Semantics
Semantics
Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.
Semantics = Theory of Meaning
Its goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.
Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words.
Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences.
History of Semantics
1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖.
1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning.
1900 – Its English version came out.
1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China.
One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三角
Concept（meaning）
refers to
symbolizes
Symbol Thing
（word）（referent）
stands for
The Referential Theory 指称论
Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind.
Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression.
Concept VS. Referent (Thing)
A referent may exist in the physical world.
The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word.
Sense 语义
Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context.
It’s abstract and de-contextualized.
Sense Relations
Sense relations between words
Words are in different sense relations with each other.
There are generally 5 kinds of sense relations:
1) synonymy 同义
2) antonymy 反义
3) hyponymy 上下义
4) polysemy 一词多义
5) homonymy 同音同形异义
1. Synonymy
It is the sameness or close similarity of meaning.
Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
2. Antonymy
It is the oppositeness of meaning.
Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.
Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions:
Gradable antonymy
Complementary antonymy
Converse antonymy (relational opposites)
Gradable antonymy 分级反义词
good/ bad, long /short, narrow/ wide
The members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.
Not good≠bad
Hot ---warm---cool---cold
Complementary antonymy 互补反义词
alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girl
It is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.
Converse antonymy 换位反义词(relational opposites关系对立反义词)
buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after,
teacher/ student, above /below
The members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.
Exercise
Classify the following pairs of antonyms:
Gradable antonymy
Complementary antonymy
Converse antonymy
married-single male-female hot-cold
give-take big-small awake-asleep
north-south logical-illogical win-lose
buy-sell doctor-patient above-below
3. Hyponymy上下义关系
It is the sense relation between two words in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word.
Hyponymy
Musical instruments ---piano flute guitar violin tuba trombone
Fish---snapper salmon bass sole trout
Salmon---chinook spring coho king sockey
4. Polysemy
A word is polysemic if it has more than one meaning.
Wood:
family tree
a geographical area with many trees
5. Homonymy
When two or more words are the same in pronunciation or in spelling or in both but different in meaning, they are called homonyms.
3 types of homonyms:
perfect homonyms(同音同形异义词)
homographs（同形异义词）
homophones (同音异义词).
Perfect homonyms
Perfect homonyms are words which are the same in both pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning.
bank (银行、河岸)
bear (容忍、生（孩子）)
sound (声音、完美的)
Homographs
Homographs are words which are the same in spelling, but different in pronunciation and meaning.
"bow" /b??/ -----"弓―
"bow" /bau/ -----"鞠躬"
Homophones
Homophones are words which are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling and meaning.
tail / tale
to / two / too
pair / pear
see / sea
I / eye
piece / peace
Semantics 1. What is Semantics? Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科 2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型: ①Conceptual meaning概念意义 ②Connotative meaning内涵意义 ③Social meaning社会意义 ④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥） ⑤Reflected meaning反射意义 ⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义 ⑦Thematic meaning主位意义 3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系 Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary. 4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the word Associative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies. 5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的 6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）： ① The Referential Theory ② The Semantic Triangle ③ Sense and Reference 7.The referential theory指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论 8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的 9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name. 10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object. 11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it represents Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. 12. Sense Relations涵义关系 ①Synonymy（同义关系） ②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse） ③Hyponymy（上下义关系） 13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.
