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Discriminationofnon-nativeconsonantcontrastsvarying

inperceptualassimilationtothelistener’snative

phonologicalsystem

CatherineT.Besta)

DepartmentofPsychology,WesleyanUniversity,Middletown,Connecticut06459andHaskinsLaboratories,270CrownStreet,NewHaven,Connecticut06511

GeraldW.McRoberts

DepartmentofPsychology,LehighUniversity,Bethlehem,Pennsylvania18015andHaskinsLaboratories,270CrownStreet,NewHaven,Connecticut06511

ElizabethGoodellb)

DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofConnecticut,Storrs,Connecticut06269andHaskinsLaboratories,270CrownStreet,NewHaven,Connecticut06511

͑Received18October1999;revised4October2000;accepted18October2000͒

Classicnon-nativespeechperceptionfindingssuggestedthatadultshavedifficultydiscriminating

segmentaldistinctionsthatarenotemployedcontrastivelyintheirownlanguage.However,recent

reportsindicateagradientofperformanceacrossnon-nativecontrasts,rangingfromnear-chanceto

near-ceiling.Currenttheoreticalmodelsarguethatsuchvariationsreflectsystematiceffectsof

experiencewithphoneticpropertiesofnativespeech.Thepresentresearchaddressedpredictions

fromBest’sperceptualassimilationmodel͑PAM͒,whichincorporatesbothcontrastive

phonologicalandnoncontrastivephoneticinfluencesfromthenativelanguageinitspredictions

aboutdiscriminationlevelsfordiversetypesofnon-nativecontrasts.WeevaluatedthePAM

hypothesesthatdiscriminationofanon-nativecontrastshouldbenear-ceilingifperceivedas

phonologicallyequivalenttoanativecontrast,lowerthoughstillquitegoodifperceivedasa

phoneticdistinctionbetweengoodversuspoorexemplarsofasinglenativeconsonant,andmuch

lowerifbothnon-nativesegmentsarephoneticallyequivalentingoodnessoffittoasinglenative

consonant.TwoexperimentsassessednativeEnglishspeakers’perceptionofZuluandTigrinya

contrastsexpectedtofitthosecriteria.FindingssupportedthePAMpredictions,andprovided

evidenceforsomeperceptualdifferentiationofphonological,phonetic,andnonlinguistic

informationinperceptionofnon-nativespeech.Theoreticalimplicationsfornon-nativespeech

perceptionarediscussed,andsuggestionsaremadeforfurtherresearch.©2001Acoustical

SocietyofAmerica.͓DOI:10.1121/1.1332378͔

PACSnumbers:43.71.Hw,43.71.Es,43.71.Ft͓KRK͔

I.INTRODUCTION

Adults’perceptionofspeechcontrastsisstronglyinflu-

encedbyexperiencewiththephonologicalsystemoftheir

nativelanguage͑e.g.,AbramsonandLisker,1970͒.Atradi-

tionalaccountforthisphenomenonhasbeenaperceptual

versionoftheconceptthatanative-language‘‘phonological

filter’’operatesinproductionofnon-nativesegments͑Poli-

vanov,1931;Trubetskoy,1939/1969͒.Thatis,ithasbeen

assumedthatmaturelistenershavedifficultydiscriminating

phoneticdistinctionsthatdonotoccurasanativephonologi-

calcontrast.Perhapsthemostwidelycitedexampleofsuch

perceptualdifficultyisthepoordiscriminationofEnglish

/r/-/(/byspeakersoflanguagesthatlackthiscontrast,suchas

Japanese͑e.g.,Goto,1971;Miyawakietal.,1975;Mochi-

zuki,1981;BestandStrange,1992;MacKainetal.,1981͒.

Similarlypoornon-nativespeechperceptionperformance

hasbeendocumentedforspeakersofotherlanguages.Forexample,Englishspeakershavedifficultydiscriminating

contrastssuchasHindiretroflexversusdentalstopsand

Nthlakampxvelarversusuvularejectives͑Werkeretal.,

1981;WerkerandTees,1984͒.Discriminationinsuchcases

isnearchance,instrikingcontrasttotheceiling-levelper-

formancetypicallyfoundwithnativelanguagedistinctions.

Whatisitaboutnativelanguageexperiencethatresults

insuchdifficultieswithnon-nativespeechdiscrimination?

Onetypeofexplanationemphasizedexposureinearlydevel-

opmentasbeingcriticaltothe‘‘tuning’’ofrelevantsensori-

neuralmechanisms.Forexample,somearguedthatinnate,

linguisticallyspecializedneuralmechanisms,initiallytuned

touniversalsettingsofphoneticcategoriesand/orbound-

aries,aremodifiedbyearlyexposuretospecificphonetic

features͑e.g.,Eimas,1975,1991͒.Otherspositedthenonlin-

guisticviewthatearlyexposuretospecificacousticproper-

tiesmaintainsorenhancesthetuningofprewiredpsycho-

physicalmechanismsthatrespondselectivelytothose

properties͑e.g.,AslinandPisoni,1980͒.Suchprewired

mechanismsaregenerallyassumed,bythelatterview,tobe

componentsofgeneralauditoryprocessingskillsthat

area͒Electronicmail:cbest@wesleyan.edub͒Presentaddress:LandmarkSchool,429HaleSt.,PridesCrossing,MA01965.

