结构的静、动力强度以及温度场、流场、电磁场和渗流等技术参数进行分析计算。例如分析计算高层建筑和大跨度桥梁在地震时所受到的影响，看看是否会发生破坏性事故；分析计算核反应堆的温度场，确定传热和冷却系统是否合理；分析涡轮机叶片内的流体动力学参数，以提高其运转效率。这些都可归结为求解物理问题的控制偏微分方程式往往是不可能的。近年来在计算机技术和数值分析方法支持下发展起来的有限元分析（FEA，Finite Element Analysis）方法则为解决这些复杂的工程分析计算问题提供了有效的途径。我国在"九五"计划期间大力推广CAD技术，机械行业大中型企业CAD的普及率从"八五"末的20%提高到目前的70%。随着企业CAD应用的普及，工程技术人员已逐步甩掉图板，而将主要精力投身如何优化设计，提高工程和产品质量，计算机辅助工程分析（CAE，Computer Aided Engineering）方法和软
件将成为关键的技术要素。在工程实践中，有限元分析软件与CAD系统的集成应用使设计水平发生了质的飞跃，主要表现在以下几个方面：增加设计功能，减少设计成本；
?缩短设计和分析的循环周期；
?增加产品和工程的可靠性；
?采用优化设计，降低材料的消耗或成本；
?在产品制造或工程施工前预先发现潜在的问题；
?模拟各种试验方案，减少试验时间和经费；
?进行机械事故分析，查找事故原因。
在大力推广CAD技术的今天，从自行车到航天飞机，所有的设计制造都离不开有限元分析计算，FEA在工程设计和分析中将得到越来越广泛的重视。下图是美国旧金山海湾大桥地震响应计算的有限元分析模型。
发展方向及重大进展国际上早20世纪在50年代末、60年代初就投入大量的人力和物力开发具有强大功能的有限元分析程序。其中最为著名的是由美国国家宇航局（NASA）在1965年委托美国计算科学公司和贝尔航空系统公司开发的NASTRAN 有限元分析系统。该系统发展至今已有几十个版本，是目前世界上规模最大、功能最强的有限元分析系统。从那时到现在，世界各地的研究机构和大学也发展了一批规模较小但使用灵活、价格较低的专用或通用有限元分析软件，主要有德国的ASKA、英国的PAFEC、法国的SYSTUS、美国的ABQUS、ADINA、ANSYS、BERSAFE、BOSOR、COSMOS、ELAS、MARC和STARDYNE等公司的产品。当今国际上FEA方法和软件发展呈现出以下一些趋势特征：
1 从单纯的结构力学计算发展到求解许多物理场问题有限元分析方法最早是从结构化矩阵分析发展而来，逐步推广到板、壳和实体等连续体固体力学分析，实践证明这是一种非常有效的数值分析方法。而且从理论上也已经证明，只要用于离散求解对象的单元足够小，所得的解就可足够逼近于精确值。所以近年来有限元方法已发展到流体力学、温度场、电传导、磁场、渗流和声场等问题的求解计算，最近又发展到求解几个交叉学科的问题。例如当气流流过一个很高的铁塔产生变形，而塔的变形又反过来影响到气流的流动……这就需要用固体力学和流体动力学的有限元分析结果交叉迭代求解，即所谓"流固耦合"的问题。
2 由求解线性工程问题进展到分析非线性问题随着科学技术的发展，线性理论已经远远不能满足设计的要求。例如建筑行业中的高层建筑和大跨度悬索桥的出现，就要求考虑结构的大位移和大应变等几何非线性问题；航天和动力工程的高温部件存在热变形和热应力，也要考虑材料的非线性问题；诸如塑料、橡胶和复合材料等各种新材料的出现，仅靠线性计算理论就不足以解决遇到的问题，只有采用非线性有限元算法才能解决。众所周知，非线性的数值计算是很复杂的，它涉及到很多专门的数学问题和运算技巧，很难为一般工程技术人员所掌握。为此近年来国外一些公司花费了大量的人力和投资开发诸如MARC、ABQUS和ADINA等专长于求解非线性问题的有限元分析软件，并广泛应用于工程实践。这些软件的共同特点是具有高效的非线性求解器以及丰富和实用的非线性材料库。
3 增强可视化的前置建模和后置数据处理功能早期有限元分析软件的研究重点在于推导新的高效率求解方法和高精度的单元。随着数值分析方法的逐步完善，尤其是计算机运算速度的飞速发展，整个计算系统用于求解运算的时间越来越少，而数据准备和运算结果的表现问题却日益突出。在现在的工程工作站上，求解一个包含10万个方程的有限元模型只需要用几十分钟。但是如果用手工方式来建立这个模型，然后再处理大量的计算结果则需用几周的时间。可以毫不夸张地说，工程师在分析计算一个工程问题时有80%以上的精力都花在数据准备和结果分析上。因此目前几乎所有的商业化有限元程序系统都有功能很强的前置建模和后置数据处理模块。在强调"可视化"的今天，很多程序都建立了对用户非常友好的GUI （Graphics User Interface）,使用户能以可视图形方式直观快速地进行网格自动划分，生成有限元分析所需数据，并按要求将大量的计算结果整理成变形图、等值分布云图，便于极值搜索和所需数据的列表输出。
4 与CAD软件的无缝集成当今有限元分析系统的另一个特点是与通用CAD软件的集成使用即,在用CAD软件完成部件和零件的造型设计后，自动生成有限元网格并进行计算，如果分析的结果不符合设计要求则重新进行造型和计算，直到满意为止，从而极大地提高了设计水平和效率。今天，工程师可以在集成的CAD和FEA软件环境中快捷地解决一个在以前无法应付的复杂工程分析问题。所以当今所有的商业化有限元系统商都开发了和著名的CAD软件（例如Pro/ENGINEER、Unigraphics、SolidEdge、SolidWorks、IDEAS、Bentley和AutoCAD等）的接口。
