英文
The road (highway)
The road is one kind of linear construction used for travel。It is made of the roadbed，the road surface, the bridge, the culvert and the tunnel. In addition, it also has the crossing of lines, the protective project and the traffic engineering and the route facility。
The roadbed is the base of road surface, road shoulder，side slope, side ditch foundations. It is stone material structure, which is designed according to route's plane position .The roadbed, as the base of travel, must guarantee that it has the enough intensity and the stability that can prevent the water and other natural disaster from corroding.
The road surface is the surface of road. It is single or complex structure built with mixture。The road surface require being smooth，having enough intensity，good stability and anti—slippery function. The quality of road surface directly affects the safe, comfort and the traffic。
The route marking is one kind of traffic safety facility painted by oil paint or made by the concrete and tiles on high—level, less high—type surface。Its function is coordinating the sign to make the effective control to the transportation, directing the vehicles skip road travel, serving unimpeded and the safe purpose. Our country’s road route marking has the lane median line，the traffic lane boundary，the curb line，the parking line，the conduction current belt, the pedestrian crossing line，the four corners center circle，the parking azimuth line. The route marking has the continual solid line, the broken line and the arrow indicator and its color uses the white or the yellow.
The arch of bridge is the structure which strides over rivers，mountain valley and channel。It is made generally by steel rod，concrete and stone。
The tunnel is the cave which connects both sides of the road。The technique of this construction is very complex，the cost of the projects is higher than common road .However, it reduces the driving distance between two places，enhances the grade of the technical in building the road and guarantees the cars can drive fast and safely, thus reduces the cost of transportation。
The protective project is to protect and consolidate the roadbed in order that it can guarantee the intensity and the stability of the road，thus maintains the automobile to pass through safely。
In order to guarantee that safe operation of the highway transportation, besides the highway engineering and the vehicles performance，it must have some traffic signal，route marking, each kind of director and demonstrate facility. The highway marking uses certain mark and draw symbol, simple words and number, then installs in the suitable place to indicate the front road's condition or the accident condition including the informational sign，the warning signal, the prohibitory sign，the road sign and so on。
The road which Join city，village and industry，mainly are used for the automobile and has certain technical standard and the facility path can be called the highway。“The highway” in Chinese is the modern view, but it was not existed in old day。It gets the name from the meaning of being used for the public traffic. Where are the human, there are the road. It is a truth。However, the road is not the highway。If we talk the history about the road，the earliest highway is that built by the old Egyptians for making the pyramid. Next is the street which built by the Babylon people about 4000 years ago. All these are much earlier than our country。
About 500 B.C。, the Persian Empire road has linked up East and West, and connected the road to China. It is the earliest and longest Silk Road. 2500 years ago, it might be the greatest road 。The ancient Rome Empire’s road was once celebrated；it took Rome as the center，all around built 29 roads。Therefore it came out one common saying: every road leads to Rome。
The road’s construction is the process to enhance technique and renew the building materials。The earliest is the old road，it is easy to build but it is also to destroy。If there is too much water or cars，it will be uneven and even be destroyed. The macadam road appeared in the Europe which outbalanced the earliest mud road. Then the brick road appeared which was earlier than China. It was one great breach that we molded bitumen on the macadam road。From ancient times to the present, China has courier station and courier road，while the first more advance road was the one that from Long Zhou in Gang Xi to Zhen Nan Guan in 1906.
The difference between Road and path
The path is the project for each kind of vehicles and people to pass through. According to its function，we can divide it into the urban road, the road，the factories and mines path，the forest road and county road。
The classification of road
First，according to administrative rank, it includes national highway，province road，county road and the special road. Generally the national highway and province road are named main line; the county road is named branch line.
The national road is the main line and has political and economy significance, including the important national defense road and the road collecting our capital with other provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities. It is also the road links the economy center，seaport hinge, factory and important strategic place。The highway striding over different provinces are built, protected and managed by the special organizations which are approved by the ministry of communications。
The provincial road is the main line built，protected，managed by the road manage department .It is full of political and economic sense to the whole province.
The single way four levels of roads can adapt below each day and night medium—duty truck volume of traffic 200。
The county route is refers to has county—wide (county—level city）politics,the econom—icsignificance，connects in the county and the county the main township （town）, the prin—cipal commodities production and the collection and distribution center road, as well as does not belong to the federal highway，provincial road's county border the road。The coun-ty route by the county，the city road Department responsible for the work is responsible
to construct，the maintenance and the management。
The township road refers to mainly the road which for the township (town）the villa-geeconomy，the culture, the administration serves，as well as does not belong to above t—hecounty route between road’s township and the township and the township and the exte—rior contact road。Township is responsible by the people’s government to construct, the m-aintenance and the management。
The special—purpose road is refers to feeds specially or mainly supplies the factories andmines，the forest region，the farm, the oil field, the tourist area, the military importantplace and so on and the external relations road. The special—purpose road is responsibleby the
special-purpose unit to construct, the maintenance and the management. May also entrust the local road department to construct, the maintenance and the management.
Second，according to the use duty, the function and adapts the volume of traffic division。
According to our country present ”Highway engineering Technical standard” the roadaccording to the use duty，the function and the adaptation volume of tra—fficdivides into highway,arterial road，second-class road，tertiary highway, four level of road five ranks: 1st, the highway to feed specially the automobile and should control the difference c—ompletely respectively toward the dividing strip on roads travel the multiple highway。
The four traffic lane highways ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile reduce passenger vehicle’s year mean diurnal volume of traffic 25000~55000.
The six traffic lane highways ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile reduce passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 45000~80000.
The eight traffic lane highways ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile r—educe passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 60000～100000。
2nd，the arterial road to supply the automobile and may according to need to control the difference respectively toward the dividing strip on roads travel the multiple highway.