775775J.Acoust.Soc.Am.109(2),February20010001-4966/2001/109(2)/775/20/$18.00©2001AcousticalSocietyofAmericapartofourmammalian͑orvertebrate͒evolutionaryendow-

ment͑e.g.,Kuhl,1988;Dooling,1989͒.

Ithassincebecomeapparent,however,thatneitherac-

countofcriticalearlytuningcanadequatelyexplainallas-

pectsofadults’non-nativespeechperception.Numerous

studieshaveshownthatdiscriminationofunfamiliarpho-

neticcontrastscanbeimprovedeveninadultsthroughex-

tensivenaturalexperience,intensivelaboratorytraining,or

experimentalmanipulationsthatreducetaskmemoryde-

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SOLAS（全文本）2017.pdf

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1

International Convention for

the Safe of Life at Sea

全文本（包括历次修正案）

2014.3

2 序

国际海事组织所出台的强制性公约及规则的条款，对于不同建造日期及不同吨位的船舶有着不同

的适用要求。特别是SOLAS公约，大约超过50%的条款都根据不同船舶有不同的适用范围，而且IMO几乎每年都对相关条款进行修订，并同时对各条款的适用范围进行调整，有的要求追溯，有的仅要求适用于新造船，这无疑给海事管理者在针对不同船舶实施不同的管理要求带来了很大的不便和挑战，

特别是对于从事船舶安全检查的一线安检人员来说，如何正确的引用国际公约条款来核实船舶是否达到要求，是一个很头疼的问题，也往往会引起争议。2012年，辽宁海事局承担了对中国港口国监督检查的后评估课题，对所有中国实施PSC检查的安检站所提交的检查报告进行了统计分析，在所有

PSC检查官所列出的缺陷中，有近5%的缺陷被认定为无效，其中有相当一部分是由于公约条款适用范围的引用错误造成的，其中不乏有很多缺陷引起船东或船级社的复议。 IMO相关国际公约及规则条款数目惊人，要求一线安检人员事无巨细的牢记每一条款的要求及适

用范围显然不太现实。因此，在怀疑缺陷的判定或对缺陷有争议时，再去翻查公约是唯一可行的办法。但问题是在现场检查时，不可能携带大量公约文本，即便是有公约可查，在短时间内也很难查到相关具体的要求。更棘手的是目前大量的公约及法规文本都是仅集成最新条款的综合文本，而IMO对公约

条款的修订都是通过某一个决议的方式进行，每一个决议仅针对某一个或某些条款，甚至是条款中的某一句话进行修订。大量的决议案无法合并到文本中去。这就使得在核查具体条款的要求和适用范围时，往往无从下手，或是根本找不到相关资料。因此在实施PSC检查中，如何找到一个既简便快捷又

准确的方法来明确具体条款的应用范围，对于提高安检水平，避免引起争议具有较为现实的意义。 本课题研究的目的是对SOLAS公约至今仍生效的条款进行梳理，以列表的方式对主要条款及其有效的修正案进行罗列，并对其生效条件及时效进行归类，同时对各种修订条款中主要的修订要求做出

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ASME__B1.20.1-2006（中⽂版）

美国国家标准

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SAE J517-2001 Hydraulic Hose

SAE J517-2001 Hydraulic Hose

SAE Technical Standards Board Rules provide that: “This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this report is entirelyvoluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising therefrom, is the sole responsibility of the user.”SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be reaffirmed, revised, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and suggestions.TO PLACE A DOCUMENT ORDER; (724) 776-4970 FAX: (724) 776-0790SAE WEB ADDRESS Copyright 2001 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.All rights reserved.

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-2-2.1.4MILITARY PUBLICATIONS—Available from Naval Publications and Forms Center, 700 Robbins Avenue,Philadelphia, PA 19111.

ASME_V_ART1_2004

ASME_V_ART1_2004

04SUBSECTIONA

NONDESTRUCTIVEMETHODS

OFEXAMINATION

ARTICLE1

GENERALREQUIREMENTS

T-110SCOPE

(a)ThisSectionoftheCodecontainsrequirements

andmethodsfornondestructiveexamination(NDE),

whichareCoderequirementstotheextenttheyarespe-

cificallyreferencedandrequiredbyotherCodeSections

orreferencingdocument.TheseNDEmethodsare

intendedtodetectsurfaceandinternalimperfectionsin

materials,welds,fabricatedparts,andcomponents.They

includeradiographicexamination,ultrasonicexamina-

tion,liquidpenetrantexamination,magneticparticle

examination,eddycurrentexamination,visualexamina-

tion,leaktesting,andacousticemissionexamination.See

NonmandatoryAppendixAofthisArticleforalisting

ofcommonimperfectionsanddamagemechanisms,and

theNDEmethodsthataregenerallycapableof

detectingthem.

(b)ForgeneraltermssuchasInspection,Flaw,Dis-

continuity,Evaluation,etc.,refertoMandatoryAppen-