Language is a system of arbitrary,vocal symbols used for human communication. Impoilant f eatures that are typical of the nature of human language: Language is systematic/symbolic/arbitrary/primarily vocal/human specific/used for communication Linguistics is generally defined as the systematic study of language・
General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language・Metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use. Metafunctions of language: ideational/interpersonal/textual function
Seven general functions of language: physiological/phatic/recording/identifying/reasoning/communicatin/pleasure function Sounds arc units which combine to make words or parts of words.
Signs,three major types:Icon(We say a sign is an icon when an object and its sign are related to each other by a physical resemblance. eg. a photo that is taken of a video cassette) Indcx(A sign is called an index when an object and its sign are associated to each other by physical proximity.eg. in the case of thunder and lighting, thunder is an index.)Symbol(If a sign and the object it signifies are associated by social convention, the sign is called a symbol.eg, traffic lights, wedding rings, national flags.)
The origin of language: creation, evolution, invention Language families: Genetic Classification, Typological Classification Some important distinctions in linguistics: langue and parole, prescriptive and descriptive, synchronic and diachronic, speech and writing, syntagmatic and paradigmatic, competence and performance, functionalism and formalism
The diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language・
The synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.
Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative tcrms(foot as opposed to feet). Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences・
Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract fornial relations. Performance refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors・
Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds・Phonology is the study of sound patterning・Semantics is the study of meanin g・use of linguistics: pragmatics, anthropological lingustics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics, applied linguistics, computational linguistics
All vowels are voiced, as are the following consonants: d，b，g，q,、，
six plosives: p,b,t,d,k, g three nasals: m,n, rj eight fricatives: f,v，0, 6，s,z，J, 3
Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. However, vowels are more difficult than consonants to describe articulatorily・ According to Sloat et al (1978:10-11), the primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: (1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth and (2) the retraction and extension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips. 分类：1 分为close/ open / low/ high vowels
2 分为vowels with tongue retraction are called back vowels /Vbwels made with the tongue body extended to toward the front of the oral cavity are called front vowels
另一种分类：
Vowels may be subdivided into monophthongs and diphthongs. 单元音和双元音
2.1.3 Characteristics of English Speech Sounds
元咅和4甫咅：Like other languages, English has both vowels and consonants. As we have discussed, vowels are produced by shaping the oral cavity through which air from the lungs is allowed to flow more or less freely. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
English has many vowel sounds・ According to Roach (1991)，there arc seven short vowels、five long vowels，eight diphthongs and five triphtho ngs.
eia, ais, oia, sua, aua
Consonants arc usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have twenty-four consonants・
音标2.1.4 The Transcription of Sounds
音标字母：A phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the fonn of segments, or individual speech sounds like [p], [s] or [m]. 标音