The four traffic lane arterial roads ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobil reduce passenger vehicle’s year mean diurnal volume of traffic 15000～30000.
The six traffic lane arterial roads ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile reduce passenger vehicle’s year mean diurnal volume of traffic 25000~55000.
3rd, the second-class road to supply the automobile travel the two-lane highway.
Can adapt each day and nights 3000～7500 medium—duty truck volume of traffic generally。
4rd，tertiary highways to mainly supply the automobile travel the two—lane highway。
Can adapt each day and nights 1000～4000 medium-duty truck volume of traffic generally.
The 5，four levels of roads to mainly supply the automobile travel the two-lane or the single—lane highway.
The two—lane four levels of roads can adapt below each day and night medium—duty truck volume of traffic 1500.
Highway engineering includes Highway planning location design and maintenance。Before the design and construction of a new highway or highway improvement can be undertaken there mint be general planing and consideration of financing As part of general planning it is decided what the traffic need of the rea will be for a considerable period, generally 20 years，and what construction will meet those needs. To assess traffic needs the highway engineer collects and analyzes information about the physical features of existing facilities，the volume，distribution，and character of present traffic，and the changes to be expected in these factor. The highway engineer must determine the most suitable location layout, and capacity of the new route and structures。Frequently，a preliminary line or location and several alternate routes are studied. The detailed design is normally begun only when the preferred location has been chosen.
In selecting the best route，careful consideration is given to the traffic requirements terrain to be traversed value of land needed for the right—of-way。and estimated cost of construction for the various plans。The photogrammetric method, which makes use of aerial photographs is used extensively to indicate the character of the terrain on large projects where it is most economical. On small project,
Financing considerations determine whether the project can be carried out t\t one time or whether construction must be in stages with each stage initiated as funds become available. In deciding the best method of financing the work，the engineer makes an analysis of whom it will benefit。Important highways and streets benefit* in varying degrees, three groups* users owners of adjacent property and the general public.
Users of improved highways benefit from decreased cost of transportation，greater travel comfort，increased safety and saving of time. They also obtain recreational and educational benefits. Owners of abutting or adjacent property may benefit from better access, increased property value, more effective police and fire protection，improved street parking greater pedestrian traffic safety, and the use of the street right—of—way for the location of public utilities such as water lines and sewers。
Evaluation of various benefits from highway construction is often difficult but is a most important phase of highway engineering。Some benefits can be measured with accuracy，but the evaluation of others is more speculative。As a result numerous methods arc used to finance construction，and much engineering work may he involved in selecting the best procedure。
Environmental evaluation。The environmental impact of constructing highways has received increased attention and importance。Many projects have been delayed and numerous others canceled because ot environmental problems. The environmental study or report covers many factors，including noise generation, air pollution disturbance of areas traversed destruction of existing housing and possible alternate routes。
Highway engineers must also assist in the acquisition of right—of-way needed for new highway facilities Acquisition of the land required for construction of expressway lending into the central business areas of cities has proved extremely difficult i the public is demanding that traffic engineers work closely with c i t y planners，architects，sociologists and all groups interested in beautification and improvement of cities to assure that expressways extendinx through metropolitan areas be built only after coordinated evaluation of all major questions, including the following;
(1) Is sufficient attention being paid -to beautification of the expressway itself? （2）Would
a change in location preserve major natural beauties of the city? (3) Could a depressed design he logically substituted for those sections where an elevated expressway is proposed？(4）Can the general design he improved to reduce the noise created by large volumes of traffic？（5）Are some sections of the city being isolated by the proposed location？
Detailed design。Detailed design of a highway project includes preparation of drawings or blueprints to be used for construction。These plans show，for example，the location，the dimensions of such elements as roudway width＊the finaj profile for (he road, the location and type of drainage facilities, and the quantities of work involved，including earthwork and surfacing。
In planning the grading operations the design engineer considers the type of material to be encountered in excavating or in cutting away the high points along the project and how the rnaterial removed can best be utilised for fill or for constructing embankments across low areas elsewhere on the project. For this the engineer must analyze the gradation and physical properties of the soil，determine how the embankments can best be compacted, and calculate the volume of earthwork to be done. Electronic calculating procedures are now sometimes used for the last step。Electronic equipment has also speeded up many other highway engineering calculations。
Powerful and highly mobile earth moving machines have been developed TO permit rapid and economical operations.
，Selection of the type and thickness of roudway surfacing to be constructed is an important part of design。The type chosen depends upon the maximum loads to be accommodated, the frequency of these loads and other factors. For some mures，traffic volume may be so low that no surfacing is economically justified and natural soil serves as the roadway。As traffic increases，a surfacing of sandy cluy，crushed slag，crushed stone caliche crushed oyster shells, or a combination of these may be applied。 If gravel is used， it usually contains sufficient clay and fine material to help stabilize the surfacing. Gravel surfaces may be further stubilized by application of calcium chloride, which also aids in controlling dust。Another surfacing is composed of Portland cement and water mixed iuto the upper few inches of the suhgrade and compacted with rollers. This procedure forms A soil-cement base that can be surfaced with bituminous materials。Roadways ro carry large volumes of heavy vehicles must be carefully designed and made of considerable thickness.
Much of highway engineering is devoted to the planing and construction of facilities to drain the highway or street and lo carry streams across the highway right-of—way.
