u i n t1职场英语t e x t A原文及翻译
Unit 1 Job Interview Text A Interview Etiquette
Professional Attire(着装)
翻译概述（1） 一、学科特点 翻译是一种跨越时空的语言活动，是"把一种语言已经表达出来的东西用另一种语言准确而完整地重新表达出来"(范存忠："漫谈翻译"《翻译理论与技巧》中国对外翻译出版公司，1985，p.80), 是"从语义到文体在译入语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现原语的信息"（谭载喜：《奈达论翻译》中国对外翻译出版公司，1984，p.10）。翻译虽为个体所承作，却是一种社会活动，一门综合性很强的学科。它既有很强的理论性又有丰富的实践内涵。就前者而言，翻译经过千百年来各国翻译家的共同努力，已经在语言学、文学、文化、心理学、人类学、哲学和教育学等学科的基础上初步建立了一套理论体系，并在具体实践中总结出了一套行之有效的跨文化和语言转换模式。随着科学的日益进步，这种体系和模式正处在不断地完善之中。就后者而言，翻译是人类社会活动的产物，具有很强的实践性。翻译理论与实践的关系是辨证的；翻译理论产生于翻译实践，反过来又指导实践，实践转过来又丰富翻译理论。可以说，没有社会实践就不会有翻译理论的产生；没有翻译理论作为指导，翻译实践就会难免走弯路。因此，学好翻译既要重视翻译理论的学习，又要加强翻译实践；理论联系实际，这是我们学好翻译的必由之路。 二、为什么可能有翻译 翻译是人类社会发展和进步的需要，因为人类社会要发展进步就需要在不同文化的民族之间进行沟通，而这一全过程都离不开翻译。正如Steiner和张培基所说的那样：Translating it is that openeth the window, to let in the light; that breaketh the shell, that we may eat the kernel. (Steiner) 翻译是沟通各族人民的思想，促进政治、经济、文化、科学、技术交流的重要手段，
青年人的四种选择 Lesson 2: Four Choices for Young People 在毕业前不久，斯坦福大学四年级主席吉姆?宾司给我写了一封信，信中谈及他的一些不安。 Shortly before his graduation, Jim Binns, president of the senior class at Stanford University, wrote me about some of his misgivings. 他写道：“与其他任何一代人相比，我们这一代人在看待成人世界时抱有更大的疑虑 ,, 同时越 来越倾向于全盘否定成人世界。” “More than any other generation, ” he said, “ our generation views the adult world with great skepticism, there is also an increased tendency to reject completely that world. ”很 明显，他的话代表了许多同龄人的看法。 Apparently he speaks for a lot of his contemporaries. 在过去的几年里，我倾听过许多年轻人的谈话，他们有的还在大学读书，有的已经毕业，他 们对于成人的世界同样感到不安。 During the last few years, I have listened to scores of young people, in college and out, who were just as nervous about the grown world. 大致来说，他们的态度可归纳如下：“这个世界乱糟糟的，到处充满了不平等、贫困和战争。 对此该负责的大概应是那些管理这个世界的成年人吧。如果他们不能做得比这些更好，他们又能拿 什么来教育我们呢？这样的教导，我们根本不需要。” Roughly, their attitude might be summed up about like this:“ The world is in pretty much of a mess, full of injustice, poverty, and war. The people responsible are, presumably, the adults who have been running thing. If they can’ t do better than that, what have they got to teach our generation? That kind of lesson we can do without. ” 我觉得这些结论合情合理，至少从他们的角度来看是这样的。 There conclusions strike me as reasonable, at least from their point of view. 对成长中的一代人来说，相关的问题不是我们的社会是否完美（我们可以想当然地认为是这 样），而是应该如何去应付它。 The relevant question for the arriving generation is not whether our society is imperfect (we can take that for granted), but how to deal with it. 尽管这个社会严酷而不合情理，但它毕竟是我们惟一拥有的世界。 For all its harshness and irrationality, it is the only world we’ ve got. 因此，选择一个办法去应付这个社会是刚刚步入成年的年轻人必须作出的第一个决定，这通 常是他们一生中最重要的决定。 Choosing a strategy to cope with it, then, is the first decision young adults have to make, and usually the most important decision of their lifetime. 根据我的发现，他们的基本选择只有四种： So far as I have been able to discover, there are only four basic alternatives: 1）脱离传统社会
通信工程常用专业英语简写中英文翻译 3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project 第三代合作伙伴计划 1x RTT cdma2000 1x Radio Transmission Technology cdma2000 第一代无线接入技术 ACK Acknowledge 确认 ACLR Adjacent Channel Leakage power Radio 邻信道泄露功率比 ACS Adjacent Channel Selectivity 邻信道选择性 AMC Adaptive Modulation and Codeing自适应编码调制 A-MPR Additional Maximum Power Reduction 额外最大功率回退 AoA Angle of Arrival 到达角 AoD Angle of Departure 离开角 ARQ Automatic Repeat request自动重传请求 AS Angel Spread 角度扩展 AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise 加性高斯白噪声 