外文翻译

五分钟搞定5000字－外文文献翻译工具大全 /node/2151在科研过程中阅读翻译外文文献是一个非常重要的环节，许多领域高水平的文献都是外文文献，借鉴一些外文文献翻译的经验是非常必要的。

由于特殊原因我翻译外文文献的机会比较多，慢慢地就发现了外文文献翻译过程中的三大利器：Google“翻译”频道、金山词霸（完整版本）和CNKI“翻译助手"。

具体操作过程如下：1.先打开金山词霸自动取词功能，然后阅读文献；2.遇到无法理解的长句时，可以交给Google处理，处理后的结果猛一看，不堪入目，可是经过大脑的再处理后句子的意思基本就明了了；3.如果通过Google仍然无法理解，感觉就是不同，那肯定是对其中某个“常用单词”理解有误，因为某些单词看似很简单，但是在文献中有特殊的意思，这时就可以通过CNKI的“翻译助手”来查询相关单词的意思，由于CNKI的单词意思都是来源与大量的文献，所以它的吻合率很高。

另外，在翻译过程中最好以“段落”或者“长句”作为翻译的基本单位，这样才不会造成“只见树木，不见森林”的误导。

注：1、Google翻译：/language_toolsgoogle，众所周知，谷歌里面的英文文献和资料还算是比较详实的。

我利用它是这样的。

一方面可以用它查询英文论文，当然这方面的帖子很多，大家可以搜索，在此不赘述。

回到我自己说的翻译上来。

下面给大家举个例子来说明如何用吧比如说“电磁感应透明效应”这个词汇你不知道他怎么翻译，首先你可以在CNKI里查中文的，根据它们的关键词中英文对照来做，一般比较准确。

在此主要是说在google里怎么知道这个翻译意思。

大家应该都有词典吧，按中国人的办法，把一个一个词分着查出来，敲到google里，你的这种翻译一般不太准，当然你需要验证是否准确了，这下看着吧，把你的那支离破碎的翻译在google里搜索，你能看到许多相关的文献或资料，大家都不是笨蛋，看看，也就能找到最精确的翻译了，纯西式的！我就是这么用的。

引言概述：在现代高等教育中，毕业设计（或称为毕业论文、学士论文等）是学生完成学业的重要环节。

而对于一些特定的专业，例如翻译专业，有时候还需要完成外文翻译这一项任务。

本文将探讨毕设外文翻译的意义和目的，以及为什么对翻译专业的学生而言这一任务极其重要。

正文内容：1.提高翻译能力和技巧外文翻译是一项对翻译专业学生而言十分重要的任务，通过进行外文翻译，学生们可以通过实践提高自己的翻译能力和技巧。

在这个过程中，他们可以学习如何处理不同类型的外文文本，熟悉不同领域的专业术语，并掌握一些常用的翻译技巧和策略。

2.扩展语言和文化知识毕设外文翻译要求学生们对翻译语言的相关知识和背景有一定的了解。

在进行翻译时，学生们需要遵循目标语言的语法规则，并确保所翻译的内容准确、清晰地传达源语言的意义。

通过这一过程，学生们可以进一步扩展自己的语言和文化知识，提高自己的跨文化沟通能力。

3.提供实践机会毕设外文翻译为学生们提供了一个实践的机会，让他们能够将在课堂上所学到的理论知识应用于实际操作中。

通过实践，学生们可以对所学知识的理解更加深入，同时也可以发现并解决实际翻译过程中的问题和挑战。

这对于学生们将来从事翻译工作时具备更好的实践能力和经验具有重要意义。

4.培养翻译专业素养毕设外文翻译要求学生们具备良好的翻译专业素养。

在进行翻译过程中，学生们需要保持专业的态度和责任心，严谨地对待每一个翻译任务。

他们需要学会如何进行翻译质量的评估和控制，以确保最终翻译稿的准确性和流畅性。

这一系列的要求和实践，可以帮助学生们培养出色的翻译专业素养。

5.提升自我学习和研究能力毕设外文翻译要求学生们进行广泛的文献阅读和研究，以便更好地理解所翻译的内容，并找到适当的翻译方法和策略。

在这个过程中，学生们需要培养自己的自主学习和研究能力，提高对学术和专业领域的敏感性，并能够独立思考和解决问题。

这将对学生们未来的学术研究和进一步的职业发展产生积极的影响。

总结：引言概述:毕业设计外文翻译（Thesis Translation）是指在毕业设计过程中，对相关外文文献进行翻译，并将其应用于研究中，以提供理论支持和参考。

Strengths优势All these private sector banks hold strong position on CRM part, they have professional, dedicated and well-trained employees.所以这些私人银行在客户管理部分都持支持态度，他们拥有专业的、细致的、训练有素的员工。

Private sector banks offer a wide range of banking and financial products and financial services to corporate and retail customers through a variety of delivery channels such as ATMs, Internet-banking, mobile-banking, etc. 私有银行通过许多传递通道（如自动取款机、网上银行、手机银行等）提供大范围的银行和金融产品、金融服务进行合作并向客户零售。

The area could be Investment management banking, life and non-life insurance, venture capital and asset management, retail loans such as home loans, personal loans, educational loans, car loans, consumer durable loans, credit cards, etc. 涉及的领域包括投资管理银行、生命和非生命保险、风险投资与资产管理、零售贷款（如家庭贷款、个人贷款、教育贷款、汽车贷款、耐用消费品贷款、信用卡等）。

Private sector banks focus on customization of products that are designed to meet the specific needs of customers. 私人银行主要致力于为一些特殊需求的客户进行设计和产品定制。

