华理艺术设计专业英语复习范围.doc

Landscape and Urban Planning(第一本)1、ABSTRACT This paper traces evidence of the influence of the landscape on peopledhealth, from ancient times to the present day, noting how access to nature and attractive green spaces has been a recurring theme in descriptions of therapeutic environments and associated healthy lifestyles. It describes how the theme of health in the picturesque debates of eighteenth century England (including such concepts as "active curiosity5) was taken up and developed in arguments for the nineteenth century urban park movement in England and North America. Recent theories on the mechanisms behind health benefits of nature and access to landscape are compared with claims made in the nineteenth century and earlie匸The importance of access to the landscape appears to be as relevant as ever in the context of modem urban lifestyles but the need for better evidence and understanding remains-2> This paper takes such themes and looks back in history to understand how linksbetween landscape and health have been described, conceptualized and explained in the pas匸The focus is on positive associations between health and landscape, rather than on environmental hazards and pollutants or on negative experiences of wilderness and nature, and it explores the role of the landscape as a salutogenic context, not simply as a therapeutic place for those who are ill.3^ While standards of evidence demanded for public policy and practice today are different from those of previous centuries, people have identified connections between the landscape and health throughout history, and attempted to understand the mechanisms and reasons behind this relationship.4> A recurring characteristic in these descriptions of paradise is the healthful nature of thegarden, supporting human beings in every way, providing delight to every sense. They go beyond descriptions of landscapes that merely provide physical sustenance 一food and water - to places important for all aspects of human wellbeing and that appear to resonate throughout history as an ideal kind of landscape for living.5> What is of particular interest for the themes of this paper, however, is the recognition ofthe restorative and preventative health benefits to be obtained from gardens and the wider landscape for the healthy as well as the sick・6、The therapeutic nature of landscape experience and the basis of responses to thatexperience were themes taken up even more avidly by humanist philosophy and the aesthetic debates of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.7、In the eighteenth century, the arguments tended to focus on the benefits to be obtainedfor the privileged few in society. More recent historical attitudes note how landscape and health are seen as inter-connected issues of concern for all levels of society.8> We see, in the parks movement, less emphasis on the psychological and emotionalbenefits of landscape and more on physical health and prevention of disease as the primary aim of access to parks and green spaces.9 > What is interesting about the arguments put forward by Olmsted and hiscontemporaries for the health benefits of parks is that they bring together the10、11、12、arlier, eighteenth century ideas about mental relief with the more pragmatic lesire to counter disease and physical ill-health.This research not only confirms the nineteenth century belief that access to parks could improve the productivity of workers but also suggests that eighteenth century ideas about the landscape providing for mental curiosity 一the picturesque^ 'active curiosity\ giving "play to the mind, - has a basis in modern psychology ・The relevance of such history for current policy lies in the fact that western countries are facing a health crisis of alarming proportions as physical inactivity, obesity and mental illness increase. Awareness that environment, and landscape in particular, might play a role in enhancing health, and perhaps prevent illness at a fraction of the cost of post hoc medical intervention, has been slow to influence government policy and spending but there are signs that this is changing (Bird, 2004, 2007).Some of the effects of nearby, attractive green space may be simply to encourage people to go outdoors; lack of access to good quality natural environments,13、14、15、outdoors at all, which can contribute to seasonal affective disorder (SAD), limit production of vitamin D through lack of sunlight, disrupt circadian rhythms and lead to insomnia (Czeisler et al., 1986; Lewy et al., 199& Holick, 2004).Throughout history and across cultures, people have considered access to some form of “nature" as a fundamental human need and attractive, green and well-watered landscapes as an essential constituent of the ideal, paradi sal, healthy environment.Writers from the earliest times have recognized that the landscape not only provides for our nutritional needs, it also supports us at every level in our wellbeing. The challenge we face in today's society is that we have often created environments for daily living and working which present more hazards to health than benefits. Global warming and natural environmental catastrophes remind us of the fragility of humankind's engineering and urban constructions at a world scale and we have seen how insensitive development and pollution can create problems which transgress regions or national boundaries. There is, nonetheless, a common thread that runs through centuries of societal development in Europe 一a recurring recognition of the importance of landscape planning and design to provide therapeutic places for people.After a century or so of focus on medical interventions, health professionals and policy makers are once again open to an ecological approach to public health (Morris et al., 2006). They are turning to landscape planners, designers and managers for answers to questions about how to create environments that will encourage healthy lifestyles. But they are also challenging researchers to deliver the highest standards of evidence achievable in our complex world of human/environment interactions.Today we need research that addresses 21st century demands and standards of evidence for policy and practice, so as to understand better how to take the health implications of landscape architecture seriously-Transforming shape in design 第二咅［J分1、This paper is concerned with how design shapes are generated and explored by meansof sketching. It presents research into the way designers transform shapes from one state to another using sketch representations. An experimental investigation of the sketching processes of designers is presented. Connections between sketches are defined in terms of shape transformations and described according to shape rules.These rules provide a formal description of the shape exploration process and develop understanding of the mechanics sketching in design. The paper concludes by discussing the important phenomenon of 'sub-shape9 and suggests that a computational mechanism for detecting sub-shapes in design sketches might augment explorative sketching by providing important opportunities for manipulating and generating shape in design.2^ In creative design, free-hand sketches are frequently used to record ideas for later use and to rapidly explore design alternatives. A key benefit of sketching, in fields such as product design and architectural design, is that it assists designers in the development of various characteristics of design ideas such as form and shape in a low-cost, fast and flexible way.3^ The challenge of developing computational tools to support sketching in the early stages of design has produced significant interest in the design research community. 