Removal of surface water from the road or street is known a surface druiuage. It is accomplished by constructing the road so that it has a crown and by sloping the shoulders and adjacent areas so as to control the flow of water either toward existing natural drainage, such as open ditches, or into a storm drainage system of calehbasins and underground pipes。If a storm drainage system is used, as it would be with city streets，the design engineer must give consideration to the rntal area draining onto the street, the maximum rate of runoff expected，the duration of the design storm, the amount of ponding allowable at each carchbasin，and the proposed spacing of the catchbasins along the street. From this information the desired capacity of the individual eatehbaxin and the size of the underground piping network urc calculated。In designing facilities to carry streams under the highway the engineer must determine the area to be drained the maximum probable precipitation over the drainage basin，the highest expected runoff rare。
and then, using （hit information, must calculate the required capacity of llit：drainage structure. Generally designs are made adequate to accommodate not only the largest flow ever recorded for that location but the greatest discharge that might be expected under the most adverse conditions for a given number of years。
Factor considered in calculating the expected flow through a culvert opening include size，length, and shape of the opening, roughness of the walls，shape of t h e entrance and downstream end of the conduit，maximum allowable height of water at the entrance，and water level at the outlet
Much engineering und construction work has been done to provide rest stops along major expressway routes t especially the national system of interstate highways. These facilities must be carefully located to permit easy and safe exit and return access to the highway. Many units have been built ^ scenic locations in forested areas to permit picnic grounds and walkways through the forest. These rest areas are especially beneficial to tho«e drivers traveling long distances with few stops。
。The control and reduction of noise along busy routes，especially expressways, has become an important part of highway engineering. In many communities high walls have been huilt along
either side of the expressway。Such walls can he costly to construct, hut can prove very beneficial, barriers can reduce overall noise levels by over 50％。
Construction operations。Although much engineering and planing must be done preliminary to it, the actual construction is normally the costliest part of making highway uud street improvements.
Willi t h e award of a construction contract following the preparation of the detailed plans and specifications t engineers go onto the ftite and lay out the project。As part of this staking out。limits of earthwork are shown，location of drainage structures indicated, and profiles established.
Heavy rollers are used to compact the soil or subgrade below the roadway in order to eliminate later settlement. Pneumatic tired rollers and sheepsfoot rollers （steel cylinders equipped with numerous short steel teeth or feet J are often employed for this operation。Vibratory rollers have been developed and used on some projects in recent years. One type vibrates up to 3400 times/min，compacting the underlying material to an appreciable depth。
Maintenance and operation。Highway maintenance consists of the repair and upkeep of surfacing and shoulders，bridges and drainage facilities? signs, traffic control devices，guard rails，traffic striping on the pavement，retaining walls, and side slopes. Additional operations include ice control und snow removal, because it is valuable to know why some highway designs give better performance and prove less costly to maintain than others，engineers supervising maintenance can offer valuable guidance to design engineers。Consequently，maintenance and operation arc important parts of highway engineering。
中文
公路是供汽车或其他车辆行驶的一种线形带状结构体。它是由路基、路面、桥梁、
涵洞和隧道等基本部分组成.此外，还有路线交叉、防护工程和交通工程及沿线设施
等。
路基是路面、路肩、边坡、边沟等部分的基础,如下图所示.它是按照路线的平面位
置和设计高程在地面上开挖和填筑成一定断面形式的线形人工土石料构造物。路基作为行车部分的基础，必须保证有足够的强度和稳定性，能防止水及其他自然灾害的侵蚀。
路面是公路表面部分。它是用一定级配的混合料铺筑于路基之上的单层或多层结构物。路面要求平整，具有足够的强度，良好的稳定性和抗滑性能。路面质量的好环,直
接影响到行车的安全性、舒适性和车辆的通行能力。
路面标线是在高级、次高级路面上用漆类物质喷刷或用混凝土预制块、瓷瓦等作的一种交通安全设施。它的作用是配合标志牌对交通运输作有效的管制，指引车辆分道行驶，达到畅通和安全的目的。
我国公路路面标线有行车道中线、车道分界线、路缘线、停车线、禁止超车线、导流带、人行横道线、交叉路口中心圈、停车方位线、导向箭头等。
路面标线有连续实线、间断线和箭头指示线等三种形式,其颜色采用白色或黄色。桥涵是公路跨越河流、山谷、通道等障碍物而架设的结构物。一般用钢筋混凝土、
块石等材料建造而成。
隧道是连接山岭两侧公路的一条山洞。隧道修筑施工技术复杂，工程造价比一般路
面高，但它缩短了两地间行车距离，提高了公路的技术等级，保证了行车快速安全,从
而降低运输成本.
公路防护工程是对路基进行防护和加固，以保证路基的强度和稳定性，从而维持正
常的汽车通行和行车安全。
交通标志
为了保证公路运输的安全运行，除公路工程和车辆性能所要求的设备和条件外,还必须有交通标志、路面标线等各种指挥、显示设施。
公路标志，是用一定的标记，绘以符号、图案、简单文字、号码等，装设在适当的地点,预示前方公路的状况或事故发生的状态。包括指示标志、警告标志、禁令标志、指路标志等。
联接城市、乡村和工矿基地之间，主要供汽车行驶并具备一定技术标准和设施的道路称公路。
中文所言的“公路”是近代说法，古文中并不存在，“公路"是以其公共交通之路得名；外国人叫它highway，
看来是它建设地基较高，利于行车而来。有人必有路，走的人多势必成路，这是真理。不过，这路并非公路。若说公路的历史，公元前三千年，古埃及人为修建金字塔而建设的路,应是世界上最早的公路。次之是大约公元前二千年古巴比伦人的街道，比我们中国公路要早很多。
公元前五百年左右,波斯帝国大道贯通了东西方,并连接起通往中国的大道，形成了世界上最早、最长的丝绸之路，这可算是二千五百年前最伟大的公路了。古罗马帝国的公路曾经显赫一时，它以罗马为中心，向四外呈放射形修建了二十九条公路,号称世界无双。所以产生了至今人们还常用的外国俗语,“条条道路通罗马”。
公路的修建也有个不断提高技术和更新建筑材料过程。最早当然是土路,它易建但是也易坏，雨水多些，车马多此，便凹凸不平甚至毁坏了。欧洲较早出现了碎石路,这比土进了一大进。再后出现了砖块路，也比中国早很多。在碎石上铺浇沥青是公路史上一大突破，这是近代的事了。中国自古有驿站驿路，但是真正第一条较先进的公路，是1906年铺设的广西龙州至镇南关的公路。
公路和道路的区别
道路是供各种车辆（无轨）和行人通行的工程设施.按其使用特点分为城市道路、公路、厂矿道路、林区道路及乡村道路等.