英语语用学教程 English Pragmatics: A Coursebook 1. Background and definitions Warming up activity What does the boy still need to learn about using language? A little boy comes in the front door. Mother: Wipe your feet, please. He removes his muddy shoes and socks and carefully wipes his clean feeton the doormat. 1.1Background of pragmatics 1.1Definitions of pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of how the speaker produces and how the hearerunderstands the peculiar uses of language. 1.2Component vs. perspective分相论与综观论 1.2.1Component view of pragmatics Davis points out in his book Pragmatics: A Reader(1991) that pragmatics,likephonetics,phonology,morphology,syntaxandsemantics,isacomponent of linguistics. 1.2.2Perspective view of pragmatics Verschueren(1999) proposes that pragmatics is not a component oflinguistics, but a new way of looking at language. Pragmaticsisspecifiedas“ageneralcognitive,social,andculturalperspective on linguistic phenomena in relation to their usage in forms ofbehavior”(Verschueren,1999)
从语义学角度谈汉语中的歧义现象 摘要：语言学家普遍认为, 歧义现象是指一个句子的含义模棱两可, 可以作两种或多种解释。歧义是一种普遍的语言现象,存在于一切自然语言之中。本文尝试从语义学角度对汉语中的歧义现象进行分析，对引起歧义的各种因素进行剖析，指出歧义在实际的语言应用中的影响，并提出一些消除歧义的手段。 关键词：语义学，汉语歧义，歧义成因，消除歧义 一、文献综述 语义学是研究语言意义以及语言表达之间的意义关系的学科。语义学研究自然语言的语义特征；它把语义作为语言的一个组成部分去研究，探讨它的性质、内部结构及其变异和发展以及语义间的关系等。 “语义学”这一术语是由法国语言学家Michel Breal 在1893 年首先提出来的。1897 年,Breal 编著的《语义学探索》一书问世,标志着今天所理解的语义学开始逐步形成。1900 年,这本书被译成英文,书名为Semantics : Studies in the Science of Meaning。这本书是第一部语言语义学著作,其研究的重点在词义的历史发展方面,兼顾词汇意义和语法意义。随后，语义学的发展经历了一个曲折的过程。语义学在19 世纪末、20 世纪初开始成为一门独立的学科,50 年代逐步显露发展势头,从70 年代起才获得了充分的发展。随着越来越多的语言学家开始关注和研究语义学，发表关于语义学的著作，语义学逐渐成为一个成熟的体系。 近十年来，现代语义学呈现出多学科、跨学科、多纬度和多层次的几个显著的特点。如果说传统的语义学研究主要局限在词汇意义层次的话,现代语义学的最大特点之一是对语言意义的多层次的考察。笔者经过对近十年的文献研究发现，认知语义学和规范语义学是当代国际语义学研究的两大主流取向。认知语义学就是在认知学的框架内研究语义,对心智进行经验性的研究，它对传统形式语义学的外部缺陷有着深刻的认识，是当代一个热门的研究方向。规范语义学的核心概念是形式体系,即一种抽象的模型结构,模型的抽象性意味着广泛的语义空间,进而彰显出语义自身的自由度。从蒙塔古最初建立规范语义学到后来克里普克等人的继续发展,出现了诸如类型理论,模态理论范畴语法,博弈语义学等新的学说,特别是后来帕蒂等人对蒙塔古语义学的不断完善,充分表明了规范语义学具有极强的生命力。 而国内近十年的语义学研究也遍布了语言研究的各个方面。主要有以下几个方向：对认知语义学的研究，例如张辉的《认知语义学述评》；对框架语义学的研究，例如陶明忠、马玉蕾合著的《框架语义学———格语法的第三阶段》；语义学在对隐喻的研究中的应用，例如于莹的《认知语义学框架下的隐喻研究》；对语义学与语用学之间的关系的研究，例如康灿辉的《试论语义学与语用学的互补性》；对语义学的实际应用的研究，例如王向君的《浅谈语义学与语法教学》。而对于歧义现象的语义学研究主要是对英语中的歧义现象进行研究，例如高桂莲、陈颖、王海岩合著的《对英语歧义现象的语义分析》，却鲜有对汉语中歧义现象的语义分析。所以本文尝试从语义学角度对汉语中的歧义现象进行分析，对引起歧义的各种因素进行剖析，指出歧义在实际的语言应用中的影响，并提出一些消除歧义的手段。 二、歧义的成因 语言学家普遍认为, 歧义现象是指一个句子的含义模棱两可, 可以作两种或多种解释。语言是一种约定俗成的社会现象, 而不是人们根据科学规律创造出来的, 因此, 不论哪种语言都存在大量的歧义现象。引起歧义的原因有很多，下面笔者将对歧义的主要成因进行分类和剖析。 （一）、语音歧义 汉语中的语音歧义多是由于汉语的一个音节可以对应多个不同的语素引起的，一般存在于口语中。语音歧义主要可以分成以下三种情况。 1、同音字引起的歧义 例句：甲：“请问您贵姓？” 乙：“免贵姓zhang。” 在这个例句中，zhang既可以是“张”，也可以是“章”。在汉语中，有很多读音相同但拼写和意义不同的汉字，因此容易产生语音歧义。 2、一词多音引起的歧义