In traditional supply chain inventory management, orders are the only information firms exchange, but information technology now allows firms to share demand and inventory data quickly and inexpensively. We study the value of sharing these data in a model with one supplier, N identical retailers, and stationary stochastic consumer demand. There are inventory holding costs and back-order penalty costs. We compare a traditional information policy that does not use shared information with a full information policy that does exploit shared information. In a numerical study we find that supply chain costs are 2.2% lower on averagewith the full information policy than with the traditional information policy, and themaximum difference is 12.1%. We also develop a simulation-based lower bound over all feasible policies. The cost difference between the traditional information policy and the lower bound is an upper bound on the value of information sharing: In the same study, that difference is 3.4% on average, and no more than 13.8%. We contrast the value of information sharing with two other benefits of information technology, faster and cheaper order processing, which lead to shorter lead times and smaller batch sizes, respectively. In our sample, cutting lead times nearly in half reduces costs by 21% on average, and cutting batchesin half reduces costs by 22% on average. For the settings we study, we conclude that implementing information technology to accelerate and smooth the physical flow of goods through a supply chain is significantly more valuable than using information technology to expand the flow of information.Inventory management is a commercial enterprise management of the core areas, Enterprises can also achieve an effective key, if we can achieve from the purchase of stock,Sales then the entire flow of goods and capital flow situation for the unified management and reasonable production, timely sales and inventory is the smallest. reduce the backlog of material, then the business will achieve the best results.1.sessionIn my experience, session word is probably second only to the extent of the abuse of transaction, even more interesting is the transaction and the session in the context of the meaning of some of the same.session, the Chinese often translated into the session, its original meaning refers to the beginnings and ends of a series of action / information, such as a phone call from the dial to pick up the phone to hang up the middle of the process can be described as a series of session. Sometimes we can see that the case "during the session in a browser session ,...", term used here is its original meaning, is open from a browser window to close the period of ①. The most confusing is the "user (client) during the first session," the words, it may refer to a series of user actions (generally with a specific purpose related to a series of actions, such as log on to buy goods from to sign out such an online shopping checkout process, sometimes also called a transaction), but sometimes may be just that a connection could also be that the meaning of ①, the difference can only be inferred by context ②.However, when the term session is associated with the network protocol when it often implies a "connection-oriented" and / or "on hold" so the two meanings, "connection-oriented" refers to both the communication in the communication prior to first establish a communication channel, such as phone calls, until the other party answered the phone communication can begin, and this is the opposite of writing, before you sent the letter, the time you and can not confirm the other side of the address is correct, communication channels Buyi Ding can be established,but the sender, the communication has already begun. "Keep state" means the communication party is able to associate a series of messages, making messages between each other depends, for example, a waiter can recognize old customers come back and remember the last time the customer still owes a store, dollar . Examples of this type, "a TCP session" or "a POP3 session"③.And to the web server flourishing, session in the context of semantic web development has a new expansion, its meaning is mean to the client and server to maintain state between the solution ④. Session is also sometimes used to refer to such solutions, storage structures, such "stored in the session to xxx where" ⑤. For various 用于web development languages are available to some extent on the support of such a solution, so in the context of a particular language 下, session also used to denote a solution on behalf of the language, such as regular Java in the provision of javax.servlet.http.HttpSession referred to as the session ⑥.In view of this confusion has been changed, in this article use the term session will have different meanings depending on the context, drew attention to the resolution.In this article, the use of Chinese "during the browser session," to convey the meaning of ①, use "session mechanism" to convey the meaning ④, use the "session" expression meaning ⑤, use specific "HttpSession" to convey the meaning ⑥Second, HTTP protocol and the state to maintainHTTP protocol itself is stateless, HTTP protocol which is consistent with the original purpose of the client only needs a simple request to download some file server, either the client or the server not have been necessary records of past behavior to each other, and each time between the request are independent, like a customer and a vending machine or an ordinary (non-membership) as the relationship between supermarkets.However, smart (or greedy?) People soon discovered that if they can provide on-demand generation of dynamic web information will become more useful, like a cable TV with on-demand the same function. This demand on the one hand to force gradually add HTML form, script, DOM and other client-side behavior, on the other hand there is the server-side CGI practices to respond to client-side dynamic request, the HTTP protocol as the transport carrier also added a file upload , cookie these characteristics. The role which cookie is to solve the stateless HTTP protocol efforts defects. As for the subsequent emergence of the session mechanism is yet another in between the client and the server state solution.Let us use some examples to describe the session cookie and the differences and similarities between the mechanisms. I once frequented a coffee shop with free gifts to drink five cups of coffee offers a cup of coffee, but a one-time consumption of five cups of coffee is remote, then need a way to record a customer's consumption. Imagine that in fact nothing less than the following several options:1, the store's staff is very powerful, able to remember each customer's consumption, as long as customers entered the cafe, shop assistants know how to deal with the. This approach is the agreement itself to support the state.2, issue customers a card recording the number of consumers in general have a validity period. Each consumer, if this card is produced, then the consumer will be with the consumer before or after linking up. This approach is maintained in the client state.3, a membership card issued to customers, in addition to any information outside the card number is not recorded, each consumer, if the card is produced, then the records clerk in the store to find the card number corresponds to the record to add some consumer information. Thisapproach is maintained in the server-side state.As the HTTP protocol is stateless, but due to various considerations do not want to become a state, therefore, the last two programs has become a realistic option. Specifically cookie mechanism is used to maintain state of the client program, which uses a session mechanism to maintain state in the server-side program. We also see that, thanks to server-side maintain state of the program in customer client but also Xuyaobaocun a logo, so mechanisms may need the help of session cookie mechanism to identify the purpose of Da Dao saved, it actually alternatives are available.Third, the cookie mechanismThe basic principle cookie mechanism as simple as the above example, but there are several issues to resolve: "membership card" how to distribute; "membership card" of the content; and customers how to use the "Member Card."Orthodox cookie distribution is by extending the HTTP protocol to achieve, and the server through the HTTP response header with a line of special instructions to prompt the browser in accordance with the instructions generates the corresponding cookie. But pure client-side scripting such as JavaScript or VBScript can also generate the cookie.The cookie used by the browser in the background according to certain principles automatically sent to the server. Check all stored browser cookie, if a cookie is greater than or equal scope statement will be the location of the requested resources, put the resources of the HTTP request cookie attached to the head sent the request to the server. Means that McDonald's membership card can only be produced in the McDonald's store, if a store has also issued its own membership card, then enter the store when the addition to produce McDonald's membership card, but also to produce a member of the store card.cookie's contents include: name, values, expiration time, path and domain.You can specify a domain in which a domain such as. , the equivalent of main store signs, such as Procter & Gamble, you can also specify a specific domain of a machine under such or , can float Flexibility to do than.Path is the name behind the URL with the path, such as / or / foo, etc., can do more than a counter Rejoice.Path