公路的分类
一、按行政等级划分
公路按行政等级可分为：国家公路、省公路、县公路和乡公路（简称为国、省、乡道)以及专用公路五个等级。一般把国道和省道称为干线，县道和乡道称为支线。
国道是指具有全国性政治、经济意义的主要干线公路，包括重要的国际公路，国防公路、连接首都与各省、自治区、直辖市首府的公路，连接各大经济中心、港站枢纽、商品生产基地和战略要地的公路。国道中跨省的高速公路由交通部批准的专门机构负责修建、养护和管理。
省道是指具有全省（自治区、直辖市）政治、经济意义,并由省（自治区、直辖市）公路主管部门负责修建、养护和管理的的公路干线。
县道是指具有全县(县级市）政治、经济意义,连接县城和县内主要乡（镇）、主要商品生产和集散地的公路，以及不属于国道、省道的县际间公路。县道由县、市公路主管部门负责修建、养护和管理。
乡道是指主要为乡（镇）村经济、文化、行政服务的公路，以及不属于县道以上公路的乡与乡之间及乡与外部联络的公路。乡道由人民政府负责修建、养护和管理。
专用公路是指专供或主要供厂矿、林区、农场、油田、旅游区、军事要地等与外部联系的公路。专用公路由专用单位负责修建、养护和管理。也可委托当地公路部门修建、养护和
管理。
二、按使用任务、功能和适应的交通量划分
根据我国现行的《公路工程技术标准》（JTJ001-1997），公路按使用任务、功能和适应的交通量分为高速公路、一级公路、二级公路、三级公路、四级公路五个等级：
1、高速公路为专供汽车分向分车道行驶并应全部控制出入的多车道公路.
四车道高速公路应能适应将各种汽车折合成小客车的年平均日交通量25000～55000辆。
六车道高速公路应能适应将各种汽车折合成小客车的年平均日交通量45000～80000辆。
八车道高速公路应能适应将各种汽车折合成小客车的年平均日交通量60000~100000辆。
2、一级公路为供汽车分向分车道行驶并可根据需要控制出入的多车道公路。
四车道一级公路应能适应将各种汽车折合成小客车的年平均日交通量15000～30000辆.
六车道一级公路应能适应将各种汽车折合成小客车的年平均日交通量25000~55000辆。
3、二级公路为供汽车行驶的双车道公路。
一般能适应每昼夜3000～7500辆中型载重汽车交通量.
4、三级公路为主要供汽车行驶的双车道公路.
一般能适应每昼夜1000～4000辆中型载重汽车交通量.
5、四级公路为主要供汽车行驶的双车道或单车道公路。
双车道四级公路能适应每昼夜中型载重汽车交通量1500辆以下。
单车道四级公路能适应每昼夜中型载重汽车交通量200辆以下。
高速公路工程包括高速公路计划。选址。设计和高速公路保养。当一项高速公路工程设计建设或是改造之前,必须大致地计划考虑一下费用问题。作为概要计划的一部分，该地区在可预见的时段内（如20年）的交通流量,以及何种建设才能满足这种需求将是决定因素。为了评估交通需求量，高速公路工程师通过采集分析现有设备提供的物理数据信息--包括车流量,分布，现有交通工具的特征以及蕴涵在这些因素中的可以预知的变化。高速公路工程师必须决定新路线建筑最适合的位置。布局以及容量。通常情况下,一条初步的线路或选址和若干备选路线都会被拿来研究。细节方面设计通常在一个更佳的选址确定下来之后才开始。
为了选择最佳路线，需要仔细考虑的问题包括：交通需求，(路线）横贯的地带，可通行道路的土地价值以及各种方案的结构开销的预算。在一些大型项目中,利用了航拍技术的摄影测量法被广泛用于显示该地带的特征，这也是一种最经济的方法。在那些小型工程中，地面绘图法已经很完美了.
资金方面的考虑决定了一项工程是一次性实施还是是否必须分阶段建设，每阶段建设等资金到位后才开始.在决定最经济的实施方案时，工程师通过分析它的盈利性来定夺的.高速公路，街道（考虑）盈利性的三个优先顺序（依次）为：使用者，所有权上（最）邻近的所有者，大众。
使用者通过降低运输费用，提高旅行舒适度,增加安全性，节约时间来提高高速公路利润。他们也获得娱乐的和教育上的好处。所有权毗邻的所有者可以通过更好的路线,提升所有权价值，更加高效的警察机关和消防保护，改善停车环境，为步行者提供更安全的交通环境，当地可通行道路（沿线)的公共设施，(诸如）水管和下水道的使用情况。
对通过高速公路建设获得的各种利益的评估通常是困难的，但对一个高速公路工程来讲也是一个最重要的阶段。有一些利益可以被精确计算出，另有一些就具有相当的投机性。因
此要使用许多种办法来使（工程）建设（变的）更加经济，并且许多工程上的工作都会牵涉到最佳程序的选择上。
环境因素在高速公路建设中正被越来越重视，也突现出越来越高的重要性.由于环境问题导致工程被搁置甚至取消的事例，不胜枚举。环境方面的研究或调查涉及许多因素，包括噪声的产生,空气污染，对横贯地区的扰乱，对现有房屋以及可能的预备路线的破坏。
高速公路工程师也必须协助得到用于新高速公路设备的可通行道路.通向市区商业中心的高速公路建设的土地的获得已被证明是非常困难的。公众需要交通工程师和城市规划者,建筑师,社会学家，以及所有对美化城市环境，提升城市功能感兴趣的团体紧密合作以确保在协调好所有主要问题（方面）的利益后再（开始）建贯通首要区域的高速公路。主要问题包括以下几点:
（1)高速公路自身的美化问题是否给予了充分的注意?（2）是否为保护城市的自然风光而改变选址？（3）在某些区段需要高架高速公路的有没有一个逻辑上可以替换的降低设计被提出？（4)概略设计对降低由大流量的交通造成的噪音是否有帮助？（5)城市的一些部分是否因为这个提议选址而被独立开来？
高速公路工程的细节设计部分包括用于建设的图纸或者蓝图的准备工作。这些计划展示了诸如选址，道路宽度等此类要素的尺寸,道路的最终剖面图，排水设备的位置和种类,涉及的工程量，包括地下地表的工作.
