关于微观经济学作者：黄雅慧一、经济学的三个基础问题社会应该生产什么？应该如何生产？谁来消费所生产的东西？经济学是一个思考问题的架构而非预测未来的水晶球二、“守夜人国家(nightwatchmanstate)”&“看不见的手(invisiblehand)”权衡取舍(trade-offs)——经济取舍具有两面性经济学家关心的是统计受到伤害或帮助的所有人而非个例自利(self-interest)——追求自身利益的同时也频繁促进了社会的利益三、机会成本(opportunitycost)所有成本都是机会成本。
当你做一个选择时，你没有选择的东西就是经济学家所谓的“机会成本”。
真正的成本不是你已经花的钱，而是你放弃的东西。
四、分工分工导致商品与服务的交换规模经济：用来说明大厂相对于小厂可以用较低的平均成本来生产价值链分解(breakingupthevaluechain)：全球贸易趋势五、供给与需求三个市场：商品与服务市场，劳动力市场，资本市场六、商品与服务市场1.仓库管理经济学供给与需求决定仓库中商品的价值在市场经济里，商品的价值就是它价格，劳动价值表现在支付的工资或薪水上对于非经济学家来说，价格是关于个人价值取向的价值承载（“钻石与水的矛盾”）交换价值&使用价值交换价值：商品价格替代效应(商品价格上涨，其他商品替代)&收入效应(商品价格上涨，购买力降低，少买)需求量：某一特定价格下人们想得到该商品的特定数量（点）需求：价格与需求之间的关系，指在任何可能的价格或每种价格下，人们想要该商品数量是多少（线）均衡点：价格与数量是有效率的，没有造成浪费。
如果商品价格高（低）于均衡点，则该商品的供给量（需求量）超出需求量（供给量）价格管制对供需的影响：价格上限(priceceiling产品维持低价于均衡价)造成供不应求；价格下限(pricefloor产品价格维持在均衡点上方)导致供过于求2.弹性需求弹性：需求量变动的百分比除以价格变动的百分比供给弹性：供给量变动的百分比除以价格变动的百分比需求（供给）无弹性的商品，弹性小于1需求（供给）有弹性的商品，弹性大于1需求（供给）单一弹性的商品，弹性等于1商品是否有弹性：商品是否可替代若需求无弹性，提高价格会带来更多营收短期的需求与供给常常是无弹性的，长期而言，则是有弹性的当需求无弹性时，增加的生产成本往往可以转嫁给消费者；当需求有弹性时，增加的成本就会由生产者承担七、劳动力市场1.劳动力的供需与工资在每个人才市场，工资的均衡点是由该市场的劳动力供给量相对于劳动力需求量而决定的经济行为通常指的是所产生的商品或服务在劳动力市场，家庭和个人是供给者，企业是需求者；在商品市场，企业是提供者，家庭和个人是需求者劳动力需求，是工资或薪酬与雇主所需工作数量之间的关系（高工资，少劳工）同商品市场：短期内的劳动力需求通常相当无弹性，但就长期而言，劳需就会有更大的弹性（新兴设备与技术的施行可减少员工人数）使劳动力需求移动的不是工资（点与线的移动）劳需角度:2.最低工资&工会&歧视&福利最低工资原理同价格下限工会的基本功能：找机会通过劳动契约的协商提高会员工资，并以罢工威胁为后盾培养一个更好的、更具生产力的劳动力（学徒制，给予社群感，充当发声筒）八、资本市场1.投资：金融投资(financialinvestment)&实物资本投资(physicalcaptialinvestment)投资可指购买股票与债券等金融工具(指的是在最小风险下追求最大报酬的资金供给者)，也可指企业购买实物资本(physicalcaptial)（指的是把资金转换成有形资产的资金需求者）2.资本供给&资本需求资本供给是家庭的子衿供给量（即家庭储蓄）与它们提供资金所得到的价钱（即报酬率）之间的关系。
管理经济学中英文术语及其解释Ability-to-Pay principle (税收的)能力支付原则the idea that taxes should be levied on a person according to how well that person can shoulder the burdenAbsolute advantage绝对优势the comparison among producers of a good according to their productivityAccounting profit会计利润total revenue minus total explicit costAdverse selection逆向选择the tendency for the mix of unobserved attributes to become undesirable from the standpoint of an uninformed partyAgent代理人 a person who is performing an act for another person, called the principalArrow ‟s impossibility theorem阿罗不可能定理a mathematical result showing that, under certain assumed conditions, there is no scheme for aggregating individual preferences into a valid set of social preferencesAverage fixed cost平均固定成本fixed costs divided by the quantity of outputAverage revenue平均收益total revenue divided by the quantity soldAverage tax rate平均税率total taxes paid divided by total incomeAverage total cost平均总成本total cost divided by the quantity of outputAverage variable cost平均可变成本variable costs divided by the quantity of outputBenefits principle受益原则the idea that people should pay taxes based on the benefits they receive from government servicesBudget constraint预算约束the limit on the consumption bundles that a consumer can afford Budget deficit预算赤字an excess of government spending over government receiptsBudget surplus预算盈余an excess of government receipts over government spending Business cycle经济周期fluctuations in economic activity, such as employment and production Capital资产the equipment and structures used to produce goods and servicesCartel卡特尔a group of firms acting in unisonCircular-flow diagram循环流向图 a visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firmsCoase theorem科斯定理the proposition that if private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources, they can solve the problem of externalities on their ownCollusion共谋an agreement among firms in a market about quantities to produce or prices to chargeCommon resources共源goods that are rival but not excludableComparative advantage比较优势the comparison among producers of a good according to their opportunity costCompensating differential补偿性工资差别 a difference in wages that arises to offset the nonmonetary characteristics of different jobsCompetitive market竞争性市场 a market with many buyers and sellers trading identical products so that each buyer and seller is a price takerComplements互补性商品two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to a decrease in the demand for the otherCondorcet paradox孔多塞悖论（投票悖论）the failure of majority rule to produce transitive preferences for societyConstant returns to scale规模报酬不变the property whereby long-run average total cost staysthe same as the quantity of output changesConsumer surplus消费者剩余 a buyer‟s willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually paysCost成本the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a goodCost-benefit analysis成本收益分析 a study that