together with the domain constitutes a cookie's scope. If you do not set the expiration time, then the lifetime of this cookie to the browser during the session, simply close the browser window, cookie disappears. This period of life of the cookie browser session is called session cookie. Session cookie is generally not stored on the hard disk but kept in memory, of course, provided that it is not standardized. If you set the expiration time, the browser the cookie will be saved to the hard disk, open again after closing the browser, the cookie is still valid until the expiration time exceeds a set.Stored in a cookie on your hard disk in a different browser, shared between processes, such as the two IE windows. And stored in memory for the cookie, different browsers have different approaches. For IE, open windows in a press Ctrl-N (or from the File menu) to open the window can be shared with the original window while using other means to open the IE process will not have to open the windows shared memory cookie; for Mozilla Firefox0.8, all of the process and can share the same tab the cookie. In general is the window.open javascript window will open with the original windows shared memory cookie. Browser, this cookie for the session cookiedoes not believe that people only recognize the approach to the use of the regular session of web application development mechanism causing great distress.Here is a goolge set cookie response header exampleHTTP/1.1 302 FoundLocation: /intl/zh-CN/Set-Cookie: PREF = ID = 0565f77e132de138: NW = 1: TM = 1098082649: LM = 1098082649: S = KaeaCFPo49RiA_d8; expires = Sun, 17-Jan-2038 19:14:07 GMT; path = /; domain =. google . comContent-Type: text / htmlThis is the use of HTTPLook the HTTP Sniffer HTTP communications software to capture the part of the recordGoolge browser to access the resources again, automatically send out cookieUse Firefox can easily observe the current value of cookieUse HTTPLook with Firefox cookie can easily understand the working principle.IE can be set to ask before accepting cookieThis is a dialog box asking to accept cookie.Fourth, understand the session mechanismmechanism is a server-side session mechanism, the server uses a hash table is similar to the structure (and probably is to use a hash table) to save the information.When the program needs for a client's request to create a session when the server first checks the client's request is included in a session ID - known as the session id, if the description contains a session id for this client previously Create over session, the server in accordance with the session id to retrieve the session out of the use (if not retrieved, may be the new one), if the client request does not include session id, then create a session for this client and generate a session with this associated with the session id, session id value should be a not only will not repeat, not easy to find the law to copy the string, the session id to be returned in this response to the client saved.Save the session id of the ways to use cookie, so the interaction of the browser can automatically identify this play by the rules to the server. The name of this cookie are generally similar to SEEESIONID, and. For example, web applications weblogic generated cookie, JSESSIONID = ByOK3vjFD75aPnrF7C2HmdnV6QZcEbzWoWiBYEnLerjQ99zWpBng! -145788764, Its name is JSESSIONID.As the cookie can be artificially prohibited, there must be other mechanisms to be banned in the cookie when the session id still be able to pass back to the server. Often use a technique called URL rewriting, the session id is attached to the URL path directly behind, there are two additional ways, one is the URL path as additional information, showing the form of http:// ... .. / xxx; jsessionid = ByOK3vjFD75aPnrF7C2HmdnV6QZcEbzWoWiBYEnLerjQ99zWpBng! -145788764 The other is as a URL query string appended to the back, showing the form of http://.. (xxx)jsessionid=ByOK3vjFD75aPnrF7C2HmdnV6QZcEbzWoWiBYEnLerjQ99zWpBng!-145788764Both ways is no different for users, and only a server parsing the time to deal with the different ways, using the first ways are conducive to turning one kind of session id's information and to distinguish normal program parameters.Wei Liao Zai the interaction always maintain state, we must each client may request a path to the rear of containing this session id.Another technique known as hidden form fields. Is that the server will automatically modify the form, add a hidden field, so when the form is submitted to the session id passed back to the server. Example, the following form<form name="testform" action="/xxx"><input type="text"></ Form>Being passed to client will be rewritten before<form name="testform" action="/xxx"><input type="hidden" name="jsessionid"value="ByOK3vjFD75aPnrF7C2HmdnV6QZcEbzWoWiBYEnLerjQ99zWpBng!-145788764"><input type="text"></ Form>Application of this technology is now less, I contacted the very old iPlanet6 (SunONE Application Server's predecessor) on the use of this technology.In fact this technology can simply apply to the action URL rewriting instead.When talking about the session mechanism, often heard of such a misunderstanding, "as long as the browser is closed, session disappears." In fact, imagine the example card, unless the customer to make sales on the store card, otherwise the store would not easily remove the customer information. This is also true of the session, unless the procedure to inform the server to delete a session, otherwise the server will remain on the program are generally done in the user log off when the send a command to delete the session. However, the browser will never take the initiative to notify the server will be shut off, so the server will not have the opportunity to know the browser has been the reason why there is such a misconception, the majority of session mechanism to use a session cookie to store the session id and close your browser the session id is gone, once again connect to the server will not be able to find when the original session. If the server cookie settings are saved to the hard disk, or use some means to rewrite the browser's HTTP request header sent to the original session id sent to the server, then re-open the browser can still find the original session.It is precisely because of the closure does not cause the browser session is deleted, forcing server seesion set up a failure time, as the distance between the first use of the client session for more than the failure time, the server that the client has ceased its activities, the session will be deleted to save storage space.5, javax.servlet.http.HttpSessionHttpSession session mechanism is the Java platform implementation of norms, because it isonly the interface, specific to each web application server providers, in addition to standard support, there will still be no requirement of some norms in the nuances. Here we are with BEA's Weblogic Server8.1 as an example to demonstrate.First of all, Weblogic Server provides a set of parameters to control its HttpSession implementation, including the use of cookie switch option to use URL rewriting switches, session persistence settings, session failure time setting, as well as for the cookie a variety of settings, such as set cookie name, path, domain, cookie survival time.In general, session are stored in memory, when the process is stopped, or restart the server when the memory of the session will also be empty, if you set the session persistence feature, the server will save the session to your hard drive When the server process restart or the information can be used again, Weblogic Server supports sustainable manner including documents, databases, client-side cookie preservation and reproduction.Strictly speaking not a persistent copy saved, because the session is actually stored in memory, but the same information is replicated to each server process within the cluster, so even if a server process to stop working and still available from other processes obtain session.cookie settings will affect the survival time of the browser generates a session cookie is a cookie. The default is to use a session cookie. Interested can use it to test us in the fourth quarter, as mentioned in the misunderstanding.cookie path for the web application is a very important option, Weblogic Server on the default handling of this option makes it significantly different from other servers. We will discuss the topic later.Settings on the session reference [5] /wls/docs70/webapp/weblogic_xml.html # 10368696, HttpSession Frequently Asked Questions (In this section the implications for the session mixed ⑤and ⑥)1, session is created whenA common misconception is that the session in a client visit, was created, but the fact is that until a server-side program called HttpServletRequest.getSession (true) when such a statement is created, note that if the JSP does not appear to use <% @ page session = "false"%> closed session, the JSP file will be automatically compiled into a Servlet when the inclusion of such a statement HttpSession session = HttpServletRequest.getSession (true); This is also implied in JSP session object origin.As the session will consume memory resources, so if you do not intend to use the session, all the JSP should be turned off it.2, session is deleted whenComprehensive discussions earlier, session is deleted in the following cases a. program calls HttpSession.invalidate (); or b. from the last time before the client sends the session id than the interval session timeout settings; or c. server process is stopped (non-persistent session)3, how to do delete the browser closed session。