在做分层开挖的计划时,设计工程师要考虑在开挖过程中遇到的土的种类或者削平工程沿线的高地后如何处理余土才能把它们最佳地填到需要填土的地方，或是用于该工程穿越的其他地势较低地段的筑堤工程.为此，工程师必须分析土质的等级和物理特性，决定如何才能把路堤尽可能的压实,并且计算要完成的土方工程量。电算程序如今常常被用于最后一个阶段的计算。电子设备也加快了许多其他高速公路工程的计算。大功率，（具有）高度灵活性的土方机械已被研发出来用于快速。经济的（工程）操作的实现。
选择要建设道路表面的类型和厚度是设计中的重要部分。类型的选择取决于该类道路要承受的最大荷载，频率以及其他因素。对一些路来讲，交通量也许会如此之小以至于没有哪类路面被证明是经济的，天然土壤就被用作道路。随着交通量的增加,沙土，碎炉渣,碎石,钠硝石，碎牡蛎壳,或是以上的混合物可以被用来做路面.如果使用砂砾,通常应包含足够的黏土和优质材料来协助提高路面稳定性.氯化钙的使用可以进一步加强砂砾路面的稳定性，同时也有利于控制灰尘量。另一种路面由硅酸盐水泥加水混入路基的上面几英寸并由压路机压实。这一程序构成了土-混凝土复合路基并由沥青质材料做路面.用于大交通量的重型交通工具的道路必须仔细设计并要（设计具有）相当大的厚度。
高速公路工程的许多部分是计划和建设用于高速公路或街道排水设备的，以及使得小溪穿过高速公路的可通行段。
将道路或是街道表面的水移走就是表面排水。它是通过建成一条路，中间有顶以及使路肩及其附属区域倾斜，从而将水导向已有的天然沟渠,像敞开的壕沟,或是导向集水箱和地下管道的暴雨排水系统，(来实现表面排水）。如果使用了暴雨排水系统，由于它要和（城市）街道衔接,设计工程师必须考虑街道总的排水面积，期望的最大排水率，暴雨持续时间设计值，每一个集水箱的允许倾注量，以及计划的集水箱沿街间距。通过这些信息，每一个集水箱的期望容量以及地下管网的尺寸才被计算出来.
设计公路下的排水设施时,工程师必须确定需要排水的范围。排水区域最大可能的降雨量。最大可能的流速，然后利用这些资料，推算所需排水结构的负荷量。概略设计中要考虑充分，不仅要适合该地区已有记录的最大流量,而且要考虑在给定年限内在最不利条件下可能发生的最大流量.
开放式管道在计算预期流量是要考虑的因素包括尺寸。长度。开口形状，管壁粗糙程度，入口和下游沟渠末端的形状，入口处允许的最大水位高度以及出口处水位。
许多工程和建设工作是完成提供主要高速公路沿线休息场所的，特别是（属于）国家系统的州际高速公路。这些设施必须仔细布置以便能方便安全的出入高速公路。许多设施做成景观模样坐落于森林覆盖区以便（行人）可以在地上野餐或是在森林中散步.这种休息区特别受到那些跑长途而又很少停车休息的司机的欢迎.
控制.减少繁忙道路，特别是高速公路，沿线噪声已经变成高速公路工程中非常重要的一部分。在一些社区，人们沿高速公路两侧筑起了高墙。建造这些高墙会很花钱,但是提供了许多便利。隔音栅栏能减少全部噪声量的超过50％。
尽管前期要做大量的工程和计划，但实际工程通常是建造高速公路以及街道改造中耗资最大的部分。
根据一份基于细节计划准备和规范的授权建设合同，工程师来到工地现场布置工程。作为立杆定线的一部分，（工程师)要指出土方工程量，排水沟结构的位置,并建立剖面图。
重型压路机把道路下面的土壤和路基压实为了消除以后的沉降。气胎压路机和羊脚压路机(配有许多小轮齿和轮脚的钢柱轮）常常被租来完成此类工作。近年来,振荡压路机已被开发出用于某些工程。有一种振荡频率高达3400/分的振荡压路机可以压实到一个令人满意的深度范围内的地下材料。
高速公路维护由路面路肩，桥梁排水设备，标志，交通控制设备，防护围栏，行人通道上的斑马线，挡土墙以及边坡的维护和维修等组成。附加工作包括控制结冰和移走积雪。因为搞清楚为什么有些高速公路的设计比另一些高速公路有更佳的功效和更少的用于维护的开销是很值得的，所以负责监理维护的工程师能提供很有价值的引导给设计工程师。总而言之，维护和施工都是高速公路工程的重要组成部分。
英文 The road (highway) The road is one kind of linear construction used for travel。It is made of the roadbed，the road surface, the bridge, the culvert and the tunnel. In addition, it also has the crossing of lines, the protective project and the traffic engineering and the route facility。 The roadbed is the base of road surface, road shoulder，side slope, side ditch foundations. It is stone material structure, which is designed according to route's plane position .The roadbed, as the base of travel, must guarantee that it has the enough intensity and the stability that can prevent the water and other natural disaster from corroding. The road surface is the surface of road. It is single or complex structure built with mixture。The road surface require being smooth，having enough intensity，good stability and anti—slippery function. The quality of road surface directly affects the safe, comfort and the traffic。 The route marking is one kind of traffic safety facility painted by oil paint or made by the concrete and tiles on high—level, less high—type surface。Its function is coordinating the sign to make the effective control to the transportation, directing the vehicles skip road travel, serving unimpeded and the safe purpose. Our country’s road route marking has the lane median line，the traffic lane boundary，the curb line，the parking line，the conduction current belt, the pedestrian crossing line，the four corners center circle，the parking azimuth line. The route marking has the continual solid line, the broken line and the arrow indicator and its color uses the white or the yellow. The arch of bridge is the structure which strides over rivers，mountain valley and channel。It is made generally by steel rod，concrete and stone。 The tunnel is the cave which connects both sides of the road。The technique of this construction is very complex，the cost of the projects is higher than common road .However, it reduces the driving distance between two places，enhances the grade of the technical in building the road and guarantees the cars can drive fast and safely, thus reduces the cost of transportation。 The protective project is to protect and consolidate the roadbed in order that it can guarantee the intensity and the stability of the road，thus maintains the automobile to pass through safely。 In order to guarantee that safe operation of the highway transportation, besides the highway engineering and the vehicles performance，it must have some traffic signal，route marking, each kind of director and demonstrate facility. The highway marking uses certain mark and draw symbol, simple words and number, then installs in the suitable place to indicate the front road's condition or the accident condition including the informational sign，the warning signal, the prohibitory sign，the road sign and so on。 The road which Join city，village and industry，mainly are used for the automobile and has certain technical standard and the facility path can be called the highway。“The highway” in Chinese is the modern view, but it was not existed in old day。It gets the name from the meaning of being used for the public traffic. Where are the human, there are the road. It is a truth。However, the road is not the highway。If we talk the history about the road，the earliest highway is that built by the old Egyptians for making the pyramid. Next is the street which built by the Babylon people about 4000 years ago. All these are much earlier than our country。