5 在Wintel平台上的发展早期的有限元分析软件基本上都是在大中型计算机
（主要是Mainframe）上开发和运行的，后来又发展到以工程工作站（EWS，Engineering WorkStation）为平台，它们的共同特点都是采用UNIX操作系统。PC 机的出现使计算机的应用发生了根本性的变化，工程师渴望在办公桌上完成复杂工程分析的梦想成为现实。但是早期的PC机采用16位CPU和DOS操作系统，内存中的公共数据块受到限制，因此当时计算模型的规模不能超过1万阶方程。Microsoft Windows操作系统和32位的Intel Pentium处理器的推出为将PC机用于有限元分析提供了必需的软件和硬件支撑平台。因此当前国际上著名的有限元程序研究和发展机构都纷纷将他们的软件移值到Wintel平台上。下表列出了用ADINA V7.3版在PC机的Windows NT环境和SGI工作站上同时计算4个工程实例所需要的求解时间。从中可以看出最新高档PC机的求解能力已和中低档的EWS不相上下。
表 ADINA V7.3版几种机器上的运行时间比较
计算问题的特征
方程数NEQ
运行时间（秒）
PentiumII450MHZ
PentiumIII450MHZ
工程工作站
非线性三维接触
（计算一步）
51159
219
188
219
线性静力分析
58707
262
234
249
动力分析频率计算
31205
311
258
287
三维流动分析
36162
218
183
208
为了将在大中型计算机和EWS上开发的有限元程序移值到PE机上，常常需要采用Hummingbird公司的一个仿真软件Exceed。这样做的结果比较麻烦，而且不能充分利用PC机的软硬件资源。所以最近有些公司，例如IDEAS、ADINA和R&D开始在Windows平台上开发有限元程序，称作"Native Windows"版本，同时还有在PC机上的Linux操作系统环境中开发的有限元程序包。
国内发展情况和前景1979年美国的SAP5线性结构静、动力分析程序向国内引进移植成功，掀起了应用通用有限元程序来分析计算工程问题的高潮。这个高潮一直持续到1981年ADINA非线性结构分析程序引进，一时间许多一直无法解决的工程难题都迎刃而解了。大家也都开始认识到有限元分析程序的确是工程师应用计算机进行分析计算的重要工具。但是当时限于国内大中型计算机很少，大约只有杭州汽轮机厂的Siemens7738和沈阳鼓风机厂的IBM4310安装有上述程序，所以用户算题非常不方便，而且费用昂贵。PC机的出现及其性能奇迹般的提高，为移植和发展PC版本的有限元程序提供了必要的运行平台。可以说国内FEA软件的发展一直是围绕着PC平台做文章。在国内开发比较成功并拥有较多用户（100家以上）的有限元分析系统有大连理工大学工程力学系的FIFEX95、北京大学力学与科学工程系的SAP84、中国农机科学研究院的MAS5.0和杭州自动化技术研究院的MFEP4. 0等。但正如上面所述，国外很多著名的有限元分析公司已经从前些年对PC平台不屑一顾转变为热衷发展，对国内FEA程序开发者来说发展PC版本不再具有优势，而应该从下面几方面加以努力：
1 研究开发求解非固体力学和交叉学科的FEA程序经过几十年的研究和发展，用于求解固体力学的有限元方法和软件已经比较成熟，现在研究的前沿问题是流体动力学、可压缩和不可压缩流体的流动等非固体力学和交叉学科的问题。由于国内
没有类似功能的商品化软件，所以国外的软件就卖得非常贵。为了破这种垄断局面，我们必须发展有自主版权、用于分析流体等非固体力学和交叉学科的软件。因为流体力学问题远比固体复杂得多，而且很少有现成的软件可以借鉴，所以需要投入大量的人力和经费。这就必须有国家和大型企业集团来支持。
2 开发具有中国特色的自动建模技术和GUI开发建模技术和GUI的投入比前述课题要少得多，但却可以大大提高FEA软件的性能和用户接受程度，从而起到事半功倍的效果。国内不少人在这方面做了很多工作，但是由于当时PC机上的图形支撑环境有限，所以开发的效果都不甚理想。Windows中提供了OpenGL图形标准，为在PC机上应用可视化图形技术开发GUI提供了强有力的工具。OpenGL是当今国际上公认的高性能图形和交互式视景处理标准，应用它开发出来的三维图形软件深受专业技术人员的钟爱，目前世界上占主导地位的计算机公司都采用了这一标准。正如前面所述，近年来国外有的FEA程序已抛开仿真软件，直接在Windows平台上开发有限元程序。杭州自动化技术研究院1997-1999年采用OpenGL图形标准和相应的Visual C++等编程工具，在PC机上成功地开发了一套可视化有限元程序包。它能直观地通过对"菜单"、"窗口"、"对话框"和"图标"等可视图形画面和符号的操作，自动建立有限元分析模型，并以交互方法式实现计算结果的可视化处理，因而可大大提高有限昂分析的效率和精确性，也便于用户学习和掌握。
3 与具有我国自主版权的CAD软件集成前面已经讲过，当今有限元方法的一个重要特点是和CAD软件的无缝集成。作为我国自行开发的FEA程序，首先要考虑和我国自主版权的CAD软件集成。因为有限元分析主要用于形状比较复杂的零部件，所以要和具有三维造型功能和CAD软件集成，使设计和分析紧密结合、融为一体。
