《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答

1 《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答

Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics

1.1. What is language?

“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a

system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly.

Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like

“book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different

languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in

Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects,

actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal

forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the

primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came

much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to

speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily

vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that

language is human specific.

1.2. What are design features of language?

“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the

difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are

arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and

interchangeability

1.3. What is arbitrariness?

By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds

(see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for

a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be

some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”,

which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded

to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or

unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than

the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.

1.4. What is duality?

Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated,

one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is

analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.);

at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in

themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al.

(p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of

meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units

(words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite

number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of

sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his

knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this

honor.

1.5. What is productivity? 2 Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely

large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard

before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A

red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say

it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic

creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called

“rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).

1.6. What is displacement?

“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact

that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In

other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of

the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to

a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is

occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it

is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow

wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless,

has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.