英文文献: 1 Intelligent home network With the network technology and communication technology continues to evolve and requirements of people living continuously improve and achieve family intelligent remote control has become an inevitable trend. Ministry of Construction and Housing Industrialization Promotion Center proposed residential area to achieve the six intelligence requirements, including safety precautions implemented automated monitoring and management: on residential fires, toxic gas leak to implement automatic alarm; anti-theft alarm system should be installed such as infrared or microwave various types of alarm detector; system should be integrated with the computer security management system network; computer system burglar alarm system can be centrally managed and controlled. However, as wireless technology immature, operating expenses of higher malpractice, intelligent home controller and the external network of wireless communications technology as leading to a low degree of market acceptance of the important factors, the characteristics of GPRS system can be a good solution to the problem. GPRS network communication businesscommunicationscompany launched a data communication services, the GPRS network coverage area, unlimited transmission distance, communication cost is relatively low transfer rate faster. This article related to intelligent systems and GPRS technology family background, analysis of its basic characteristics and their basic functions to be achieved, and on this basis was proposed based on GPRS wireless home the overall intelligent control system solutions. At last, the core GPRS chip system software and hardware realization. Overall system architecture The popularity of network applications and the production of a variety of information appliances are made within the family visit on the Internet, no longer limited to a single PC, each family will be faced with how to transfer Internet data within the family and how the various appliances problems connecting, based on this, intelligent home networks come into being. Intelligent home network is the basic unit of information society. The future of the family, all kinds of appliances will form a home LAN and Internet access through the smart home controller. Intelligent home network market potential is considerable, several large manufacturers Intel, IBM, Microsoft and Sony are already involved in them. Intelligent home network that is in a home in a communications network, the various appliances connected together, to achieve all the intelligent home network appliances for remote access and control, and any request for information exchange, such as music, television or data. Intelligent home network architecture, including within the family network system, intelligent home controller and the intelligent home network and external Internet networks of data communications. Among them, the smart home smart home network controller is an integral part of the core to play the management, control and communications role with the external network. It is the management platform and home through the family life of the combination of the various subsystems of a system is to connect the family intelligence network inside and outside the physical interfaces, complete with external communication networks within the family, the data exchange between functions, but also for families equipment management and control. Smart home controller on the one hand the need for cabling to provide communication interface within the family, to collect information on household equipment, and processing, automatic control and regulation; other smart home controller as a home gateway, to provide for
英文文献翻译 物科院06级 电子信息工程 07060431 薛龙兆
英语原文 Intelligent Traffic Light Control by Marco Wiering The topic I picked for our community project was traffic lights. In a community, people need stop signs and traffic lights to slow down drivers from going too fast. If there were no traffic lights or stop signs, people’s lives would be in danger from drivers going too fast. The urban traffic trends towards the saturation, the rate of increase of the road of big city far lags behind rate of increase of the car. The urban passenger traffic has already become the main part of city traffic day by day and it has used about 80% of the area of road of center district. With the increase of population and industry activity, people's traffic is more and more frequent, which is unavoidable. What means of transportation people adopt produces pressure completely different to city traffic. According to calculating, if it is 1 to adopt the area of road that the public transport needs, bike needs 5-7, car needs 15-25, even to walk is 3 times more than to take public transits. So only by building road can't solve the city traffic problem finally yet. Every large city of the world increases the traffic policy to the first place of the question. For example， according to calculating, when the automobile owning amount of Shanghai reaches 800,000 (outside cars count separately ), if it distributes still as now for example: center district accounts for great proportion, even when several loop-lines and arterial highways have