摘要： 建筑工程在施工过程中，施工组织方案的优劣不仅直接影响工程的质量，对工期及施工过程中的人员安全也有重要影响。施工组织是项目建设和指导工程施工的重要技术经济文件。能调节施工中人员、机器、原料、环境、工艺、设备、土建、安装、管理、生产等矛盾,要对施工组织设计进行监督和控制,才能科学合理的保证工程项目高质量、低成本、少耗能的完成。 关键词： 项目管理施工组织方案重要性 施工组织设计就是对工程建设项目整个施工过程的构思设想和具体安排，是施工组织管理工作的核心和灵魂。其目的是使工程速度快、质量好、效益高。使整个工程在施工中获得相对的最优效果。 1．编制施工组织设计重要性的原因 建筑工程及其施工具有固定性与流动性、多样性与单件性、形体庞大与施工周期长这三对特点。所以，每一建筑工程的施工都必须进行施工组织设计。这是因为：其它一般工业产品的生产都有着自己固定的、长期适用的工厂。而建筑施工具有流动性的特点，不可能建立这样的工厂，只能是当每一个建筑工程施工时，建立一个相应的、临时性的，如同工厂作用性质的施工现场准备，即工地。施工单件性特点与施工流动性特点，决定了每一建筑工程施工都要选择相应的机具和劳动力组织。选择施工方法、拟定施工技术方案及其劳动力组织和机具配置，统称为施工作业能力配置。施工周期的特点，决定了各种劳动力、机具和众多材料物资技术的供应时间也比较长，这就产生了与施工总进度计划相适应的物资技术的施工组织设计内容。由此可见，施工组织设计在项目管理中是相当重要的。 2．施工组织设计方案的重要性 建筑产品作为一种商品，在项目管理中工程质量在整个施工过程中起着极其重要的作用。工程建设项目的施工组织设计与其工程造价有着密切的关系。施工组织设计基本的内容有：工程概况和施工条件的分析、施工方案、施工工艺、施工进度计划、施工总平面图。还有经济分析和施工准备工作计划。其中,施工方案及施工工艺的确定更为重要,如:施工机械的选择、水平运输方法的选择、土方的施工方法及主体结构的施工方法和施工工艺的选择等等,均直接影响着工程预算价格的变化。在保证工程质量和满足业主使用要求及工期要求的前提下,优化施工方案及施工工艺是控制投资和降低工程项目造价的重要措施和手段。 2.1施工组织方案在很大程度上影响着工程质量，因此合理的施工组织方案不仅是确保工程顺利完成的基础，也是工程安全的依据。施工组织设计是建筑工
Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the
当今时代是一个自动化时代，交通灯控制等很多行业的设备都与计算机密切相关。因此，一个好的交通灯控制系统，将给道路拥挤，违章控制等方面给予技术革新。随着大规模集成电路及计算机技术的迅速发展，以及人工智能在控制技术方面的广泛运用，智能设备有了很大的发展，是现代科技发展的主流方向。本文介绍了一个智能交通的系统的设计。该智能交通灯控制系统可以实现的功能有：对某市区的四个主要交通路口进行控制：个路口有固定的工作周期，并且在道路拥挤时中控制中心能改变其周期：对路口违章的机动车能够即时拍照，并提取车牌号。在世界范围内，一个以微电子技术，计算机和通信技术为先导的，一信息技术和信息产业为中心的信息革命方兴未艾。而计算机技术怎样与实际应用更有效的结合并有效的发挥其作用是科学界最热门的话题，也是当今计算机应用中空前活跃的领域。本文主要从单片机的应用上来实现十字路口交通灯智能化的管理，用以控制过往车辆的正常运作。 研究交通的目的是为了优化运输，人流以及货流。由于道路使用者的不断增加，现有资源和基础设施有限，智能交通控制将成为一个非常重要的课题。但是，智能交通控制的应用还存在局限性。例如避免交通拥堵被认为是对环境和经济都有利的，但改善交通流也可能导致需求增加。交通仿真有几个不同的模型。在研究中，我们着重于微观模型，该模型能模仿单独车辆的行为，从而模仿动态的车辆组。 由于低效率的交通控制，汽车在城市交通中都经历过长时间的行进。采用先进的传感器和智能优化算法来优化交通灯控制系统，将会是非常有益的。优化交通灯开关，增加道路容量和流量，可以防止交通堵塞，交通信号灯控制是一个复杂的优化问题和几种智能算法的融合，如模糊逻辑，进化算法，和聚类算法已经在使用，试图解决这一问题，本文提出一种基于多代理聚类算法控制交通信号灯。 在我们的方法中，聚类算法与道路使用者的价值函数是用来确定每个交通灯的最优决策的，这项决定是基于所有道路使用者站在交通路口累积投票，通过估计每辆车的好处(或收益)来确定绿灯时间增益值与总时间是有差异的，它希望在它往返的时候等待，如果灯是红色，或者灯是绿色。等待，直到车辆到达目的地，通过有聚类算法的基础设施，最后经过监测车的监测。 我们对自己的聚类算法模型和其它使用绿灯模拟器的系统做了比较。绿灯模拟器是一个交通模拟器，监控交通流量统计，如平均等待时间，并测试不同的交通灯控制器。结果表明，在拥挤的交通条件下，聚类控制器性能优于其它所有测试的非自适应控制器，我们也测试理论上的平均等待时间，用以选择车辆通过市区的道路，并表明，道路使用者采用合作学习的方法可避免交通瓶颈。 本文安排如下：第2部分叙述如何建立交通模型，预测交通情况和控制交通。第3部分是就相关问题得出结论。第4部分说明了现在正在进一步研究的事实，并介绍了我们的新思想。
forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并
不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。
Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.doczj.com/doc/392444719.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.doczj.com/doc/392444719.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.doczj.com/doc/392444719.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.doczj.com/doc/392444719.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.doczj.com/doc/392444719.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/392444719.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.doczj.com/doc/392444719.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/392444719.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>
外文文献： Risk Analysis of the International Construction Project By: Paul Stanford Kupakuwana Cost Engineering Vol. 51/No. 9 September 2009 ABSTRACT This analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong. KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof
XXXXXXXXX 毕业设计（论文）外文翻译 学生姓名： 院（系）： 专业班级： 指导教师： 完成日期：
施工组织设计的重要性 摘要： 建筑工程在施工过程中，施工组织方案的优劣不仅直接影响工程的质量，对工期及施工过程中的人员安全也有重要影响。施工组织是项目建设和指导工程施工的重要技术经济文件。能调节施工中人员、机器、原料、环境、工艺、设备、土建、安装、管理、生产等矛盾,要对施工组织设计进行监督和控制,才能科学合理的保证工程项目高质量、低成本、少耗能的完成。 关键词： 项目管理施工组织方案重要性 施工组织设计就是对工程建设项目整个施工过程的构思设想和具体安排，是施工组织管理工作的核心和灵魂。其目的是使工程速度快、质量好、效益高。使整个工程在施工中获得相对的最优效果。 1.编制施工组织设计重要性的原因 建筑工程及其施工具有固定性与流动性、多样性与单件性、形体庞大与施工周期长这三对特点。所以，每一建筑工程的施工都必须进行施工组织设计。这是因为：其它一般工业产品的生产都有着自己固定的、长期适用的工厂。而建筑施工具有流动性的特点，不可能建立这样的工厂，只能是当每一个建筑工程施工时，建立一个相应的、临时性的，如同工厂作用性质的施工现场准备，即工地。施工单件性特点与施工流动性特点，决定了每一建筑工程施工都要选择相应的机具和劳动力组织。选择施工方法、拟定施工技术方案及其劳动力组织和机具配置，统称为施工作业能力配置。施工周期的特点，决定了各种劳动力、机具和众多材料物资技术的供应时间也比较长，这就产生了与施工总进度计划相适应的物资技术的施工组织设计内容。由此可见，施工组织设计在项目管理中是相当重要的。 2.施工组织设计方案的重要性 建筑产品作为一种商品，在项目管理中工程质量在整个施工过程中起着极其重要的作用。工程建设项目的施工组织设计与其工程造价有着密切的关系。施工组织设计基本的内容有：工程概况和施工条件的分析、施工方案、施工工艺、施工进度计划、施工总平面图。还有经济分析和施工准备工作计划。其中,施工方案及施工工艺的确定更为重要,如:施工机械的选择、水平运输方法的选择、土方的施工方法及主体结构的施工方法和施工工艺的选择等等,均直接影响着工程预算价格的变化。在保证工程质量和满足业主使用要求及工期要求的前提下,优化施工方案及施工工艺是控制投资和降低工程项目造价的重要措施和手段。 2.1施工组织方案在很大程度上影响着工程质量，因此合理的施工组织方案 不仅是确保工程顺利完成的基础，也是工程安全的依据。施工组织设计是建筑工程设计文件的重要组成部分，是编制工程投资概预算的主要依据和编制招投标文件的
毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄
最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间，工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先，越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关，甚至变得更加活跃：他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作，同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而，这里是机构间差异较大。例如，环境报告的数量变化，每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间，结果是不那么容易诠释。第一，活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的：一些最高审计机关进入，而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二，但是，审计报告数量略有下降，1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变（1994-1996年，20％的规律性审计和44％绩效审计;1997-1999：16％规律性审计和绩效审计54％）。在一般情况下，绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来，再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年，有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年，这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然，这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯，可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来，少数环境审计是规律性审计（560篇报告中有87篇，占16％）。大多数审计绩效审计（560篇报告中有304篇，占54％），或组合的规律性和绩效审计（560篇报告中有169篇，占30％）。如前文所述，绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中，绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施（560篇报告中有264篇，占47％），符合国家环保法律，法规的，由政府部门，部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问（560篇报告中有212篇，占38％）。此外，审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统（560篇报告中有156篇，占28％）。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告：影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10％至20％。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自：S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721
英文 Because of the rapid development of our economy resulting in the car number of large and medium-sized cities surged and the urban traffic, is facing serious test, leading to the traffic problem increasingly serious, its basically are behaved as follows: traffic accident frequency, to the human life safety enormous threat, Traffic congestion, resulting in serious travel time increases, energy consumption increase; Air pollution and noise pollution degree of deepening, etc. Daily traffic jams become people commonplace and had to endure. In this context, in combination with the actual situation of urban road traffic, develop truly suitable for our own characteristics of intelligent signal control system has become