Transformative green marketing:Impediments and opportunitiesMichael Jay Polonsky ⁎School of Management and Marketing,Deakin University,70Elgar Road,Burwood VIC 3125,Australiaa b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Accepted 22January 2011Available online 18February 2011Keywords:Green marketingMarketing and society Sustainability Systems thinkingTransformative marketingGreen marketing is not achieving its potential for improving the quality of life of consumers,while improving the natural ecosystem.The failure is the result of the inability of consumers,firms and governments to adopt systems thinking,in which macro-marketing perspectives are integrated into their respective micro-decisions,that is,the anthropocentric view of the natural world is disregarded.The paper discusses why the three groups above have had dif ficulties in embracing environmental issues,thus impeding real transformative green marketing from occurring.To address the dif ficulties three proposed actions need to be undertaken:(1)Marketers need to look for new ways of calculating and communicating value that integrates environmental value,thereby moving away from financial measures which have no real environmental meaning.(2)Change the discourse regarding the environment,highlighting the importance of action and inaction,which needs to be based on increased education about the human –environment interface.(3)Marketing needs to refocus its emphasis on want satisfaction,shifting away from the acquisition of goods,thereby enhancing how marketers create value.Making these changes will allow marketers to operationalize transformative green marketing so the human condition and the natural system that humans operate within are both improved and bring about transformative green marketing.©2011Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionMarketing academics'and practitioners'interest in how environmental issues impact marketing activities continue to grow (Chamorro et al.,2009),but is certainly not new (Fisk,1974;Henion and Kinnear,1976).A range of marketing contexts examines the interface between the natural environment and;consumer behavior (i.e.,Diamantopoulos et al.,2003),marketing strategy (i.e.,Menon and Menon,1997),public policy initiatives (i.e.,Press and Arnould,2009)and macromarketing (i.e.,Kilbourne and Carlson,2008).Fisk (1974)suggests marketing is at least partly to blame for most of the world's environmental ills that often arise from consumption and over-consumption.Other authors suggest that marketing can assist in addressing environmental and other social problems (Sheth and Sisodia,2006).Unfortunately,much of the existing research fails to embed environmental issues as a core tenet of marketing thinking.Thus,marketing strategists often incorporate environmental considerations as an extra feature to be leveraged for competitive advantage (Ginsberg and Bloom,2004),rather than using the environment to shape strategy-improving market conditions and social welfare.Scholars de fine green marketing using a range of terms (e.g.,green marketing,ecological marketing,environmental marketing,and even responsible marketing).These de finitions have a common focus on theexchange process (i.e.,choices and decisions),with a proviso that exchange considers and minimizes environmental harm (where all parities are assumed to be aware of all potential environmental harm).Whether or not these de finitions (and associated practices)seek to improve the quality of life of the world's citizens,or improve the natural environment,remains unclear.An effective de finition of green marketing,therefore,must integrate transformative change that creates value for individuals and society,as well as for the natural environment (i.e.,environmental restoration and improvement).Thus,transforma-tive green marketing is very different from a marketing perspective that focuses on not producing societal harm,as,at present,most marketers focus on meeting human needs rather than enhancing mankind's quality of life and improving the natural environment.Marketers and society rely on nature and natural resources;nature does not rely on humanity,even though society can negatively impact on it.Therefore,mankind (and,thus,marketing)and the natural environment are interdependent.While some might debate the extent of mankind's contribution to environmental problems,if the doomsayers are correct,failure to act in the medium term will result in the inability of the ecosystem to support present day consumption,potentially eliminating marketing as presently practiced (and possibly mankind).Therefore,it is surprising that the practice of marketing (and business strategy more generally)does not explicitly integrate and address environmental issues and how they impact society (Smart,2010).In the not-so-distant past,businesses were quick to respond to less signi ficant marketing-related problems.For example,firms,consumers and governments reportedly spent hundreds of billions,if not trillions,of dollars dealing with theJournal of Business Research 64(2011)1311–1319⁎Tel.:+61392446968,+61392517083(International).E-mail address:Michael.Polonsky@.au.0148-2963/$–see front matter ©2011Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.01.016Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of Business Researchmillennium bug,or Y2K problem,as programmers feared that at 12.01AM on January12000,computers would incorrectly believe the year was1900which would cause systems to crash.The process of greening marketing seems to be viewed with significantly less urgency on the part of most consumers,organizations and governments,even though the potential costs of inaction are much more serious and pervasive(Smart,2010;Varey,2010).Whether or not the marketing discipline(both academics and practitioners)truly understands and embraces the profound significance of environmental issues remains unclear.A number of marketing academics call for a change in thinking about marketing,in which transformative green marketing would be included. For example,early in the discipline's history Kotler and Levy(1969) suggested that there needs to be a broadening of the marketing concept. More recently,others are questioning whether marketing needs to be reformed(Sheth and Sisodia,2006).In the consumer behaviorfield, there is growing chorus of transformative consumer researchers(TCR) calling for marketing to make a positive social impact(Mick et al., forthcoming).The integration of environmental issues into marketing would extend the TCR view.For example,the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing has a forthcoming special issue focusing on TCR,and the Journal of Macromarketing recently published a special issue on sustainability,examining how marketing can assist in addressing the environmental ills faced today(Kilbourne,2010).Transformative green marketing extends this perspective incorporating environmental issues into core marketing activity,in the same way mankind is part of the natural system and not separated from the natural environment(Fisk, 1974;Smart,2010).2.The core problem:micronization of environmental issuesThe natural environment is a complex,all-encompassing system that integrates the atmosphere(air),geosphere(land),hydrosphere(water) and biosphere(all living species)(Neace,1995).Marketers understand the importance of business systems and use systems and network thinking extensively to address exchange issues,particularly in the business-to-business context(e.g.,Håkansson et al.,2009).Marketers, however,frequently ignore such broader system approaches to understand or integrate the natural environment into strategy formulation.The consideration of marketing's impact on the natural environment is often classified as macro-marketing,that is,how micro-marketing impacts society,society's influence on the broader macro-system and how systems interact(Fisk,1982).Unfortunately,academics and practitioners sometimes perceive a disconnection exists between macro-marketing and micro-marketing,which lies at the core of green marketing's inability to become transformational.The traditional micro-formation of marketing(Sheth et al.,1988)cannot easily capture environmental issues because classical micro-economics suggests that consumers(or individuals more generally)seek to maximize their own welfare(Russell and Russell,2010).Potentially,the welfare of society and the natural world is excluded unless they are embedded in individuals'values,that is,people integrate environmental issues in their decision-making because the environment is important to them. As will be described below,this perspective assumes that mankind controls their environment,which is clearly not the case.The fact that sustainability and environmental issues are generally macro-focused is at the core of the dilemma that transformational green marketing faces(van Dam and Apeldoorn,1996).How do marketers and society encourage micro-focused individuals and organizations to integrate broader macro issues and systems into their individual thinking?One might argue that this disconnection is one of the reasons why governments are forced to regulate activities to prevent distortions in the market from being exploited(Harris and Carman,1984).The lack of a macro-focus may also be why social marketers need to encourage consumers to change their behavior to create fewer negative personal impacts(Rothschild,1999),as short-term self-interest appears to outweigh the longer term benefits.For example,the classic tragedy of the commons suggests that because no-one owns the shared communal space(i.e.,the commons)no individual has an incentive to protect the shared space.Thus,the aggregation of self-interested,individualist behavior destroys the value(i.e.,the shared space)for all(Libecap,2009).As a result,some regulation of individual behavior is needed so that the commons are available in perpetuity for all users.When considering environmental issues,the tragedy of the commons is a metaphor that can be translated to consumer behavior in markets,firms within countries,or even countries within regions, as in each case,the broader ecosystem is used by all but truly controlled by none.Are humans like the elephants in Africa?When unfettered by mankind,the elephants roamed the African plains with nature keeping their numbers in check.However,when they are artificially constrained on game reserves,culling is needed to ensure they do not eat themselves into starvation(van Aarde and Jackson, 2007).The barriers relating to transformational green marketing arise from this fundamental conflict between benefits for the individual(person,firm,or nation)and benefits for society,more broadly defined as including the natural environment.The next section discusses how these economic actors'(i.e.,consumers,firms and governments)lack of a macro-focus lies at the heart of the green marketing dilemma.Then the article offers suggestions as to how marketers can possibly assist in using transformational green marketing to address the issue,and ends with some concluding remarks.3.Barriers associating with consumers,firms and governments3.1.Adopting transformative green marketingA network or stakeholder approach argues that within green marketing all economic actors are interconnected(Polonsky,1995), and the actors have the ability to facilitate or impede green marketing from becoming transformational.Marketers usually discuss the role of three main stakeholders–consumers,firms and governments–in enabling or regulating exchange processes(Fry and Polonsky,2004). The following three sub-sections seek to explain how existing(i.e., traditional)marketing perspectives inhibit the effective integration of the natural environment into marketing theory and processes,as well as identifying issues that need to be addressed for transformative green marketing to occur.3.2.ConsumersThe early green marketing research sought to better understand how to motivate consumers to behave in more responsible ways.Early authors initially placed an emphasis on motivating consumers to integrate environmental issues into their decision-making,for example, motivating people to recycle(Henion and Kinnear,1976).While macro-marketers suggested such changes in consumer orfirm behavior would lead to wider benefits to society,micro-marketers focused on whether such environmental values could be leveraged to better target new segments of consumers(Ginsberg and Bloom,2004),thereby increasing loyalty(Shrum et al.,1995),reducing price sensitivity(D'Souza et al., 2007),or improving communication(Polonsky et al.,1997).Classical economic and consumer behavior theory suggests individuals make consumption decisions that maximize their own welfare.This,however,is done within a framework in which consumers usually think of themselves as the central actor in the exchange system. In such a view,the natural environment is a resource to facilitate this satisfaction(Varey,2010)rather than a stakeholder to whom consumers are responsible(Starik,1995).Such a human-centered1312M.J.Polonsky/Journal of Business Research64(2011)1311–1319perspective(i.e.,anthropocentric)possibly arises from the religious foundations of Western society:…Be fruitful,and multiply,and replenish the earth,and subdue it: and have dominion over thefish of the sea,and over the fowl of the air,and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.