B3G Beyond 3rd Generation 后三代 BCCH Broadcast Control Channel 广播控制信道 BCH Broadcast Channel 广播信道 BD Block Diagonalization块状对角化 BER Bit Error Rate 误比特率 BLER Block Error Rate误块率 BM-SC Broadcast-Multicast Service Centre 广播/多播业务中心 BSR Buffer Status Reports 缓存状态报告 CA Carrier Aggregation 载波聚合 CBRM Circular Buffer Rate Matching 循环缓存速率匹配 CC Component Carrier 成员载波 CC Chase Combine Chase聚合 CCCH Common Control Channel 公共控制信道 CCCH Common Control Channel 公共控制信道 CCE Control Channel Element 控制信道单元 CCO Coverage and Capacity Optimization 容量与覆盖优化 CCO Cell Change Order 小区改变命令 CCSA China Communication Standards Association 中国通信标准化协会 CDD Cyclic Delay Diversity 循环延迟分集 CDMA Code Division Multiple Access 码分多址接入 cdma2000 Code Division Multiple Access 2000码分多址2000接入系统 CFI Control format Indicator 控制格式指示 CGI Cell Global Identifier 全球小区标识 CoMP Coordinated Multi-Point transmission 协调多点传输 CP Cylic Prefix 循环前缀 CPM Conference Preparing Meeting 大会准备会议 CQI Channel Quality Indicator 信道质量指示 CRC Channel Redundancy Check 信道冗余校验 B-RNTI Cell-Radio Network Temporary Identifier 小区无线网络临时标识
Unit 1 Chemical Industry 化学工业 1.Origins of the Chemical Industry Although the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin‘s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939). 1．化学工业的起源 尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。可以认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在1800年，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。比如制肥皂所用的碱，棉布生产所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究，到1914年，德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发，对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后（1918-1939）。 date bake to/from: 回溯到 dated: 过时的，陈旧的 stand sb. in good stead: 对。。。很有帮助
PPT: 第二页： When you have already acquired a good ability in translation, it’s important for you to storage professional knowledge in mind as more as possible. 1.In financial field: when it comes to 供给and 需求，we say supply and demand in stead of provision and need。 第三页 2.After this week’s disappointing economic figures, China’s central bank said Saturday that it would reduce the share of deposits banks must set aside as reserves. If you have some specific professional knowledge, you know what does“the share of deposits banks must set aside as reserves”mean the moment you see the expression. It means“存款准备金”which is given to the central bank by commercial bank. 3.. The financial futures and options markets which now encircle the globe have risk as their keynote. How to translate “financial futures”and “options markets”？ It means “期货”and “期权”。So it can be translated into“金融期货与期权是目前全球范围内最具冒险性的金融衍生产品”。 第四页：with the development of science and technology , more and more materials concerning science and technology are required to be translated, which puts a high demand on us translators. 1. For example, in scientific and technological area: bedplate has a lot of meanings,such as“底座”、“机座”、“座板”、“底板” 在Cylinder block and bedplate are made of cast-iron．(气缸体和底座均由铸铁制成)句中，we translate “bedplate”to“底座”，it is because in diesel engine，“bedplate”means“底座”或“机座”，not“底板”。However,this sentence: The frame may or may not be provided with a bedplate．(机座可连同底板供应，也可不带底板)，“bedplate”should be translated into “底板”，because底板is a part of electrical machine. 2. In scientific English, different words may have the same meaning. In radio technology, vacuum tube，electron tube名称不同，实际上是同一件东西，如果不知道这一点，而是分别译为“真空管”和“电子管”，译文势必引起混乱。又如比较常见的“AC generator”和“ahemator”都指交流发电机。