the main task. Preface In practical application at home and abroad, according to the actual traffic signal control application inspection, planar independent intersection signal control basic using set cycle, much time set cycle, half induction, whole sensor etc in several ways. The former two control mode is completely based on planar intersection always traffic flow data of statistical investigation, due to traffic flow the existence of variable sex and randomicity, the two methods have traffic efficiency is low, the scheme, the defects of aging and half inductive and all the inductive the two methods are in the former two ways based on increased vehicle detector and according to the information provided to adjust cycle is long and green letter of vehicle, it than random arrived adaptability bigger, can make vehicles in the parking cord before as few parking, achieve traffic flowing effect In modern industrial production,current,voltage,temperature, pressure, and flow rate, velocity, and switch quantity are common mainly controlled parameter. For example: in metallurgical industry, chemical production, power engineering, the papermaking industry, machinery and food processing and so on many domains, people need to transport the orderly control. By single chip microcomputer to control of traffic, not only has the convenient control, configuration simple and flexible wait for an advantage, but also can greatly improve the technical index by control quantity, thus greatly improve product quality and quantity. Therefore, the monolithic integrated circuit to the traffic light control problem is an industrial production we often encounter problems. In the course of industrial production, there are many industries have lots of traffic equipment, in the current system, most of the traffic control signal is accomplished by relays, but relays response time is long, sensitivity low, long-term after use, fault opportunity increases greatly, and adopts single-chip microcomputer control, the accuracy of far greater than relays, short response time, software reliability, not because working time reduced its performance sake, compared with, this solution has the high feasibility. About AT89C51 (1)function characteristics description: AT89C51 