(Genesis1:28,italics added)Seeing nature as subservient to human needs inhibits consumers from taking a systems view,as man(and woman)is only one part of the natural system and,clearly,not the focal actor.As a result,leading authors such as Kilbourne and his numerous co-authors(e.g.,Kilbourne et al.,2002;Kilbourne and Carlson,2008)highlight that the core problem with consumption is the anthropocentric value system underlying the Western dominant social paradigm(DSP).This view suggests that micro-changes to consumption will be doomed to fail(or at least have a significant uphill battle)if the anthropocentric view within the DSP is not changed(Kilbourne and Polonsky,2005).Even if environmental concern could be integrated as a cornerstone of the consumer psyche,the problem may still not be solved.Consumers will act in an environmentally-responsible fashion only if they believe such actions are in their best interest.Of course,some consumer segments do already seek to act in a way that considers their impact on the natural environment.For example,increasing numbers of consumers exist who“have freely chosen a frugal,anti-consumer life-style that features low resource use and environmental impact,i.e.,they are voluntary simplifiers”(McDonald et al.,2006,p.515).Such consumers believe that value accrues to them from behaving responsibly.However,why this realization has arisen in some consumers and not others is unclear.The degree to which consumers believe environmental issues are or will become problematic,is possibly related to the disagreement regarding the causes,responses and timeframes in which remedial action must be taken.In the case of the Y2K bug,a clear deadline for the potential disaster existed–12:01AM on1January2000,and the potential disaster was prominently discussed in the business and popular media(Tewksbury et al.,2004).For environmental issues,no fixed deadlines exist and there is no media promotion(or even discussion)of the impending environmental Armageddon.In most cases,consumers believe environmental problems are somewhere in the future and,thus,are not something to worry about today.Even when consumers agree that environmental problems exist,there is no guarantee appropriate responses will occur.For example,the scientific community generally agrees that society will run out of key natural resources in the foreseeable future,such as oil.This concept has been referred to as Peak Oil and will occur when world resources of oil decline below the level needed to meet world demand(Gardi,2009).However, this has not resulted in wholesale changes in today's consumer behavior, and,in fact,dwindling oil reserves are not an issue that receives wide publicity in the press or policy debates.Consumers generally have difficulty with integrating future outcomes and consequences in their decision-making.For example, the fact that millions of people continue to take up smoking is surprising given the unequivocal evidence that smoking is bad for one's health,but consumers simply discount the future health consequences(Rindfleisch and Crockett,1999).Unfortunately for environmental marketing, researchers have found that consumers discount future environmental problems more so than other types of risk(Hendrickx and Nicolaij, 2004).Can marketers assist in making environmental problems more current and urgent in consumers'minds,thus stimulating action and providing real transformative solutions?The tragedy of the commons where all members of a community are interconnected is another issue impacting individual behavior,as consumers frequently see systems thinking(i.e.,connections amongst activities)as a barrier to behavior–How does my individual behavior impact on the wider natural system which is all encompassing?On the flip-side,a problem occurs when individuals ask–How can my individual behavior make a difference?The perceived inability to make a difference in terms of environmental problems was an early impediment to a range of environmental behaviors,including increasing recycling behavior(Scholder-Ellen et al.,1991).While attempts can be made to change the way people think about environmental issues or to enable less environmentally-harmful behavior to occur,more success might be achieved using market mechanisms that increase the pressure for individual action(i.e.,change).For example,Linderhof et al.(2001)find that when the cost of home-based waste removal is calculated on volume or weight,people reduce their waste and increase their recycling behavior.Thus,forcing increases in prices through regulation might bring about desired outcomes better than getting consumers to identify that waste is an environmental problem.While this may or may not result in an increase in underlying environmental awareness and concern,raising consumer costs may bring about the same environmental benefit(i.e.,reduced waste).Finally,one of the core tenets of consumer marketing is that marketers frequently promote ownership as a way to achieve satisfaction,but increased consumption often results in environmental problems.The perceived need to consume is further exacerbated in some sectors where technological advances mean products are considered obsolete in18months or less(e.g.,in the computer and mobile phone sectors).Marketing assumes that value is created in buyer–seller exchanges,but wanting satisfaction and the ownership of goods are not necessarily the same.Consumers can meet their needs in a variety of ways(i.e.,alternatives exist)or even modify the wants that they have,for instance by practicing voluntary simplicity(Craig-Lees and Hill,2002). Therefore,consumers do not necessarily have to own the want-satisfying goods to extract want-satisfying value.Research even suggests that one's quality of life(as measured by happiness)and increased consumption can impede sustainable development(Zidansek,2007).The increased economic importance given to the service sector is an example of how wants can be met without ownership.Opportunities exist to expand this sector beyond renting homes,furniture or appliances,to renting all types of value creation.The potential hindrance is that,in some cases,goods have an inherent value that can appreciate over time in addition to satisfying wants(i.e.,some items may become ‘rare’and collectable,and thus have value outside want satisfaction). Other goods may continue to have,primarily,a functional value(e.g.,the newest plasma television)which is not necessarily maintained through ownership of the good.Consumers'preoccupation with goods rather than the underlying want-satisfaction means increased production is required to address consumers'desire to have ready access to want-satisfying goods that they may use infrequently(i.e.,a handyman might want to own all the tools he might ever need,rather than renting or collectively sharing those used infrequently).3.3.FirmsAt the most basic level,firms are collectives of individuals that,in many ways,suffer from the aggregation of individual problems at the corporate level.Taking a neoclassical economic perspective meansfirms have a responsibility to create value for the shareholders,although many argue that broader types of performance are also important(Hillman and Keim,2001).The core issue revolves around defining the value of what is created.Marketing and management theorists propose that multi-dimensional measures of value can be developed,and this would include things such as the triple bottom line(TBL)that includes social and environmental value,in addition tofinancial value(Robins,2006).Unfortunately,afirm'sfinancial performance is still the main focus. For example,research comparing the performance of traditional and responsiblefirms still uses traditionalfinancial measures,not multi-dimensional TBL-type measures(Johnson,2003).The focus,therefore,is on how to increase thefinancial bottom line,which explains why researchers are more interested in targeting green consumers and1313M.J.Polonsky/Journal of Business Research64(2011)1311–1319extracting more value from them,than focusing solely on the societal impact of marketing.In the alternative view,green marketing becomes transformational and contributes to consumers,society and the environment.Unfortunately,profit,sales and otherfinancial/marketing measures have no relevance to the environment.Mother Nature does not have a checkbook,financial balance sheet or a demand for traditional goods and,thus,unfortunately is not represented on corporate management boards nor is nature considered in most corporate decisions.The question of how to define corporate value in a meaningful way that integratesfirms'environmental impact is less frequently discussed in research.However,some academic areas such as social accounting seek to quantify the social value offirms(Knirsch and Székely,2005). But,again,these alternatives often revert to dollar assessments that may not capture the importance of environmental issues.Other areas,such as research into stakeholder theory,have partly begun to address these multi-faceted measures as well(Hillman and Keim,2001),but they too often fall back ontofinancial measures of performance(Berman et al., 1999).Greening can be seen to createfinancial value in a number of ways,and extensive research examines how reducing harm can cut costs,reduce risk and,thus,increase the bottom line(Porter and Reinhardt,2007).Such approaches still use human-focused metrics to try and assign value to the environment(or,in reality,the costs of not looking after the environment).Marketing,as a change agent in the wider economic system,is not usually the focus of corporate or consumer activities.However, marketing innovations are bringing about significant cultural changes (good and bad).For example,birth control advances change the dynamic between males and females in society,and the Internet is changing how information is created and communicated.Thus, embracing transformative environmental marketing can serve as an organizational stimulus for innovation,thereby improving value more widely,including citizens'quality of life.Although some of the problems identified earlier,such as a lack of perceived urgency,or the fact that not all environmental costs are assigned to producers,mean corporations are not pressured to address their negative environmental impacts.Shocks to the economic system can clearly have an impact on businesses.Take,for example,the rapid innovations to increase the fuel efficiency of automobiles.The innovations have resulted in lighter automobiles;more efficient engines,alternative types of engines and fuels,systems to capture the pollution created,and even the development of alternative modes of transportation.Thus,somefirms within the transportation sector have been quick to exploit aspects of the environmental debate,although changing corporate direction needs to be a long-term strategy(Menon and Menon,1997).Unfortunately, the most recent turmoil in the US car market suggests that USfirms failed to embrace the impending environmental changes.Even when manufacturers have acted,they have not sought to redefine personal travel and the need to travel,but rather they still focus on the individual automobile to address travel options(Kadirov and Varey,2010).Of course,some would argue thatfirms are making incremental attempts to redefine the need for cars through video conferencing that allows people to meet without travel,and purchasing goods and services on the Internet,requiring fewer shopping trips.Increased public transportation alternatives also mean fewer cars are needed.Corporate and industry innovations can be more proactive and bring about environmental improvements.For example,the US-based Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design referred to as LEED building certification(US Green Building Council,2010)is designed to produce buildings that have smaller environmental footprints and lower operating costs(Muse and Plaut,2008).While still more expensive to build,as its adoption increases,economies of scale will mean that costs will drop,further increasing the benefits.All these actions are positive steps,firms still appear to be more focused on innovation and change that reduce costs,while complying with regulation or creating market value.Firms tend to be less focused on the environmental issues because of an underlying lack of value placed on responsible behavior,although examples exist of where these values are espoused(Hillman and Keim,2001).Given that businesses want to stay in business,they are more driven by economic forces than are their consumers.Unfortunately,without well-defined performance measures that incorporate non-financial benefits to the environment, businesses will be unlikely to redefine their activities,as such action would not create measurable value(even using theflawedfinancial measures available).In afirm's quest for profits,a potential problem can arise regarding the extent to which new products deliver substantive additional value to consumers,after taking into consideration the environmental impact associated with production,use and consumption.Marketers have long been criticized for producing goods that have built-in obsolescence (Guiltinan,2009)or trivial differentiation.This problem has been exacerbated by the decline in innovation cycles and rapid advancements in technology(Guiltinan,2009).For example,Moore's law suggests that computer capacity doubles every18months(Schaller,1997).While continuous product change can deliver incremental value to consumers,the question is at what environmental cost?Arefirms seeking to generate value through churn(i.e.,new purchases)or adding significant consumer value?If the latter,firms might look at how products can be designed so they can be upgraded rather than replaced.Upgradable products would,in fact,deliver additional consumer value,as consumers would be able to extract additional value from existing investments rather than purchasing extra value by buying new products.Of course, consumers would need to value upgradability rather than owning the newest product.Marketers also tend not to think about the environmental costs of replacing goods.For example,why don't all retailers of mobile phones or computers automatically incorporate trade-ins through which they can then facilitate recycling or,at the very least,provide a reverse logistics system where extraction of the value from waste products can more easily occur?Somefirms seeking to recycle components of their products have found them to be a highly valuable income stream that also reduces the environmental costs associated with producing remanufac-tured components(McConocha and Speh,1993).In some countries, governments have imposed requirements onfirms to take back unused goods or packaging from the consumers(Livingstone and Sparks,1994). However,firms seem not to have knowledge about the full life-cycle environmental impacts of their actions.In some instances(i.e.,reverse logistics)managing the life-cycle could generate income streams and,in this area,the lack of corporate systems thinking about value and environmental impacts is highlighted(i.e.,failing to recognize the interdependence of mankind,production,consumption,and the environ-mental system).Thefinal corporate issue revolves around the question of growth. Businesses want to expand their markets and profitability,but can growth occur in an environmentally sustainable fashion(van Marrewijk,2003)? This comes back to the very nature of the Western economic system. Investors want a reasonable return on their investments and,because of the competition amongstfirms for assets,those that increase their return attract more resources,and expectations for further growth are increased. Unfortunately,a value concept that is based onfinancial returns and discounts the natural environment will see the environment as a resource to exploit rather than a partner in existence.Just as service-dominant logic has emerged as a new perspective(Vargo and Lusch,2004),a need exists for an environmental dominant logic in which corporate and environmental values are intertwined.Unless the environment is given value,either as a resource or a cost to be minimized,the environment will continue to be under-considered in corporate decision-making.The impending introduction of regulated carbon abetment schemes will see this potential loophole partlyfilled because the environment(or rather pollution of the environment)will have a cost that must be addressed byfirms.However,such costs will not necessarily reflect the true value of the environment.Carbon pricing will stimulate innovation to reduce this cost,although,if carbon is1314M.J.Polonsky/Journal of Business Research64(2011)1311–1319。