Chapter Three Morphology形态学 一、定义 1. Morphology形态学：t he study of the internal structure of words (内部研究), and the rules by which words are formed. 对单词的内部结构和单词构成规则的研究。 2. Morpheme 词素：The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. 最小的语言单位,携带信息的意义或功能。 二、知识点 3.2 Distinctions between open and close classes word 1. Open class words开放性词类: In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary. They are content words of a language.，which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly. 在英语中，名词、动词、 形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。他们是一门语言中的实义词，由于我们经常可以在这类词中加入新词，所以他们有时也称开放性词类。 2. Close classes word封闭性词类：Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added , therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words. 构成连词、介词、冠词和代词的词相对较少，通常不添加新词，所以被称为封闭性词类。
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;
Semantics Semantics Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. Semantics = Theory of Meaning Its goal is to reveal how language are matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language. Lexical semantics—the study of word meanings. it deals not only with the meanings of individual words but also the relationship between the meanings of different words. Compositional semantics—is concerned exclusively with the meanings of phrases and sentences. History of Semantics 1893 - French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖. 1897 – Breal first use it as the science of meaning. 1900 – Its English version came out. 1980s – semantics began to be introduced into China. One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning(1923). Semantic Triangle 语义三角 Concept（meaning） refers to symbolizes Symbol Thing （word）（referent） stands for The Referential Theory 指称论 Concept (Meaning): the mental image, the abstraction or generalization of objects of the same kind. Referent (Thing): the physical entity or actual object, event, idea or whatever if denoted by a word, phrase or expression. Concept VS. Referent (Thing) A referent may exist in the physical world. The concept is abstracted from the referent and labeled by a word. Sense 语义 Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context. It’s abstract and de-contextualized. Sense Relations Sense relations between words
语义学与大学英语词汇教学探究 词汇教学是英语教学的根基。大学英语学习已经进入高级阶段,传统的英语词汇教法很多时候已经无法解决学生在词汇学习中常出现的问题。结合语义学原理和教学实践,重点探究语义学中并置理论、结构语义学、框架语义学、语义成分分析、格语法在大学英语词汇教学的应用,旨在提高大学英语词汇教学质量。 标签：语义学;词汇教学;词语搭配;格语法 中图分类号: G424.1 1 问题的提出 随着素质教育的开展和新课程改革的实施,我国大学英语教学有了新的突破,教学重点开始转向提高学生的英语应用能力,而词汇问题成为能否提高学生的英语应用能力的关键。传统的英语词汇教法仅仅要求学生识记单词的发音、拼写、汉语意思,这就导致学生学习的单词是孤立的,从而出现学生无法辨别近义词、词语搭配不当、英语“汉化”等现象。如何让学生正确快速的学会词汇,是每个大学英语教师关注的话题。本文针对学生在词汇学习中常出现的问题,结合教学经验和语义学理论,归纳出以下教学方法,从而激发学生兴趣,提高大学英语词汇教学 质量。 2 语义学在大学英语词汇教学的应用 2.1 并置理论 并置理论是研究英语中某些词与另一些词之间的一种相关的关系。如“mother”(母亲)这个词在语言的应用中经常与nail varnish(指甲油)、son(儿子)、father(爸爸)等词一起使用,而很少和to shave(刮胡子)连用。由此可见,并置理论不是指词汇的含义,而是指词与词之间的搭配关系。这种搭配关系是人们在长期使用语言的过程中的习惯用法。 然而目前大学生在学习英语中普遍出现词语搭配不当,只记住英语词汇的汉语意思,不了解词语的习惯用法和潜在含义的情况。例如:grow children(应为rear children)。此外学生由于受汉语思维干扰,往往按照汉语的习惯来进行词语搭配。