Library of C the CNC industrial developed tens of thousands and educational field, he has NUMERICAL CONTROL Numerical Control technology as it is known today, emerged in the mid 20th century. It can be traced to the year of 1952, the U.S. Air Force, and the names of John Parsons and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cam-bridge, MA, USA. It was not applied in production manu-facturing until the early 1960's. The real boom came in the form of CNC, around the year of 1972, and a decade later with the introduction of affordable micro computers. The history and development of this fascinating technology has been well documented in many publications. In the manufacturing field, and particularly in the area of metal working, Numerical Control technology has caused something of a revolution. Even in the days before comput-ers became standard fixtures in every company and in many homes, the
Feasibility assessment of a leading-edge-flutter wind power generator 前缘颤振风力发电机的可行性评估 Luca Caracoglia卢卡卡拉克格里亚 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering Center, 360 Huntington A venue, Boston, MA 02115, USA美国东北大学土木与环境工程斯内尔工程中心400，亨廷顿大道360，波士顿02115 This study addresses the preliminary technical feasibility assessment of a mechanical apparatus for conversion of wind energy. 这项研究涉及的是风能转换的机械设备的初步技术可行性评估。The proposed device, designated as ‘‘leading-edge-fl utter wind power generator’’, employs aeroelastic dynamic instability of a blade airfoil, torsionally rotating about its leading edge. 这种被推荐的定义为“前缘颤振风力发电机”的设备，采用的气动弹性动态不稳定叶片翼型，通过尖端旋转产生扭矩。Although the exploitation of aeroelastic phenomena has been proposed by the research community for energy harvesting, this apparatus is compact, simple and marginally susceptible to turbulence and wake effects.虽然气动弹性现象的开发已经有研究界提出可以通过能量采集。The objective of this study was to identify a conceptual configuration that could become operational at low and medium wind speeds.本研究的目的是确定一个概念性的配置，有可能在低和中等风速下运作。 Pre- and post-critical regimes are simulated; the prediction of mechanical efficiency in the absence of dissipation is also discussed.前后临界机制是模拟的;还讨论了在没有消耗的机械效率下的预测。2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.2010爱斯维尔有限公司保留所有权利。 前缘颤振风力发电机可行性评估 1、Introduction引言 This study analyzes the feasibility of a conceptually simple mechanism for wind energy harvesting.这项研究是针对风能收集的一个简单的概念性原理的的可行性分析。The proposed device was based on the exploitation of the leading-edge torsional aeroelastic instability of a‘‘blade airfoil’’,and was desig natedas ‘‘leading-edge-flutter wind power generator’’(LEFWPG).该装置是根据开发尖端扭转弹性不稳定的一个叶片翼型，并设计'l前缘颤振风力发电机”。Flutter (Scanlan and Rosenbaum, 1968) is a well known mechanism of dynamic aeroelastic instability, in which energy can be extracted from the wind.颤振（斯坎伦·罗森鲍姆，1968）是一个众所周知的原理，利用气动弹性的不稳定性从风中提取能量。This energy might possibly be re-captured and transformed into electrical power.这种能量可能是可以被重新获得并转化为电能。 The LEFWPG is conceptually advantageous, since it is simpler than similar aeroelastic generators proposed in the literature, which involve a pitching/heaving oscillation in two degrees of freedom.。这种LEFWPG在原理上是有优势的，因为它比同类气动发电机的文献中提
Key to the development of four-rotors micro air vehicle technology To date, micro d experimental study on the basic theory of rotary wing aircraft and have made more progress, but to really mature and practical, also faces a number of key technical challenges. 1. Optimal design Overall design of rotary-wing aircraft when small, need to be guided by the following principles: light weight, small size, high speed, low power consumption and costs. But these principles there are constraints and conflicting with each other, such as: vehicle weights are the same, is inversely proportional to its size and speed, low energy consumption. Therefore, when the overall design of miniature four-rotor aircraft, first select the appropriate body material based on performance and price, as much as possible to reduce the weight of aircraft; second, the need to take into account factors such as weight, size, speed and energy consumption, ensuring the realization of design optimization. 2. The power and energy Power unit includes: rotor, micro DC motor, gear reducer, photoelectric encoder and motor drive module, the energy provided by onboard batteries. Four-rotors micro air vehicle's weight is a major factor affecting their size and weight of the power and energy devices accounted for a large share of the weight of the entire body. For the OS4 II, the proportion is as high as 75%. Therefore, development of lighter, more efficient power and energy devices is further miniaturized four key to rotary wing aircraft. The other hand, the lifting occurs with a power unit, most airborne energy consumption. For example, OS4 II power 91% power consumption. To increase the efficiency of aircraft, the key is to improve the efficiency of the power plant. In addition to maximize transmission efficiency, you must also
华南理工大学广州学院 本科生毕业设计(论文）翻译 英文原文名Review of Vibration Analysis Methods for Gearbox Diagnostics and Prognostics 中文译名对变速箱振动分析的诊断和预测方法综述 学院汽车工程学院 专业班级车辆工程七班 学生姓名刘嘉先 学生学号201130085184 指导教师李利平 填写日期2015年3月15日