毕业论文外文翻译要求
外国文献翻译是撰写毕业论文的重要环节之一，下面是一份要求700字的毕业论文外文翻译要求：
1. 翻译时间: 需在规定时间内完成翻译任务，以确保毕业论文
后续工作的顺利进行。

2. 原文准确性: 翻译必须准确无误，不得对原文进行任何删节、增补或变动。

3. 语言流畅度: 翻译应当具有良好的语言流畅度，不得过于生
硬或呆板。

4. 专业术语准确性: 翻译时要确保专业术语的准确性，避免词
义的混淆。

5. 语法错误及标点符号: 翻译应符合英文的语法规范，避免语
法错误和标点符号的错误使用。

6. 翻译风格: 翻译应当符合学术论文的要求，措辞恰当，语气
客观中立。

7. 格式要求: 翻译部分应与论文正文的格式一致，包括字体、
字号、行间距等。

8. 校对: 完成翻译后，需要进行一次仔细的校对工作，确保翻
译的正确性。

9. 原文附录: 翻译部分要同时附上原文，以便审查人员对翻译的准确性进行核对。

10. 翻译文档: 翻译文档要以电子文档的形式提交，确保方便审查人员查看。

以上要求旨在保证翻译的质量和准确性，对于撰写毕业论文非常重要。

翻译过程中，建议使用专业的翻译工具，如翻译记忆软件、专业词典等，以提高翻译的效率和准确性。

同时，积极与导师和专业领域的人进行交流和讨论，以解决翻译中的问题和困惑。

Stability of hybrid system limit cycles: application to the compass gait biped RobotIan A. Hiskens'Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana IL 61801 USAAbstractLimit cycles are common in hybrid systems. However the non-smooth dynamics of such systems makes stability analysis difficult. This paper uses recent extensions of trajectory sensitivity analysis to obtain the characteristic multipliers of non-smooth limit cycles. The stability of a limit cycle is determined by its characteristic multipliers. The concepts are illustrated using a compass gait biped robot example.1 IntroductionHybrid system are characterized by interactions between continuous (smooth) dynamics and discrete events. Such systems are common across a diverse range of application areas. Examples include power systems [l], robotics [2, 3], manufacturing [4] and air-traffic control [5]. In fact, any system where saturation limits are routinely encountered can be thought of as a hybrid system. The limits introduce discrete events which (often) have a significant influence on overall behaviour.Many hybrid systems exhibit periodic behaviour. Discrete events, such as saturation limits, can act to trap the evolving system state within a constrained region of state space. Therefore even when the underlying continuous dynamics are unstable, discrete events may induce a stable limit set. Limit cycles (periodic behaviour) are often created in this way. Other systems, such as robot motion, are naturally periodic.Limit cycles can be stable (attracting), unstable (repelling) or non-stable (saddle). The stability of periodic behaviour is determined by characteristic (or Floquet) multipliers. A periodic solution corresponds to a fixed point of a Poincare map. Stability of the periodic solution is equivalent to stability of the fixed point. The characteristic multipliers are the eigenvalues of the Poincare map linearized about the fixed point. Section 4 reviews the connection between this linearized map and trajectory sensitivities.Poincare maps have been used to analyse the stability of limit cycles in various forms of hybrid systems. However calculation of the underlying trajectory sensitivities has relied upon particular system structures, see for example [7, 8], or numerical differencing, for example [6]. This paper uses a recent generalization of trajectory sensitivity analysis [9] to efficiently detemine the stability of limit cycles in hybrid systems.A hybrid system model is given in Section 2. Section 3 develops the associated variational equations. This is followed in Section 4 by a review of stability analysis of limit cycles. Conclusions and extensions are presented in Section 5.2 ModelDeterministic hybrid systems can be represented by a model that is adapted from a differential-algebraic (DAE) structure. Events are incorporated via impulsive action and switching of algebraic equations, giving the Impulsive Switched (DAIS) modelwheren x R ∈ are dynamic states and my R ∈ are algebraic states;(.)δ is the Dirac delta;(.)u is the unit-step function;,:n mnj f h RR +→；(0)(),:i n mng gR R ±+→; some elements of each(.)gwill usually be identicallyzero, but no elements of the composite g should be identically zero; the()i g± aredefined with the same form as g in (2), resulting in a recursive structure for g;,dey yare selected elements of y that trigger algebraic switching and state reset(impulsive) events respectively;dyandeymay share common elements.The impulse and unit-step terms of the DAIS model can be expressed in alternative forms:Each impulse term of the summation in (1) can be expressed in the state reset formwhere the notation x+denotes the value of x just after the reset event, whilstx-andy-refer to the values of x and y just prior to the event.The contribution of each()i g± in (2) can be expressed aswith (2) becomingThis form is often more intuitive than (2).It can be convenient to establish the partitionswherex -are the continuous dynamic states, for example generator angles, velocities andfluxes;z are discrete dynamic states, such as transformer tap positions and protection relay logic states;λ are parameters such as generator reactances, controller gains and switching times. The partitioning of the differential equations f ensures that away from events,x -evolves according to .(,)x y f x --=, whilst z and λ remain constant. Similarly,the partitioning of the reset equationsjhensures thatx -and λ remain constantat reset events, but the dynamic states z are reset to new values given by(,)jh y x z--+=-. The model can capture complex behaviour, from hysteresis and non-windup limits through to rule-based systems [l]. A more extensive presentation of this model is given in [9].Away from events, system dynamics evolve smoothly according to the familiardifferential-algebraic modelwhere g is composed of(0)gtogether with appropriate choices of()i g- or()i g+ ,depending on the signs of the corresponding elements of yd. At switching events (2),some component equations of g change. To satisfy the new g = 0 equation, algebraic variables y may undergo a step change. Reset events (3) force a discrete change in elements of x. Algebraic variables may also step at a reset event to ensure g= 0 is satisfied with the altered values of x. The flows of and y are defined respectively aswhere x(t) and y(t) satisfy (l),(2), along with initial conditions,3 'Ikajectory SensitivitiesSensitivity of the flowsxφandyφto initial conditionsxare obtained bylinearizing (8),(9) about the nominal trajectory,The time-varying partial derivative matrices given in (12),(13) are known as trajectory sensitiuities, and can be expressed in the alternative formsThe formxx ,xy provides clearer insights into the development of thevariational equations describing the evolution of the sensitivities. The alternative form 0(,)x t x φ, 0(,)yt x φ highlights the connection between the sensitivities and the associated flows. It is shown in Section 4 that these sensitivities underlie the linearization of the Poincare map, and so play a major role in determining the stability of periodic solutions.Away from events, where system dynamics evolve smoothly, trajectory sensitivities 0xx andxy are obtained by differentiating (6),(7) withrespect to 0x.This giveswhere/xf x f≡∂∂, and likewise for the other Jacobian matrices. Note that,,,xyxyf fg gare evaluated along the trajectory, and hence are time varyingmatrices. It is shown in 19, 101 that the numerical solution of this(potentially high order) DAE system can be obtained as a by-product of numerically integrating the original DAE system (6),(7). The extra computational cost is minimal. Initial conditions forxx are obtained from (10) aswhere I is the identity matrix. Initial conditions for 0zy follow directly from(17),Equations (16),(17) describe the evolution of the sensitivitiesxx andxybetween events. However at an event, the sensitivities are generally discontinuous. It is necessary to calculate jump conditions describing the step change inxx andxy . For clarity, consider a single switching/reset event, so the model (1),(2) reduces(effectively) to the formLet （(),()x y ττ） be the point where the trajectory encounters the triggering hypersurface s(x,y) = 0, i.e., the point where an event is initiated. This point is called the junction point and r is the junction time. It is assumed the encounter is transversal.Just prior to event triggering, at time τ-, we haveSimilarly,,y x++are defined for time τ+, just after the event has occurred. It isshown in [9] that the jump conditions for the sensitivitiesxx are given byThe assumption that the trajectory and triggering hypersurface meet transversally ensures a non-zero denominator for 0x τ The sensitivitiesxy . immediatelyafter the event are given byFollowing the event, i.e., for t τ+>, calculation of the sensitivities proceeds according to (16),(17) until the next event is encountered. The jump conditions provide the initial conditions for the post-event calculations.4 Limit Cycle AnalysisStability of limit cycles can be determined using Poincare maps [11, 12]. This section provides a brief review of these concepts, and establishes the connection with trajectory sensitivities.A Poincark map effectively samples the flow of a periodic system once every period. The concept is illustrated in Figure 1. If the limit cycle is stable, oscillations approach the limit cycle over time. The samples provided by the corresponding Poincare map approach a fixed point. A non-stable limit cycle results in divergent oscillations. For such a case the samples of the Poincare map diverge.To define a Poincare map, consider the limit cycle Γshown in Figure 1. Let ∑ be a hyperplane transversal to Γ at*x. The trajectory emanating from*xwill again encounter ∑ at*xafter T seconds, where T is the minimum period of the limit cycle. Due to the continuity of the flowxφwith respect to initial conditions, trajectories starting on ∑ in a neighbourhood of*x. will, in approximately T seconds, intersect ∑ in the vicinity of*x. Hencexφand ∑define a mappingwhere()kT x ττ≈ is the time taken for the trajectory to return to ∑. Complete details can hefound in [11,12]. Stability of the Paincare map (22) is determined by linearizing P at the fixed point*x, i.e.,From the definition of P(z) given by (22), it follows that DP(*x) is closely related to thetrajectory sensitivities***(,)(,)xxT T x x xφφ∂≡∂. In fact, it is shown in [11] thatwhereσ is a vector normal to ∑.The matrix*(,)xT x φis exactly the trajectory sensitivity matrix after one period of the limitcycle, i.e., starting from*xand returning to*x. This matrix is called the Monodromymatrix .It is shown in [11] that for an autonomous system, one eigenvalue of *(,)xT x φ isalways 1, and the corresponding eigenvector lies along **(,)f y x The remaining eigenvalues*(,)xT x φof coincide with the eigenvalues of DP(*x ), and are known as the characteristicmultipliers mi of the periodic solution. The characteristic multipliers are independent of the choice of cross-section ∑ . Therefore, for hybrid systems, it is often convenient to choose ∑ as a triggering hypersurface corresponding to a switching or reset event that occurs along the periodic solution.Because the characteristic multipliers mi are the eigenvalues of the linear map DP(x*), they determine the stability of the Poincarb map P(kx), and hence the stability of the periodic solution.Three cases are of importance: 1. Alli m lie within the unit circle, i.e., 1im<,i ∀.The map is stable, so the periodicsolution is stable. 2. Allim lie outside the unit circle. The periodic solution is unstable.3. Someim lie outside the unit circle. The periodic solution is non-stable.Interestingly, there exists a particular cross-section*∑, such thatwhere *ς∈∑.This cross-section*∑is the hyperplane spanned by the n - 1 eigenvectors of*(,)xT x φthat are not aligned with **(,)f y x . Therefore the vector *σthat is normal to*∑ is the left eigenvector of *(,)xT x φ corresponding to the eigenvalue 1. The hyperplane*∑is invariant under*(,)xT x φ, i.e., **(,)f y x maps vectors *ς∈∑back into*∑.5 ConclusionsHybrid systems frequently exhibit periodic behaviour. However the non-smooth nature of such systems complicates stability analysis. Those complications have been addressed in this paper throughapplication of a generalization of trajectory sensitivity analysis. Deterministic hybrid systems can be represented by a set ofdifferential-algebraic equations, modified to incorporate impulse (state reset) action and constraint switching. The associated variational equations establish jump conditions that describe the evolution of sensitivities through events. These equations provide insights into expansion/contraction effects at events. This is a focus of future research.Standard Poincar6 map results extend naturally to hybrid systems. The Monodromy matrix is obtained by evaluating trajectory sensitivities over one period of the (possibly non-smooth) cyclical behaviour. One eigenvalue of this matrix is always unity. The remaining eigenvalues are the characteristic multipliers of the periodic solution. Stability is ensured if all multipliers lieReferences[l] LA. Hiskens and M.A. Pai, “Hybrid systems view of power system modelling,” in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Geneva, Switzerland, May 2000.[2] M.H. Raibert, Legged Robots That Balance, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1986.[3] A. Goswami, B. Thuilot, and B. Espiau, “A study of the passive gait of a compass-like biped ro bot: symmetry and chaos,’’ International Journal of Robotics Research, vol. 17, no. 15, 1998.[4] S. Pettersson, “Analysis and design of hybrid systems,” Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Signals and Systems, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden, 1999.[5] C. Tomlin, G. Pappas, and S. Sastry, “Conflict resolution for air traffic management:A study in multiagent hybrid systems,” IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 509-521, April 1998.[6] A. Goswami, B. Espiau, and A. Keramane, “Limit cycles in a passive compass gait biped and passivity-mimicking contr ol laws,” Journal of Au tonomous Robots, vol. 4, no. 3, 1997. 171 B.K.H. Wong, H.S.H. Chung, and S.T.S. Lee, ‘Computation of the cycle state-variable sensitivity matrix of PWM DC/DC converters and its applica tion,” IEEE Transactions on Circuit s and Systems I, vol. 47, no. 10, pp. 1542-1548, October 2000.[8] M. Rubensson, B. Lennartsson, and S. Petters son, “Convergence to limit cycles in hybrid systems - an example,” in Prepri nts of 8th International Federation of Automatic Control Symposium on Large Scale Systems: Theo y d Applications, Rio Patras, Greece, 1998, pp. 704-709.[9] I.A. Hiskens and M.A. Pai, “Trajectory sensitivity analysis of hyhrid systems,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 204-220, February 2000.[10]D. Chaniotis, M.A. Pai, and LA. Hiskens, “Sen sitivity analysis of differential-algebraic systems using the GMRES method - Ap plication to power systems,” in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Sydney, Australia, May 2001.[11]T.S Parker and L.O. Chua, Practical Numerical Algorithms for Chaotic Systems, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1989.[12]R. Seydel, Practical Bifurcation and Stability Analysis, Springer-Verlag. New York, 2nd edition, 1994.。