compares the costs and benefits to society of providing a public goodCross-price elasticity of demand需求的交叉价格弹性 a measure of how much the quantity demanded of one good responds to a change in the price of another good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded of the first good divided by the percentage change in the price of the second goodDeadweight loss无谓损失the fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a taxDemand curve需求曲线 a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demandedDemand schedule需求表 a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demandedDiminishing marginal product边际产品递减the property whereby the marginal product of an input declines．As the quantity of the input increasesDiscrimination歧视the offering of different opportunities to similar individuals who differ only by race, ethnic group, sex, age, or other personal characteristicsDiseconomies of scale规模不经济the property whereby long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increasesDominant strategy占优策略 a strategy that is best for a player in a game regardless of the strategies chosen by the other playersEconomic profit经济利润total revenue minus total cost, including both explicit and implicit costsEconomics经济学the study of how society manages its scarce resourcesEconomies of scale规模经济the property whereby long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increasesEfficiency效率the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources Efficiency wages效率工资above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order to increase worker productivityEfficient scale有效规模the quantity of output that minimizes average total costElasticity弹性 a measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded or quantity supplied to one of its determinantsEquilibrium均衡 a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals quantity demandedEquilibrium price均衡价格the price that balances quantity supplied and quantity demanded Equilibrium quantity均衡数量the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium priceEquity平等the property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of societyExcludability排他性the property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using it Explicit costs显性成本input costs that require an outlay of money by the firmExports出口goods produced domestically and sold abroadExternality外部性the uncompensated impact of one person‟s actions on the wellbeing of a bystanderFactors of production生产要素the inputs used to produce goods and servicesFixed casts固定成本costs that do not vary with the quantity of output producedFree rider免费搭车者 a person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it Game theory博弈论the study of how people behave in strategic situationsGiffen good吉芬商品 a good for which an increase in the price raises the quantity demanded Horizontal equity横向公平the idea that taxpayers with similar abilities to pay taxes should pay the same amountHuman capital人力资本the accumulation of investments in people, such as education andon-the-job trainingImplicit costs隐性成本input costs that do not require an outlay of money by the firmImport quota进口配额 a limit on the quantity of a good that can be produced abroad and sold domesticallyImports进口goods produced abroad and sold domesticallyIncome effect收入效应the change in consumption that results when a price change moves the consumer to a higher or lower indifference curveIncome elasticity of demand需求的收入弹性 a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in consumers‟ income, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in incomeIndifference curve无差异曲线 a curve that shows consumption bundles that give the consumer the same level of satisfactionInferior good低档物品 a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to a decrease in demandInflation通货膨胀an increase in the overall level of prices in the economyIn-kind transfers实物转移支付transfers to the poor given in the form of goods and services rather than cashInternalizing an externality外部性的内在化altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actionsLaw of demand需求定理the claim that, other things equal, the quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good risesLaw of supply and demand需求与供给定理the claim that the price of any good adjusts to bring the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded for that good into balanceLiberalism自由主义the political philosophy according to which the government should choose policies deemed to be just, as evaluated by an impartial observer behind a “veil of ignorance”Libertarianism自由至上主义the political philosophy according to which the government should punish crimes and enforce voluntary agreements but not redistribute incomeLife cycle生命周期the regular pattern of income variation over a person‟s lifeLump-sum tax定额税 a tax that is the same amount for every personMacroeconomics宏观经济学the study of economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growthMarginal changes边际变动small incremental adjustments to a plan of actionMarginal cost边际成本the increase in total cost that arises from an extra unit of production Marginal product边际产品the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input Marginal product of labor劳动的边际产品the increase in the amount of output from an additional unit of laborMarginal rate of substitution边际替代率the rate at which a consumer is willing to trade one good for anotherMarginal revenue边际收益the change in total revenue from an additional unit soldMarginal tax rate边际税率the extra taxes paid on an additional dollar of incomeMarket市场 a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or serviceMarket economy市场经济an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services Market failure市场失灵 a situation in which a market left on its own fails to allocate resources efficientlyMarket power市场势力the ability of a single economic actor (or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence on market pricesMaximin criterion极大极小准则the claim that the government should aim to maximize the well-being of the worst-off person in societyMedian voter theorem中位选举人定理 a mathematical result showing that if voters are choosing a point along a line and each voter wants the point closest to his most preferred point, then majority rule will pick the most preferred point of the median voterMicroeconomics微观经济学the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in marketsMonopolistic competition垄断竞争 a market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identicalMonopoly垄断 a firm that is the sole seller of a product without close substitutesMoral hazard道德风险the tendency of a person who is imperfectly monitored to engage in dishonest or otherwise undesirable behaviorNash equilibrium纳什均衡 a situation in which economic actors interacting with one another each choose their best strategy given the strategies that all the other actors have chosenNatural monopoly自然垄断 a monopoly that arises because a single firm can supply a good or service to an entire market at a smaller cost than could two or more firmsNegative income tax负所得税 a tax system that collects revenue from high-income households and gives transfers to low-income householdsNormal good正常商品 a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demandNormative statements规范性表述claims that attempt to prescribe how the world should be Oligopoly寡头 a market structure in which only a few sellers offer similar or identical productsOpportunity cost机会成本whatever must be given up to obtain some itemPerfect complements完全互补品two goods with right-angle indifference curvesPerfect substitutes完全替代品two goods with straight-line indifference curvesPermanent income持久性收入 a person‟s normal incomePhillips curve菲利普斯曲线 a curve that shows the short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemploymentPigovian tax庇古税 a tax enacted to correct the effects of a negative externalityPositive statements实证表述claims that attempt to describe the world as it isPoverty line贫困线an absolute level of income set by the federal government for each family size below which a family is deemed to be in povertyPoverty rate贫困率the percentage of the population whose family income falls below an absolute level called the …poverty linePrice ceiling价格天花板（上限） a legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold Price discrimination价格歧视the business practice of selling the same good at different prices to different customersPrice elasticity of demand需求的价格弹性 a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in pricePrice elasticity supply供给的价格弹性 a measure of how much the quantity supplied of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in pricePrice floor价格地板I下限） a legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold Principal委托人 a person for whom another person, called the agent, is performing some act Prisoners‟ dilemma囚徒困境 a particular “game” between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficialPrivate goods私人物品goods that are both excludable and rivalProducer surplus生产者剩余the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller‟s