The relationship between semantics and pragmatics As a branch of linguistics, semantics can be simply defined as the study of linguistic meaning, which studies literal, structural or lexical meaning conveyed by words, phrases and sentences. What we concerned with is the denotation of the word, namely the relationship between words , phrases and sentences not the possible connotations. It is context independent, de-contextualized.and it deals with what is said. while pragmatics is a study which can be defined as the analysis of meaning in a particular context, which studies non-literal, implicit meaning. It deals with the relations between language and context that are basic to language understanding. pragmatics is context dependent, contextualized. What we concerned is what is communicated by a speaker and interpreted by a listener. Through the definition of semantics and pragmatics, we can see that semantics and pragmatics both concern the meaning of language. But they research the different sides of language, and they have different study methods. The study objects of semantics is words, phrases and sentences, what we need to know is their meaning, sense , reference and presupposes. Different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. And one word may belong to another word. So we can conclude the words to these relations, Such as synonymy, polysemy, homonymy,hyponymy and antonymy. And when we talk about the sense relations between sentences ,we may think of presupposes. Whether it is right under the presupposes. All those are semantics. It would not change with the
２０１０年第２期（总第７４期） 边疆经济与文化 ＴＨＥＢＯＲＤＥＲＥＣＯＮＯＭＹＡＮＤＣＵＬｒｌｌＪＲＥ Ｎｏ．２．２０ｌＯ ＧｅｎｅｒａｌＮｏ．７４ 【教育纵横】 语用学对英语教学的作用 于松 （哈尔滨师范大学西语学院，哈尔滨１５００８０） 摘要：长期以来，中国英语教学都采取传统模式，教师在教学过程中过分注重学生词汇、语法以及句子分析的能力，造成了学生的满腹理论而不知如何应用的结果。语用学作为一门新兴学科，主要研究语言的应用并已被应用到众多领域。在英语教学中结合语用学的理论不但可以教会学生学会基本的语言知识，更可以促使其掌握语用知识，正确的使用英语这一交际工具。 关键词：语用学；语用学理论；英语教学；教学启示 中图分类号：Ｇ４２４．１文献标志码：Ａ文章编号：１６７２－５４０９（２０１０）０２－０１５６－０２ 一、引言 当代英语教学大都将英语视为一种语言知识进行传授，只注重孤立地对学生进行英语单词、语法、句法、翻译、写作等方面的教学，却忽视了对学生实际运用英语语言知识的能力的培养。通过以上教学，学生可以在应试中取得很好的成绩，然而在用语言进行交流时却不能很好的运用所学知识进行有效的交流。语言是交际的工具，语言各方面的知识是相互联系的整体，只有掌握了具体的语言形式所具有的功能并结合一定的语境，才能真正掌握和使用一门语言，因此在英语教学中不仅应重视对英语听说读写等基础知识的教学，更应注重语用方面的教学，这是本文研究的目的。 二、语用学对英语教学的作用 英语教学实际上是一个动态的过程。是学生通过书面阅读等方式进行信息交流、理解，并在理解的过程中增长知识、提高能力的过程。因此英语教师应充分认识到英语教学并不仅仅是教授语音、词汇、语法等语言基础知识，还应对语言环境、语言知识、文化背景等进行语用分析。在实际教学中不仅要明确提出提高学生语用能力的教学目标，在实际教学的各个环节中都要贯彻执行这一目标。 １．语用学对词汇教学的作用 传统英语词汇教学往往注重词汇本身的意义和语法意义，孤立地讲词义而不是将词汇放人具体语境去教词义，然而在不同的语境中同一个词也会有不同的意义。学生在学习过程中能很好的记住某一单词的各种意义，但到了实际应用时却一头雾水，常常出现语用错误。由于同一单词在不同语境中会有不同的意义，学生在阅读文本时只知道该词的基本意义，因此在理解文本时产生障碍，不能有效的进行认知。例如ｇｏｏｄ一词，简单的定义为“好的”是不合适的，例如：“ｈｅｉｓａｇｏｏｄｂｏｙ”并不一定表示“他是个好男孩”。如果在前面加上“ｈｅｈａｓｓｔｏｌｅｎ１０，０００ｂｉｃｙｃｌｅｓ．”则表示“他是个坏男孩。”此外，在词汇教学过程中，教师还应让学生注意到某些词汇用法的局限。 例如，ｃｏｎｆｅｒｅｎｃｅ一词简单的定义为会议，但它往往不能与我们较熟悉的ｍｅｅｔｉｎｇ互换。原因是前者用法较正式通常指较大型的会议。后者指一般的、较小型的、常见的会议。例如我们在日常生活中常用“ｔＩｌｅｔｅａｃｈｅｒａｓｋｅｄＭａｒｙｔｏａｔｔｅｎｄｔｈｅｃＩａｓｓ．ｒｏｏｍｍｅｅｔｉｎｇａｔ１２０’ｃｌｏｃｋ．”而不是用“ｔｈｅｔｅａｃｈ．ｅｒａｓｋｅｄＭａｒｙｔｏａｔｔｅｎｄｔｈｅｃｌａｓｓｒｏｏｍｃｏｎｆｅｒｅｎｃｅ．” ２．语用学与语法教学 语法教学在传统的英语教学中也同样采用孤立的教学方式。语法教学的常规模式通常是教师以一本语法书为基础，在课堂上尽可能多的向学生罗列语法知识，而学生在课堂上主要的任务就是不停地记笔记，课后花费大力气记住老师所讲的语法要点。这种教学方法的后果往往是学生有着很好的理论基础，可是实际应用时却错误百出。另一种结果是学生为了应付考试进行大量的练习，考试时能够取得不错的成绩，可考完试后所学的语法知识便忘在脑后。教授语法知识的目的是为了让学生掌握语用能力，掌握语法知识和句型是正确运用英语的前提，但有了这一前提并不代表有了语用能力，如果把语法教学与语用知识结合起来无疑会收到更好的 收稿日期：２００９－０９．１５ 作者简介：于松（１９８５一），女，黑龙江尚志人，硕士研究生，从事外国语言学及应用语言学研究。围删一舢Ｊｗ哪蝴 万方数据
1.英国著名语言学家D.A. Wilkins (威尔金斯) 说：“没有语法，人们不能表达很多东without 西；而没有词汇，人们则无法表达任何东西。”（Without grammar very little can be conveyed, vocabulary nothing can be conveyed）。这句话指出了词汇在语言学习中的重要地位，词汇 2.( Lexis)不仅仅包括单个的词，还包括语言使用者大脑中所储存的所有短语搭配，惯用话语等，这样就大大扩充了词汇的范畴。 3.著名语言学家里弗（River）也认为，掌握足够的词汇量是成功运用外语的关键，没有词汇就没有能运用所学的结构和功能的意念。词汇能力直接影响到一个人的听、说、读、写、译的能力。只有掌握了有效的词汇量，才能更好的用语言进行交流。 4.成丽英(探索词汇教学的有效途径) 通过让学生完成难度不一的学习任务，在“识记——联想记忆——感受词义——尝试运用”的过程中达到真正理解和熟练运用所学词汇。 5.陈燕（试论词源教学在英语词汇教学中的作用和意义） 传统的词汇教学注重发音，拼写，意义等共时层面进行教学，忽视了历时层面的学习，词的来源，对于词汇学习时相当重要的。 (1)认知学习理论认为人能根据现有信息作出合理决定。一旦我们将新信息与已有知识联系起来以便理解和记忆,意义学习便发生了。通过意义学习,我们能够更加合理系统地将新知识结合进已有的认知结构,从而习得并保持知识。本文以意义学习理论为依据,探讨词源教学对英语词汇教学的重要性。 (2)词源是指关于词，短语或义项的形成过程的信息。 (3)词源教学可以使学生在学习过程中，可以将已有的内化的知识与新信息联系起来，通过反复机械的记忆与练习，使之巩固不易忘记。学生将已有的词汇作为基础，从历时的角度，探究次的意义，帮助学生了解词汇的来龙去脉，增进词汇知识，加深理解。 (4)意义：开拓思维方式、增加词汇量，加深对词汇的理解、提高学生的词汇产出水平。产出能力，是指主动的正确使用词汇的能力。 论文启示：运用词汇构成进行教学（词根，词缀，合成词） 6.胡春洞，在其《英语教学法》一书中指出；“词汇教学原则包括以下三方面：（（1）质量并重，逐层加深。（2）立足于词汇教学系统之上，着眼于词汇教学之外。（3）集中分散，交替互补。”只有在遵循一定的词汇教学原则，并且结合学生的实际情况,对于英语词汇的教学才能取得更大的进步。 7.梁晓波（认知语言学英语词汇教学的启示） 从认知语言学理论对英语词汇教学的指导作用，重点论述英语语言学所关注的基本范畴词汇，词义语义理解，词语多义之间深层联系，词语隐喻义和认知语义学理论等方面对当前英语词汇教学的指示作用，文中指出积极借鉴认知语言学理论，对英语词汇教学大有好处。
分支。小学主要由音韵学、文字学、训诂学组成。训诂学实际上就是研究语言意义变化的学科。中国历史上被称为“训诂学的鼻祖”的著作是《尔雅》，它实际上也是世界上最早的一部分类词典。它由叙篇(已亡)、释诂、释言、释训、释宫、释亲、释官、释器、释乐、释天、释地、释丘、释山、释水、释草、释虫、释鱼、释鸟、释兽、释畜等十九篇组成。《尔雅》对古代词语变迁的轨迹记载和解释得特别清楚。例如《尔雅·释天》在对几个与“年”有关的同义词的解释时指出：夏曰岁，商曰祀，周曰年，唐虞曰载。 训诂学的另一部重要著作是东汉许慎的《说文解字》。其重要贡献包括：(1)据部首将文字的形体分为540部；(2)用六书(象形、指事、会意、形声、转注、假借)的法则来解释字形；(3)用以形说义的方法来解释字的本义，用”读若”和形声声旁来说明字音等。(陆宗达，2002) 在欧洲，现代语义学的发展一方面与修辞学、语文学有关，另一方面与19世纪后半期兴起的历史比较语言学密切相关。早期的语义学就主要研究语义变化的类型、方式和原因。1883年，法国语文学家Breal发表的一篇论文把语义学这一新学科的目标明确规定为研究意义的变化及其原因，并根据逻辑学和语文学等标准对意义变化的方式和变化的原因进行了分类。 20世纪的前30年间，语义学逐渐摆脱了传统修辞学中X畴概念的束缚，从哲学、心理学、社会学和人类文明史等邻近学科吸取营养，对语义变化过程和变化的原因进行了研究。 20世纪上半叶，现代语义学受到了结构主义语言学的深刻影响。结构主义的一个重要理论基础是，语言的共时状态是一种有组织的结构系统，其中的成分互相依赖，个体的意义取决于它与系统中其它个体的关系。语义学家们把这一原理应用到了意义变化的研究中。其中杰出的代表是德国的Jost Trier。他通过对德语中有关“知识”词语的