外文翻译模板在进行外文翻译时，我们需要注意一些重要的事项，以确保翻译质量和准确性。

以下是一些外文翻译模板，供大家参考和使用。

1. 翻译目的。

在进行外文翻译之前，我们需要明确翻译的目的。

是为了商务沟通，学术交流，还是其他用途？不同的翻译目的可能需要采用不同的翻译风格和用词选择。

2. 原文阅读。

在进行翻译之前，我们需要对原文进行充分的阅读和理解。

只有对原文有深入的理解，才能进行准确的翻译。

在阅读原文时，可以标记重要的词语和句子，以便后续的翻译工作。

3. 语言风格。

在进行外文翻译时，我们需要根据翻译的目的和受众选择合适的语言风格。

比如，商务文件的翻译可能需要正式的语言风格，而文学作品的翻译可能需要更具有文学感的语言风格。

4. 词语选择。

在翻译过程中，我们需要注意选择准确的词语。

有些词语在不同的语境中可能有不同的意思，我们需要根据上下文选择合适的译词，以确保翻译的准确性和流畅性。

5. 句子结构。

在翻译时，我们需要注意句子结构的调整。

有些语言的句子结构和语序可能与中文不同，我们需要根据中文的表达习惯调整句子结构，以使翻译更符合中文的表达习惯。

6. 校对修改。

在完成翻译之后，我们需要进行校对和修改工作。

这包括检查译文的准确性、流畅性和语言风格是否符合要求。

如果有条件，最好能请其他人进行审校，以确保翻译质量。

7. 文化差异。

在进行外文翻译时，我们需要注意文化差异带来的影响。

有些表达在不同的文化背景中可能有不同的含义，我们需要根据具体情况进行恰当的调整。

总结。

外文翻译是一项复杂的工作，需要我们对原文有深入的理解和准确的把握。

希望以上的外文翻译模板能够帮助大家更好地进行翻译工作，提高翻译质量和效率。

外文原文 1Building Materials Selection and SpecificationFae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, TurkeyAbstract: The limitations in the selection of the building materials and to the sustainability of any building construction materials that can be used are presented. The practices and techniques that can be used in reducing and minimizing the environmental impacts of building are discussed. Recommendations of using secondary and recycled materials in the construction of buildings are given. Framework for methods of assessment of the sustainability in building construction for environmental performance is presented.Key Words: Limitations, sustainability, environmental impacts, framework, climate.1. IntroductionThere is an apparently unbounded range of possibilities for the selection of building materials for the construction of structures of almost any shape or stature. Its quality will affect the structure function and long life, and requirements may differ with climate, soil, site size, and with the experience and knowledge of the designer. The factors that have the most outstanding solutions are impermeability, control of heat, air, and water flow, and the stability of the structure [1-3].Raw materials extraction, manufacturing processes, and the transportation of the materials to the project site have a multitude of impacts on the environment. These include the disruption of habitats and ecological systems, use of water, and, through energy use, the emissions of air pollutants and climate change gases. Building materials also have major impacts on the building occupants manufacture, construction of buildings and the use of building materials make a significant environmental impact internally, locally and globally. But it is not easy to deliver information to make adequate inclusion decisions considering the whole life cycle of a building. Decisions on sustainable building integrate a number of strategies during the design, construction and operation of building projects. Selection of sustainable building materials represents an important strategy in the design of a building.2.SustainabilityIn recent years, the concept of sustainability has been the subject of much disputation by academics and professionals alike. In 1987, the World Conference on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).Sustainability must address ecological impacts, regardless of conflicting interpretations of the WCED definition.A good sustainable product must give as much satisfaction as possible for the user. If not, it will be unsuccessful on the market and an economic failure.It is also important to inform people as to what basis a certain product is considered to be sustainable or not and why they should buy it [4- 5].When developing a new product, it is illustrative to move between the three corners Ecology, Equity and Economy in order to obtain a suitable balance so that each category can be fulfilled in the best way.·Ecology (environmental protection).·Equity (social equity).·Economy (economic growth).2.1 Materials Selection and SustainabilityAmong the notable technological developments of the 20th century has been the development of tens of thousands of new materials for use in construction and engineering. The construction industry has also grown to the point where it is a very large consumer of energy and materials. Concern for the environment and the impact of human activity on the Earth's ecological systems has now become clear sighted.We are faced with the problems of material selection and the environmental consequences of their use. Environmentalists have proposed various methods for assessing the impact of materials and energy use, these include ecological foot printing, ecological rucksacks, embodied energy and carbon dioxide values, and so on. Engineers have put forward rational selection methods for the choice of materials. These techniques will be reviewed and explored in an attempt to provide an environmentally-aware, materials selection method- logy for use in construction.Strictly, the term sustainable means that something is capable of being sustained not for an hour, or a day, or a week, month or year, but indefinitely.The implication is that if some process which uses materials and energy is described as sustainable, then the materials and energy which are consumed arecapable of being replaced by natural or other processes as fast as they are consumed. In many cases materials and energy appear to be consumed at a faster rate than they are being replaced. However, to make a judgment, we would need to know what the respective supply and consumption rates are in other words we need some quantitative or numerical index to help us [2].2.2 Environmental CriteriaSince construction uses such large quantities of materials, it has a major impact on the environment. In order to assess and evaluate such impact, a number of criteria or indices have been devised by economists, engineers and environmentalists, and the more important of these are the following [2].2.2.1 Embodied EnergyThis is quite simply the amount of energy consumed in manufacturing a unit quantity of a material, and it is usually expressed in kJ/kg. Its value is determined by the efficiency of the manufacturing plant. Values range from 275 GJ/tonne for aluminum (a high value) to 0.1 GJ/tonne for gravel aggregates (a low value) [2].2.2.2 Embodied Carbon DioxideEmbodied C02 is similar to embodied energy. It is the weight of C02 emitted during manufacture of unit weight of the material, and is usually expressed as kg of C02 per ton.Again, the value will depend upon the efficiency of the manufacturing plant [2].2.2.3 Ecological RucksackThe ecological rucksack concept was devised as a way of assessing material efficiency by F. Schmidt一Bleek [6]. He recognized that many tonnes of raw material could be extracted and processed to make just one kilogram of material. For example, the environmental rucksack for the precious metal platinum is 250,000:1.2.3 Rational Selection MethodThere are various approaches to the problem of selecting materials from the huge numbers now available. Designers can have recourse to materials property charts and data books. Alternatively, they can talk to their colleagues, hoping that by widening the knowledge circle, they will not omit a significant group of materials. Another strategy is simply to specify the same or a similar material to those used in previous, similar designs. All these are valid approaches, but they may result in the specification of a less than ideal material and overall, a less than optimal solution to the problem [3-5].The basis of the rational selection methods devised to date is a recognition that the performance of a component, artifact or structure is limited by the properties of the materials from which it is made. It will be rare for the performance of the item to depend solely on one material property; in nearly all cases, it is a combination of properties, which is important. To give an example, in lightweight design, strength to weight ratio of, and stiffness to weight ratio E/pwill be important. Ref. [3] has put forward the idea of plotting material properties against each other to produce material property maps. On these maps, each class of material occupies a field in material property space, and sub-fields map the space occupied by individual materials.These materials property charts are very information-rich they carry a large amount of information in a compact but accessible form. Interestingly, they reveal correlations between material properties, which can help in checking and estimating data, and they can also be used in performance optimization, in a manner such as that set out as follow.If we consider the complete range of materials, it immediately becomes apparent that for each property of an engineering material there is a characteristic range of values, and this range can be very large. For example, consider stiffness (Young's Modulus E). Materials range from jelly (very low stiffness) up to diamond (very high stiffness). The properties can span five decades (orders of magnitude),A number of conclusions can be drawn, including:(1) A rational selection method such the one put forward by Ashby is capable of incorporating environmental parameters such as embodied energy and C02 or the environmental rucksack concepts, thereby making possible rational selections based on environmental considerations.(2) This method is not as simple to use as the environmental preference method or the environmental profiles method. However, this rational method could be used to generate data for the environmental profiles and preference methods.(3) The construction industry needs to take steps to better integrate itself into the materials cycle. The quantity of demolition waste needs to be reduced, and more of it should be recycled. To this end, the building designers need to keep full records of materials of construction, and buildings need to be designed for easy dismantling at the end of their useful lives.2. 