“Hiroshima! Everybody off!” That must be what the man in the Japanese stationmaster's uniform shouted, as the fastest train in the world slipped to a stop in Hiroshima Station. I did not understand what he was saying. First of all, because he was shouting in Japanese. And secondly, because I had a lump in my throat and a lot of sad thoughts on my mind that had little to do with anything a Nippon railways official might say. The very act of stepping on this soil, in breathing this air of Hiroshima, was for me a far greater adventure than any trip or any reportorial assignment I'd previously taken. Was I not at the scene of the crime? The Japanese crowd did not appear to have the same preoccupations that I had. From the sidewalk outside the station, things seemed much the same as in other Japanese cities. Little girls and elderly ladies in kimonos rubbed shoulders with teenagers and women in western dress. Serious looking men spoke to one another as if they were oblivious of the crowds about them, and bobbed up and down re-heatedly in little bows, as they exchanged the ritual formula of gratitude and respect: "Tomo aligato gozayimas." Others were using little red telephones that hung on the facades of grocery stores and tobacco shops. "Hi! Hi!" said the cab driver, whose door popped open at the very sight of a traveler. "Hi", or something that sounds very much like it, means "yes". "Can you take me to City Hall?" He grinned at me in the rear-view mirror and repeated "Hi!" "Hi! ’ We set off at top speed throug h the narrow streets of Hiroshima. The tall buildings of the martyred city flashed by as we lurched from side to side in response to the driver's sharp twists of the wheel. Just as I was beginning to find the ride long, the taxi screeched to a halt, and the driver got out and went over to a policeman to ask the way. As in Tokyo, taxi drivers in Hiroshima often know little of their city, but to avoid loss of face before foreigners, will not admit their ignorance, and will accept any destination without concern for how long it may take them to find it. At last this intermezzo came to an end, and I found myself in front of the gigantic City Hall. The usher bowed deeply and heaved a long, almost musical sigh, when I showed him the invitation which the mayor had sent me in response to my request for an interview. "That is not here, sir," he said in English. "The mayor expects you tonight for dinner with other foreigners or, the restaurant boat. See? This is where it is.” He sketched a little map for me on the back of my invitation. Thanks to his map, I was able to find a taxi driver who could take me straight to the canal
第二部分 控制理论 第1章 1.1控制系统的引入 人类控制自然力量的设计促进人类历史的发展,我们已经广泛的能利用这种量进行在人类本身力量之外的物理进程?在充满活力的20世纪中,控制系统工程的发展已经使得很多梦想成为了现实?控制系统工程队我们取得的成就贡献巨大?回首过去,控制系统工程主要的贡献在机器人,航天驾驶系统包括成功的实现航天器的软着陆,航空飞机自动驾驶与自动控制,船舶与潜水艇控制系统,水翼船?气垫船?高速铁路自动控制系统,现代铁路控制系统? 以上这些类型的控制控制系统和日常生活联系紧密,控制系统是一系列相关的原件在系统运行的基础上相互关联的构成的,此外控制系统存在无人状态下的运行,如飞机自控驾驶,汽车的巡航控制系统?对于控制系统,特别是工业控制系统,我们通常面对的是一系列的器件,自动控制是一个复合型的学科?控制工程师的工作需要具有力学,电子学,机械电子,流体力学,结构学,无料的各方面的知识?计算机在控制策略的执行中具有广泛的应用,并且控制工程的需求带动了信息技术的与软件工程的发展? 通常控制系统的范畴包括开环控制系统与闭环控制系统,两种系统的区别在于是否在系统中加入了闭环反馈装置? 开环控制系统 开环控制系统控制硬件形式很简单,图2.1描述了一个单容液位控制系统, 图2.1单容液位控制系统 我们的控制目标是保持容器的液位h 在水流出流量V 1变化的情况下保持在一定 可接受的范围内,可以通过调节入口流量V 2实现?这个系统不是精确的系统,本系 统无法精确地检测输出流量V 2,输入流量V 1以及容器液位高度?图2.2描述了这 个系统存在的输入(期望的液位)与输出(实际液位)之间的简单关系, 图2.2液位控制系统框图 这种信号流之间的物理关系的描述称为框图?箭头用来描述输入进入系统,以及