英文原文版出处：Proceedings of the 54th Meeting of the Society for Machinery Failure Prevention Technology, Virginia Beach，V A, May 1-4，2000，p. 623-634 译文成绩：指导教师(导师组长）签名： 译文： 简介 特征提取技术在文献中有描述;然而，大多数人似乎掩盖所需的特定的预处理功能。一些文件没有提供足够的细节重现他们的结果，并没有一个全面的比较传统的功能过渡齿轮箱数据。常用术语,如“残差信号”,是指在不同的文件不同的技术.试图定义了状态维修社区中的常用术语和建立所需的特定的预处理加工特性。 本文的重点是对所使用的齿轮故障检测功能。功能分为五个不同的组基于预处理的需要。论文的第一部分将提供预处理流程的概述和其中每个特性计算的处理方案。在下一节中，为特征提取技术描述，将更详细地讨论每一个功能。最后一节将简要概述的宾夕法尼亚州立大学陆军研究实验室的CBM工具箱用于齿轮故障诊断。 特征提取概述 许多类型的缺陷或损伤会增加机械振动水平。这些振动水平，然后由加速度转换为电信号进行数据测量。原则上,关于受监视的计算机的健康的信息被包含在这个振动签名。因此，新的或当前振动签名可以与以前的签名进行比较,以确定该元件是否正常行为或显示故障的迹象。在实践中，这种比较是不能奏效的。由于大的变型中,签名的直接比较是困难的。相反,一个涉及从所述振动署名数据特征提取更多有用的技术也可以使用。理想的是，这些特性更稳定,比原始签名数据本身也规矩的多.特性还提供减少数据集的应用模式识别和跟踪技术。 原料的预处理是指从原料或空调从传感器信号计算的特点.这些功能所需要的唯一的预处理是调节信号或去除信号的平均值。信号调理是简单地将所有的数据点的校准常数，基于加速度传感器和放大器。在这一组的特点是:均方根,峰度，三角洲RMS,波峰因数,包络和解调。 TSA预处理需要时间同步平均的原始数据。时间同步平均是一种信号处理技术，用于提取重复信号附加噪声。这个过程需要一个准确的知识重复频率的期望信号或信号与期望信号的同步.原始数据被划分成段长度相等块相关同步信号和平均值。当足够的平均值,随机噪声被抵消了,留下一个改进的估计所需的信号。在信号分割之前，系列中数据点的数量增加了插值的方法。这将提供一个更紧密的近似信号分割和平均.所述传感器信号分割是基于同步信号.例如,可以使用测速信号作为旋转机械的同步信号。每一部分将开始基于环脉
计算机专业毕业设计论文外文文献中英文翻译(Object) LT
itself whenever necessary to accommodate everything you place inside it. So you don’t need to know how manyobjects you’re going to hold in a container. Just create a container object and let it take care of the details. Fortunately, a good OOP language comes with a set of containers as part of the package. In C++, it’s part of the Standard C++ Library and is sometimes called the Standard Template Library (STL). Object Pascal has containers in its Visual Component Library (VCL). Smalltalk has a very complete set of containers. Java also has containers in its standard library. In some libraries, a generic container is considered good enough for all needs, and in others (Java, for example) the library has different types of containers for different needs: a vector (called an ArrayList in Java) for consistent access to all elements, and a linked list for consistent insertion at all elements, for example, so you can choose the particular type that fits your needs. Container libraries may also include sets, queues, hash tables, trees, stacks, etc. All containers have some way to put things in and get things out; there are usually functions to add elements to a container, and others to fetch those elements back out. But fetching elements can be more problematic, because a single-selection function is restrictive. What if you want to manipulate or compare a set of elements in the container instead of just one? The solution is an iterator, which is an object whose job is to select the elements within a container and present them to the user of the iterator. As a class, it also provides a level of abstraction. This abstraction can be used to separate the details of the container from the code that’s accessing that container. The container, via the iterator, is abstracted to be simply a sequence. The iterator allows you to traverse that sequence without worrying about the underlying structure—that is, whether it’s an ArrayList, a LinkedList, a Stack, or something else. This gives you the flexibility to easily change the underlying data structure without disturbing the code in your program. Java began (in version 1.0 and 1.1) with a standard iterator, called Enumeration, for all of its container classes. Java 2 has added a much more complete container library that
本科毕业设计（论文）英文翻译 论文标题(中文 ) 学院****** 姓名*** 专业******* 班级**********大气探测2班学号*************** 大气探测、信处、两个专业填写电子信息工程。生物医学工程、电子信息科学与技术、雷电防护科学与技术
As its name implies, region growing is a procedure that groups pixels or subregions into larger regions based on predefined criteria. The basic approach is to start with a set of “seed ” points and from these grow regions by appending to each seed those gray level or color). be used to assign pixels to regions during the centroid of these clusters can be used as seeds. … … …
左右手共面波导的建模与带通滤波器设计 速发展之势，而它的出现却是源于上世纪本研究提出了一种新型混合左右手（CPW ）的独特功能。目前这种有效电长度为0°的新型混合左右手共面波导（CRLH CPW ）谐振器正在兴起，这种谐振器工作在5GHz 时的体积比常规结构的谐振器缩减小49.1%。 有关图、表等表格和图片必须有说明，宋体五号 公式 ：公式的编号用括号起写在右边行末，其间不加虚线。 图、表、公式等与正文之间要有6磅的行间距。 文中的图、表、附注、公式一律采用阿拉伯数字分章连续编号。如：图2-5，表3-2，公式（5-1）等。若图或表中有附注，采用英文小写字母顺序编号，附注写在图或表的下方。
毕业设计外文翻译 Graduation design foreign translation (700 words) Title: The Application of Artificial Intelligence in Autonomous Vehicles Introduction: With the advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) technology, the application of AI in autonomous vehicles has become a hot topic. Autonomous vehicles, also known as self-driving cars, are vehicles that can operate without human intervention. The integration of AI enables these vehicles to analyze and respond to their surroundings, making them more efficient and safe on the road. This paper will discuss the application of AI in autonomous vehicles and its potential benefits. Application of AI in Autonomous Vehicles: 1. Computer Vision: AI technology enables autonomous vehicles to perceive their surroundings using computer vision. Cameras are installed on the vehicle to capture real-time visual data, which is then analyzed by AI algorithms. Through computer vision, autonomous vehicles can identify objects such as pedestrians, traffic lights, and other vehicles. This allows the vehicle to make informed decisions and act accordingly. For example, if a pedestrian is crossing the road, the autonomous vehicle can detect the presence of the pedestrian and adjust its speed or trajectory to avoid collision. 2. Machine Learning: Machine learning algorithms are used to train autonomous vehicles