4、This paper primarily outlines an experimental investigation into the sketching ofarchitects and industrial designers. The investigation was particularly concerned with the developing form of design concepts, and the shape transformations that led to this development.5、Sketching is a common activity in a range of design disciplines. Although the stylesof sketches may differ between different disciplines, the role that sketching plays is broadly similar in the creation, development, evaluation, communication and sharing of ideas.6> This interactive process leads to the generation of a range of related sketches where, toa greater or lesser extent, each design concept is related to other concepts that weregenerated within the same exploratory process.7、Over the years, there has been much research in developing computational systems canbe used successfully to symbolically recognize meaning in sketched shapes, and if the context is known then such systems can be used successfully to symbolically recognize specific design elements.8> While the source of these similarities might be hard to identify, the existence of thesimilarities suggests that the process of developing designs might trace logical paths form an original ideas to a final design.9> Shape transformations in sketches have been studies as a way of understanding a designprocess. Goel, for example identified lateral and vertical transformations in sketches.Lateral transformations convert one idea into a different idea, while verticaltransformations manipulate one idea into a version of the same idea.10、To develop the discussion it is useful to consider more formal procedures of transformation in design; to introduce the notions of shape rules and shape grammars andparticularly to establish the phenomenon of sub-shapes.11、Cleary any pictorial representation of a design，such as sketches, can be formallyrepresented as a shape, and any design elements that can be perceived to be a feature of the design can be formally represented as sub-shapes.12> Shape grammars are defined according to sets of rules, and an initial shape to whichthese rules can be successively applied・They have been used as a means for analyzing designs in professions such as architecture and product design.13> In order to formally describe shape transformations in sketches in a way that reflectsthe path followed by the designer more information is required than can be provided by merely viewing the sketches.14> The experiment consisted of a series of design tasks that involved sketching. Eightprofessional industrial designers, four professional architects and two researchers in the field of architecture participated in this study. All participants had more than 3 years of professional experience in their respective disciplines.15> In both tasks participants were told that their first sketches should be a copy of thegiven staring concept as a common reference point and after that they were free to explore their own variations of the design concept.16> While sketching, designers made use of an A4 paper-based digital notepad this gavethe dual advantage of resembling a traditional pencil-and-paper environment whilst facilitating the recording of pen stokes via screen capture software・17 Participants produced a total of just under 300 sketches and these were categorized bytasks for each participant. In our analysis the sketches were analyzed as abstract shapes, without regard to function or meaning.18、D uring analysis, the sketches were first ordered according to the sequence in whichthey were produced and then clustered for each individual designer into design families 一groups of designs that represent variations of the same idea.19、E ach individual sketch is also labeled with a letter and a numbe匚The lettersidentify which design families sketches belong to and the numbers indicate the number in the sequence in which the sketches were produced.20、O nce the sketches were aiTanged and clustered into design families, shapetransformations between subsequent sketches were identified and described in the form of shape rules.21 > In order to develop a higher-level understanding of the shape transformationsrepresented in these specific rules, they were grouped into general shape rule types and rule schemas.22> While the general rules presented here may be sufficient to capture the shapetransformations of these particular participants the set of rules is not assumed to be complete,23> Structure transformations are mainly used to explore different spatial relationsbetween elements. Because Structure transformations tend to affect the layout of a design they are more likely to lead to radical changes than Outline transformations. 24> A shape transformation is regarded as Substitute element only if the added shape is new, meaning that it has not been achieved through any other type of transformationdescribed in the presented list.25> A transformation is regarded as Add element when a sketch displays an elementthat is not present in the preceding sketch in the sequence.26> In contrast to the other types of transformation in the list Change view does notrepresent a shape transformation of the design.27> In general, design families can be identified by asking participants to describe theconnections between sketches. At this stage of the analysis, the contribution of the participant is essential to avoid superficial and erroneous grouping of design based solely on researchers? perception.28> In contrast to design families, shape transformations were more challenging to identifybecause during the interview process participants felt more comfortable describing the connections between sketches and interpretation of their drawing than describing in detail the shape transformations they applied between their sketches. Instead thetransformations identified were largely based on the interpretation of the researchers who were conducting the analysis. As a result, there is significant subjectivity in the transformations used to formalize the sketching processes of the participants. In order to examine the degree of this subjectivity two additional researchers were asked to analyze the transformations within five design families. Each researcher described the transformations of 40 sketch transformations and their results were then compared with the original analysis of the sketches.29> This study has shown that given a limited number of shape rules it is possible toexplicitly describe shape transformations between successive sketches- Shape rules offer a means to capture information not embedded in sketches which might be useful for the recording, reflection, and reuse of previous ideas.30、If such mechanisms could be realized it could also be possible to develop a moreindependent system that scrutinizes designers，freehand drawing, seeking to offer potentially valuable transformations-31 > In order to develop such mechanisms it is necessary to consider not only the technicalissues of recognizing and manipulating perceived structures in a design but also the modes in which they could be implemented in a computational system intended to support design exploration.32> Our future research plans are to involve designers in the process of describing theirshape transformations with rules, and investigate potential benefits of computational systems that support explorative process through generation of design networks.。