Chapter 3 Morphology 1. What is word? ?Definition: A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. ? A vague definition.Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations. 1.1 Identification of words ?Stability:stable linguistic units. chairman, but not *manchair ?Relative uninterruptibility:though we recognize three components in the word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between, as in *disinterestappointment. But we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary ... ? A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself. Sentence---the maximum free form Word---the minimum free form, the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance ?Eg --Is Jane coming tonight? --Possibly. Hi. Wonderful. ?词的特征 词是由词素构成，比词素高一级的句法单位。词具有以下特征： 一词具有固定的语音形式。 二词具有一定的意义。词可以分属实义语类和功能语类。实义语类主要表示词汇意义，包括名词，动词，形容词，副词和介词。功能语类主要表示语法意义，起连接或附着作用，包括限定词，助动词，代词，标句词和连词。 三词是能够独立运用的最小的语言单位。 2 Classification of words 2.1 Variable and invariable words ?V ariable words:One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats ?Invariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings. 2.2 Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words:express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions,
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
Final Examination for Cognitive Semantics Course Student No______________ Name______________ Directions: Discuss any two from the following topics and develop your ideas into a passage within 500 words for each topic. 1.The metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY is a conventional way of conceptualizing love relationships. Is there any corresponding metaphor in Chinese culture? Try to find our conventional ways of conceptualizing love relationships and illustrate them within the framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory. . 2.The metaphor TIME IS MONEY forms a systematic way of talking or thinking about time in the Western culture. Is there any different corresponding metaphor in Chinese culture? Try to find our conventional ways of conceptualizing TIME and illustrate them within the framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory. 3.Illustrate and comment on THE INV ARIANCE PRINCIPLE. 4.Collect some conventional metaphorical expressions of EDUCATION in Chinese culture and illustrate them within the framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory, for example, EDUCATION as GROWTH and NURTURE. 5.What’s the role of IMAGE SCHEMA in Cognitive Linguistics?