土木工程专业英语原文 及翻译 文档编制序号：[KKIDT-LLE0828-LLETD298-POI08]
08 级土木(1) 班课程考试试卷 考试科目专业英语 考试时间 学生姓名 所在院系土木学院 任课教师 徐州工程学院印制 Stability of Slopes Introduction Translational slips tend to occur where the adjacent stratum is at a relatively shallow depth below the surface of the slope:the failure surface tends to be plane and roughly parallel to the slips usually occur where the adjacent stratum is at greater depth，the failure surface consisting of curved and plane sections． In practice, limiting equilibrium methods are used in the analysis of slope stability. It is considered that failure is on the point of occurring along an assumed or a known failure surface．The shear strength required to maintain a condition of limiting equilibrium is compared with the available shear strength of the soil，giving the average factor of safety along the failure surface．The problem is considered in two dimensions，conditions of plane strain being assumed．It has been shown that a two-dimensional analysis gives a conservative result for a failure on a three-dimensional(dish-shaped) surface． Analysis for the Case of φu =0 This analysis, in terms of total stress，covers the case of a fully saturated clay under undrained conditions, . For the condition immediately after construction．Only moment equilibrium is considered in the analysis．In section, the potential failure surface is assumed to be a circular arc. A trial failure surface(centre O，radius r and length L a where F is the factor of safety with respect to shear strength．Equating moments about O：
翻译基础知识 一、翻译的分类 1.按所涉及的两种代码的性质，可分为语内翻译（intralingual translation）、语际翻译（interlingual translation）、语符翻译（inersemiotic translation）。 2.按翻译主体的性质，可分为人工翻译、机器翻译（Machine Translation）两类。 3.按翻译的工具和成品形式，可分为口译和笔译。 4.按翻译的客体，亦即所译资料的性质，可分为文学翻译（literal translation）和实用翻译（pragmatic translation）。 二、译家译论 1.支谦：在三国时期，支谦的《法句经序》中提出了“因循本旨，不加文饰”的译经原则。 2.道安：晋、前秦时道安在《革卑婆沙序》中提出，“案本而传，不令有损言游字；时改倒句， 余尽实录。”道安涉及译论的佛经序文较多，最有名的是提出“五失本”、“三不易”之说。其意思是，翻译佛经在五种情况下会失去本来面目，有三件事决定了译事是很不容易的，因此必须慎之又慎。 3.彦琮：北朝末年及隋初，彦琮著《辨证论》，它可以看作是我国第一篇翻译专论，他主张译经 “宁贵朴而近理，不用巧而背源”。可见他是坚持忠实第一并倾向于直译的。 4.玄奘：唐代僧人玄奘的指导原则是：“既须求真，又须喻俗”。“求真”即追求准确，要力求“忠 实原作”，这是一切认真负责的翻译工作者的共同理想。同时必须“喻俗”，亦即使群众理解，这就是说要“通顺”。玄奘在译经中成功地运用了补充法、省略法、变位法、分合法、译名假借法、代词还原法等等翻译技巧。 5.马建忠：清末，马建忠在其《马氏文通》中提出“善译”之说：“必先将所译者与所以译者两国之 文字，深嗜笃好，字栉句比，以考彼此文字孳生之源，同异之故。所有当相之实义，委曲推究，务审其声音之高下，析其字句之繁简，尽其文体之变态，及其义理精深奥折之所由然。” 6.林纾：林纾强调在翻译时译者应该投入自己的主观感情，译者须与原作者或作品中人物的心灵 相交流。 7.鲁迅：鲁迅在《且介亭杂文二集》里说：“凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一 则保存着原作得丰姿”。也就是说既要通顺，又要忠实。所谓忠实，是指内容上的“信”；所谓通顺，是指表达上的“顺”。 8.茅盾：文学翻译的目标是“艺术创造性翻译”——用一种语言把原作的艺术意境传达出来，使 读者读译文时能够像读原作时一样得到启发、感动和美的感受。 9.钱钟书：“文学翻译的最高标准是‘化’，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既不能因语文 习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原作的风味，那就算得入于‘化境’。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的‘投胎转世’，躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里决不会读起来像经过翻译似的。” 10.傅雷：“以效果而论，翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。”“两国文字词类的不 同，句法构造的不同，文法与习惯的不同，修辞格律的不同，俗语的不同，即反映民族思想方式的不同，感觉深浅的不同，观点角度的不同，风俗传统信仰的不同，社会背景的不同，表现方法的不同。以甲国文字传达乙国文字所包含的那些特点，必须像伯乐相马，要“得其精而忘其粗，在其内而忘其外”。而即使最优秀的译文，其韵味较之原文仍不免过或不及。翻译时只能尽量缩短这个距离，过则求其勿太过，不及则求其勿过于不及。”