is a low power consumption, high performance CMOS8 bit micro-controller, has the 8K in system programmable Flash memory. Use high-density Atmel company the beltpassword nonvolatile storage technology and manufacturing, and industrial 80S51 product instructions and pin fully compatible. Chip Flash allow program memory in system programmable, also suitable for conventional programmer. In a single chip, have dexterous 8 bits CPU and in system programmable Flash, make AT89C51 for many embedded control application system provides the high flexible, super efficient solution. AT89C51 has the following standard function: 8k bytes Flash, 256 bytes RAM, 32-bit I/O mouth line, the watchdog timer, two data pointer, three 16 timer/counter, a 6 vector level 2 interrupt structure, full-duplex serial port, piece inside crystals timely clock circuit. In addition, AT89C51 can drop to 0Hz static logic operation, support two software can choose power saving mode. Idle mode, the CPU to stop working, allowing the RAM, timer/counter, serial ports, interruption continue to work. Power lost protection mode, RAM content being saved, has been frozen, microcontroller all work stop, until the next interruption or hardware reset so far. As shown in
芬兰建筑主要因两点而闻名实用而直接的现代主义和一种同自然之间的虚构的关系。从阿尔瓦·阿尔托和他同时代——包括埃里克·布吕格曼和保利·布卢姆斯泰特 . 在内——的那些设计了年前的芬兰现代建筑作品的建筑师开始就是如此。阿尔托在年代的设计特别是完成于年的帕伊米奥疗养院布吕格曼设计的私人住宅和图尔库的公寓区以及布卢姆斯泰特的教堂设计都是芬兰现代建筑早期阶段的标志。在这之后现代主义运动的主流和分支总是成为芬兰建筑学习的对象。如此忠诚于现代主义的原因可以归结到芬兰自年独立以来的社会发展以及北欧人一贯的建筑和设计方向。北部的地理位置和文化在北欧的多种现代主义中建筑是与众多北部 欧洲的文化特性交织在一起的。起决定性的因素是气候和自然环境 同时还有从路德教而来、体现在北欧福利国家的一种共有的精神。这里值得一提的是在当地民众与自然之间的关系形成的过程中有一个关键因素——“自由信步”的理念简而言之即在一定限度内每个人都有权利进入到自然环境及其所赋予的一切中去。这一传统在那些居住环境与自然紧密相联的地方广为人知在北欧国家更是根深蒂固。波罗的海地区的自然环境十分富足、多样且尺度较小。内陆中不计其数的湖面形成了广阔的水路。芬兰被称为“千岛之国”。实际上可以说芬兰的自然环境充满了各种独特的场所。我们没有一望无际的海岸沙滩或巨大的高差但是我们拥有河、湖和群岛。多样且无所不在的水陆交替为芬兰的自然环境提供了一种韵律。这种韵律既是视觉上的也是精神上的。此外四季的变换——温暖明亮
的夏季和寒冷多雪的冬季——强化了景观的多变对自然空间的应用有着显著影响。关于芬兰建筑前文所述都与芬兰人所认知的好建筑密切相关。在这里成为好建筑的关键因素是同地段或场所的联系 及其空间体验。当代芬兰建筑中的自然和现代主义尤哈那·拉赫蒂孙凌波译: . , . , . ' , , ' , ' , , . , , . Finland' , . , , , . ' , , " ", , , , . , , , . , , . Finland . , . . , , . . . , , , , . Finland. , , . , , . ’ . , , . , . , 首先成为好建筑要尊重地段及其历史无论它是在自然环境里还是在城市之中。以阿尔瓦·阿尔托为代表的年代的芬兰建筑师一贯坚持在项目进程中对地段上的树木加以保护。这是让自然成为建筑院落一部分的方式之一。在这个时代区域划分成为城市规划的一部