cost Production function生产函数the relationship between quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that goodProduction possibilities frontier生产可能性曲线 a graph that shows the combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technologyProductivity生产率the quantity of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker‟s timeProfit利润total revenue minus total costProgressive tax累进税 a tax for which high-income taxpayers pay a larger fraction of their income than do low-income taxpayersProportional tax比例税 a tax for which high-income and low-income taxpayers pay the same fraction of incomePublic goods公共产品goods that are neither excludable nor rivalQuantity demanded需求数量the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase Quantity supplied供给数量the amount of a good that sellers are willing and able to sell Regressive tax累退税 a tax for which high-income taxpayers pay a smaller fraction of their income than do low-income taxpayersRivalry竞争the property of a good whereby one person‟s use diminishes other people‟s use Scarcity稀缺性the limited nature of society‟s resourcesScreening筛选an action taken by an uninformed party to induce an informed party to reveal informationShortage短缺 a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied Signaling信号显示an action taken by an informed party to reveal private information to anuninformed partyStrike罢工the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a unionSubstitutes替代品two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to an increase in the demand for the otherSubstitution effect替代效应the change in consumption that results when a price change moves the consumer along a given indifference curve to a point with a new marginal rate of substitution Sunk cost沉淀成本 a cost that has already been committed and cannot be recoveredSupply curve供给曲线 a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity suppliedSupply schedule供给表 a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity suppliedSurplus过剩 a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demandedTariff关税 a tax on goods produced abroad and sold domesticallyTax incidence税收归宿the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a marketTotal cost总成本the market value of the inputs a firm uses in productionTotal revenue (for a firm)总收益the amount a firm receives for the sale of its outputTotal revenue (in a market)总收益the amount paid by buyers and received by sellers of a good, computed as the price of the good times the quantity soldTragedy of the Commons公共地的悲剧a parable that illustrates why common resources get used more than is desirable from the standpoint of society as a wholeTransaction costs交易成本the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing and following through on a bargainUnion工会 a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and working conditionsUtilitarianism功利主义the political philosophy according to which the government should choose policies to maximize the total utility of everyone in societyUtility效用 a measure of happiness or satisfactionValue of the marginal product边际产品价值the marginal product of an input times the price of the outputVariable costs可变成本costs that vary with the quantity of output producedVertical equity纵向公平the idea that taxpayers with a greater ability to pay taxes should pay larger amountsWelfare福利government programs that supplement the incomes of the needyWelfare economics福利经济学the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-beingWillingness to pay支付意愿the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a goodWorld price世界价格the price of a good that prevails in the world market for that good。
X效率理论从经济学成长的汗青看，到20世纪50、60年代，Samuelson把宏不雅经济学和微不雅经济学综合起来了，开创了新古典综合派。
另一个宏不雅微不雅结合的学派代表是Friedman，他的泉币学派和今后衍生出来的理性预期学派一路坚决了Keynes主义的差不多。
作为回应，Keynes的学生对他的理论进行了修改和引申，称为新Keynes主义。
从微不雅经济学角度来看，理论上新的成长的代表人物有科思和布坎南，他们创建的交易成本/产权理论（新轨制经济学）和公共选择学派，都对新古典经济学构成了挑战。
比较专门的一个学术流派是莱宾斯坦（Harvey Leibenstein）在20世纪60年代创建的X-效力理论，他在1966年揭橥的《一样X-效力理论与经济成长》的论文对传统的新古典经济学提出了挑战。
因此X-效力理论后来受到以交易成本和产权理论为代表的新轨制经济学派的挑战而日渐式微，然则考察X-效力理论照样有专门强的实际意义。
第一节X－效力理论对新古典经济学的挑战要考察X－效力理论对新古典经济学是若何提出挑战的，我们先考察新古典理论的假设有哪些。
一、新古典理论的假定：1.企业与家庭/厂商和居平易近是新古典经济学最全然的研究单位，没有深刻到厂商和家庭内部进行花费和临盆行动的考察，把它们当成“黑箱子”。
2.小我行动是理性的（理性化假设），即“极大年夜化”是经济主体一贯的行动准则。
厂商寻求利润最大年夜化，居平易近寻求效用最大年夜化，然则因为偏好带来的抵触，一样的主体在决定打算时专门难真正做到极大年夜化。
3.企业内部各个主体的目标是一致的，即效用函数一致，不存在抵触不合。
例如，企业内部有股东，董事会，总经理，中层治理人员，和职工，新古典理论假定他们的目标差不多上一致的，这事实上与实际不相符：股东可能纯真寻求投资回报的最大年夜化，董事会一方面照管股东的好处，另一方面要照管职员的好处，而治理人员或者职工可能寻求自身好处的最大年夜化（小我的目标可能也是多样的，比如工资，经历或者技巧，等等），这些都存在抵触。