―Hiroshima! Everybody off!‖ That must be what the man in the Japanese stationmaster's uniform shouted, as the fastest train in the world slipped to a stop in Hiroshima Station. I did not understand what he was saying. First of all, because he was shouting in Japanese. And secondly, because I had a lump in my throat and a lot of sad thoughts on my mind that had little to do with anything a Nippon railways official might say. The very act of stepping on this soil, in breathing this air of Hiroshima, was for me a far greater adventure than any trip or any reportorial assignment I'd previously taken. Was I not at the scene of the crime? The Japanese crowd did not appear to have the same preoccupations that I had. From the sidewalk outside the station, things seemed much the same as in other Japanese cities. Little girls and elderly ladies in kimonos rubbed shoulders with teenagers and women in western dress. Serious looking men spoke to one another as if they were oblivious of the crowds about them, and bobbed up and down re-heatedly in little bows, as they exchanged the ritual formula of gratitude and respect: "Tomo aligato gozayimas." Others were using little red telephones that hung on the facades of grocery stores and tobacco shops. "Hi! Hi!" said the cab driver, whose door popped open at the very sight of a traveler. "Hi", or something that sounds very much like it, means "yes". "Can you take me to City Hall?" He grinned at me in the rear-view mirror and repeated "Hi!" "Hi! ’ We se t off at top speed through the narrow streets of Hiroshima. The tall buildings of the martyred city flashed by as we lurched from side to side in response to the driver's sharp twists of the wheel. Just as I was beginning to find the ride long, the taxi screeched to a halt, and the driver got out and went over to a policeman to ask the way. As in Tokyo, taxi drivers in Hiroshima often know little of their city, but to avoid loss of face before foreigners, will not admit their ignorance, and will accept any destination without concern for how long it may take them to find it. At last this intermezzo came to an end, and I found myself in front of the gigantic City Hall. The usher bowed deeply and heaved a long, almost musical sigh, when I showed him the invitation which the mayor had sent me in response to my request for an interview. "That is not here, sir," he said in English. "The mayor expects you tonight for dinner with other foreigners or, the restaurant boat. See? This is where it is.‖ He sketched a little map for me on the back of my invitation. Thanks to his map, I was able to find a taxi driver who could take me straight to the canal
第二部分控制理论 第1章 1.1控制系统的引入 人类控制自然力量的设计促进人类历史的发展，我们已经广泛的能利用这种量进行在人类本身力量之外的物理进程。在充满活力的20世纪中，控制系统工程的发展已经使得很多梦想成为了现实。控制系统工程队我们取得的成就贡献巨大。回首过去，控制系统工程主要的贡献在机器人，航天驾驶系统包括成功的实现航天器的软着陆，航空飞机自动驾驶与自动控制，船舶与潜水艇控制系统，水翼船、气垫船、高速铁路自动控制系统，现代铁路控制系统。 以上这些类型的控制控制系统和日常生活联系紧密，控制系统是一系列相关的原件在系统运行的基础上相互关联的构成的，此外控制系统存在无人状态下的运行，如飞机自控驾驶，汽车的巡航控制系统。对于控制系统，特别是工业控制系统，我们通常面对的是一系列的器件，自动控制是一个复合型的学科。控制工程师的工作需要具有力学，电子学，机械电子，流体力学，结构学，无料的各方面的知识。计算机在控制策略的执行中具有广泛的应用，并且控制工程的需求带动了信息技术的与软件工程的发展。 通常控制系统的范畴包括开环控制系统与闭环控制系统，两种系统的区别在于是否在系统中加入了闭环反馈装置。 开环控制系统 开环控制系统控制硬件形式很简单，图2.1描述了一个单容液位控制系统， 图2.1单容液位控制系统 我们的控制目标是保持容器的液位h在水流出流量V1变化的情况下保持在一定可接受的范围内，可以通过调节入口流量V2实现。这个系统不是精确的系统，本系统无法精确地检测输出流量V2，输入流量V1以及容器液位高度。图2.2描述了这个系统存在的输入（期望的液位）与输出（实际液位）之间的简单关系， 图2.2液位控制系统框图 这种信号流之间的物理关系的描述称为框图。箭头用来描述输入进入系统，以及
Basic Control Actions and Industrial Automatic Control An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant output with the desired value, determines the deviation, and produces a control signal which will reduce the deviation to zero or to a small value.The manner in which the automatic conroller produces the control signal is called the control action. Classifications of industrial automatic controllers Induetrial automatic controllers may be classified according to their control action as: ·two-position or on-off controllers; ·proportional controllers; ·integral controllers; ·proportional-plus-integral controllers; ·proportional-plus-derivative controllers; ·proportional-plus-derivative-plus-integral controllers. Most industrial automatic controllers use eletricity or pressurized fluid such as oil or air as power sources. Automatic controllers may also be classified according to the kind of power employed in the operation, such as pneumatic controllers, hydraulic controllers, or electronic controllers.What kind of controller to use must be decided by the nature of the plant and the operating conditions,including such considerations as safety, availability, reliability, accuracy, weight, and size? Elements of industrial automatic controllers An automatic controller must detect the actuating error signal, which is usually at a very low power level, and amplify it to a sufficiently high level. Thus, an amplifier is necessary. The output of an automatic controller is fed to a power device, such as a pneumatic motor or valve, a hydraulic motor, or an electric motor. The controller usually consists of an error detector and amplifier. The measuring element is a device that converts the output variable into another suitable variable, such as a displacement, pressure, or electric signal, which can be used for comparing the output to the reference input signal. This element is in the feedback path of the closed-loop system. The set point of the controller must be converted to a reference input of the same units as the feedback signal from the measuring element. The amplifier amplifies the power of the actuating error signal, which in turn operates the actuator. The actuator is an element which alters the input to the plant according to the control signal so that the feedback signal may be brought into correspondence with the reference input signal. Self-operated controllers In most industrial automatic controllers, separate units are used for the measuring element and for the actuator. In a very simple one, however, such as a self-operated controller, these elements are assembled in one unit. Self-operated controllers utilize power developed by the measuring element and are very simple and inexpensive. The set point is determined by the adjustment of the spring force. The controlled pressure is measured by the diaphragm. The actuating error signal is the net force acting on the diaphragm. Its position determines the valve opening. The operation of self-operated controller is as follows: Suppose that the output pressure is lower than the reference pressure, as determined by the set point. Then the downward spring force is greater than the upward pressure force, resulting in a downward movement of the diaphragm. This increases the flow rate and raises the output pressure.