4 Ashby's Materials Selection MethodologyMaterials selection charts一Property interaction (not always causal)一First order optimization●Performance indices●Multiple constrains●Multiple design goals●Shape and material interaction一“Enhanced" performance indicesProcess selection [3, 4].3. Foundations and Construction ComponentIn any consideration of which building materials and alternatives can feasibly be integrated into the foundations of a large-scale development there are several limitations that must be considered.In terms of the actual materials that may be used, there are three main limitations. First, because of the large scale and heavy loads that the foundations must support, strength is imperative. Any materials must be consistently strong and able to effectively distribute the weight of the structure. The second major limitation is climate. In areas with sub-zero winter conditions, frost heave is a major consideration. For this reason, foundations must be deep enough to support the structure despite any changes in near-surface volume; shallow foundations will be insufficient unless certain innovative steps are taken. The limitation of climate also influences any decision on insulating foundations. Finally, there is the consideration of cost. This consideration is reliant on material availability, cost per unit, and building techniques and associated labor. For these reasons, the only materials that can feasibly be used are concrete and steel. Therefore, the alternatives for minimizing impact lie more in the methods of construction and any realistic structural changes that can be made.The three main foundation components of concrete, steel, and insulation will be examined as the only reasonable materials for the construction of a building with limitations such as the foundations [1].3.1 ConcreteIt is the fundamental component of the foundation construction, receiving the building loads through walls or posts and distributes them down and outwards through the footings. Concrete and cement have ecological advantages which include durability, long life, heat storage capability, and (in general) chemical inertness [8].The life cycle concerns of concrete are as follows. First, there is land and habitat loss from mining activities. Furthermore, the quality of both air and water quality suffer from the acquisition, transportation, and manufacture. Carbon dioxide emissions are also a negative environmental impact accrued through the production and use of concrete. Similarly, dust and particulate are emitted at most stages of the concrete life-cycle. $oth carbon dioxide and particulate matter have negative impacts on air quality [1]. Water pollution is also another concern associated with the production of concrete at the production phase. Fly ash is by-product of the energy production from coal-fired plants and increasing its proportion in cement is environmentally beneficial in two ways. First, it helps in reducing the amount of solid waste which requires disposal. As well, fly ash in the cement mixture reduced the overall energy use by changing the consistency of the concrete. Fly ash, increases concrete strength, improves sulfate foundation, decreases permeability, reduced the water ratio required, and improves the pump ability and workability of the concrete [9]. Now in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency requires that all buildings that receive federa funding contain fly ash and most concrete producer: have access to this industrial waste [9].There are alternative methods of both making concrete and building foundations with this concrete that have environmental benefits, no matter the structure scale or climate. These include Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, the increased integration of fly ash into the cement mixture, and the use of pre-cast foundation systems to reduce resource use. Through consideration and possible integration of these alternatives, impacts could potentially be reduced.3.2 SteelAs wood resources are becoming limited, steel is increasingly popular with builders. In the case of a large-scale building, steel reinforcement is basically a necessity for overall strength and weight distribution.The initial life cycle impacts of steel use are similar to those of concrete. These include land and habitat loss from mining activities, and air and water quality degradation from materials acquisition and manufacture [1]. However, the largest proportion of steel used nowadays contains a percentage of recycled materials. In terms of improving environmental conditions by reducing impacts, this is the only real recommendation for the use of steel in building foundations; to purchase recycled steel products. Not only would this reduce industrial and commercial solid waste,such a decision would also reward the manufacturers of such products.3. 3 InsulationNew and innovative pre-cast building foundations are becoming increasingly available and feasible for implementation. These new systems can reduce the overall raw material use, as well as conserve energy through the creation of an efficient building envelope. A further used of this rigid insulation as a skirt around the building foundations helps to eliminate any potential frost problems, improve drainage, and help further reduce heat loss. A polyethylene air and water vapor barrier is applied above the insulating layer, as is a three to four inch layer of sand. These shallow foundation systems have excellent insulating properties, decreased use of raw materials for concrete, and comparatively low demands for labor. However, the use of rigid insulation is increased. Also, in soils where frost and drainage is a consideration additional piles in the centre of the foundation may be required to prevent movement. This increases the relative land disturbance, although it remains still much less than that of deep foundation systems. Shallow foundations are structurally sound and are becoming increasingly common in colder climates. There are strength considerations associated with these new techniques which must be addressed by someone with the technical ability to do so, before they can be feasibly recommended for the building of the new residence.As discussed above, there are limitations to the sustainability of any foundation construction materials used. In other words, there are environmental impacts associated with all types of foundations. For these reasons, a primary recommendation is the use of secondary materials (fly ash and recycled steel) in the construction of foundations.4. FrameworkThe material components of the building envelope, that is, the foundation, wall construction, insulation and roof, have been analyzed within a framework of primarily qualitative criteria that aim to evaluate the sustainability of alternate materials relative to the materials cited in the current foundation design. This analytical process has enabled the identification of several construction materials that can be feasibly integrated into current design and construction standards of the building envelope.The tools and strategies described below are useful in analyzing the relative benefits of different materials[9-14].Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA is a comprehensive analysis that takes intoconsideration all aspects of a material over its entire lifetime: raw materials extraction; manufacturing and processing; transport; use; and post-use recycling, reuse, or disposal. This approach enables a true "apples to apples" comparison between materials.The BEES system (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology is the most widely used methodology. BEES provides materials with a score that can be compared to other similar products. At this time, however, a fairly limited number of materials have completed the BEES analysis.Life-Cycle Costing. Life-Cycle Costing is an analysis of the short- and long-term costs associated with a material, from purchase to ultimate recycling or disposal. This includes frequency of replacement, maintenance costs, and costs that are avoided through use of the material (or system). LCC is useful in looking beyond a comparison based solely on first costs. Similar to LCA, this type of analysis is not available for all materials, but a back-of-the-envelope calculation is usually fairly easy to work up.Certification. Many conventional building products are approved or certified by independent third party or government groups. The Forest Stewardship Council certifies the certifiers (Smart Wood and SCS) that assess whether forestry companies are using sustainable management practices to harvest wood. The Carpet and Rug Institute provides a Green Label for carpets that meet certain low-VOC criteria. Green Guard certifies products that meet strict indoor air quality criteria. The Department of Energy's Energy Star label identifies equipment and appliances that meet or exceed standards for energy efficiency. Scientific Certification Systems and Green Seal certify recycled-content claims and other green product claims made by manufacturers.5. ConclusionOver-consumption, resource utilization, pollution and over-population are examples of the perhaps most basic problems for the environment in the future. A more sustainable future can be achieved by producing more sustainable products causing less environmental impact. Materials and design are and will always be very important areas when developing more sustainable products.The Life Cycle Assessment concept might be the most effective way of determining the environmental impacts for all product stages from extract of material to the product disposal stage. A price must be set for restoration on everyenvironmental impact. Information can be received from official authorities pertaining to the environment in different countries. Renewable and easy recyclable materials are preferably used together with a design for easy recycling and repair of the products. Minimization of the energy connected to the product is also important. Full sustainability can never be achieved for products according to thermodynamic laws. However, the attempt to achieve more sustainability is a requisite if we want to preserve the earth for the coming generations. Education, research and spreading of information will be very important for the future in order to receive more sustainable products especially because the market demand is important in order to develop successful sustainable products.References[1] M. Davison, J. Persmann, J. Reid, J. Stange and T. Weins, Green BuildingMaterials Residence, A WATgreen/ERS 285 study.[2] J. L. Sturges, Construction Materials Selection and Sustainability, School of theBuilt Environment, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK.[3] M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon, Oxford, 1992.[4] M. F. Ashby and K. Johnson, Materials and Design: The Art And Science ofMaterials Selection in Product Design, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002 [5] L. Y. Ljungberg, Materials selection and design for development of sustainableproducts, Materials and Design 28(2007)466-479.[6] F. Berkhout and D. Smith, Products and the environment: an integrated approachto policy, Eur. Environ 9 (1999)174-185.[7] F. Schmidt-Bleek, Carnoules Declaration of the FactorTen Club, WuppertalInstitute, Germany, 1994.[8] A．Wilson，Building green on a budget,Environmental Building News8(5)(1999)．[9] G．E．Dieter，Engineering Design，McGraw-Hill，New York，l991．[10] Sandy Patience (Ed．)，The Role of Evidence in The Selection of BuildingProducts and Materials，Constructing Excellence in The Built Environment．[11] M．D．Bovea and R．Vidal，Increasing product value by integrating environmentalimpacts costs and customer valuation，J Resour Conserv Recycling 41(2004) 133-145．[12] N．S．Ermolaeva,M．B．G．Castro and P．V．Kandachar, Materials selectionfor an automotive structure by integrating structural optimization with environmental impact assessment，Materials and Design 25 (2004) 689．698．[13] M．Goedkoop and R．Spiensma，The Eco-Indicator 99：A Dam age OrientedMethod for Life Cycle Impact Assessment，Amersfooft：PRe consultant B．V．，2000．中文翻译 1建材选择和规格Fae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, Turkey摘要：建材选择的限制和可利用的任何建筑物工程材料的持久性显现出来。

毕业论文的外文翻译是什么在如今全球化的时代，毕业论文的外文翻译变得越来越重要。

由于不同学术领域与研究主题在全球范围内的广泛交流，外文文献往往成为毕业论文写作的重要参考资源。

毕业论文的外文翻译不仅能够扩充研究数据来源，还能加深理解并对比国内外研究现状以提升研究质量。

本文将探讨毕业论文的外文翻译的定义、目的以及相关注意事项。

外文翻译的定义和目的毕业论文的外文翻译是指将英语、法语、德语、俄语或其他外文献的内容翻译成中文的过程。

它的目的是使学术研究者能够更好地理解和应用外文文献，以支撑他们的研究工作。

通过对外文献的翻译，学术界可以顺利进行国际交流与合作，拓宽知识视野。

研究者也能为毕业论文提供全球范围内的最新研究成果，提高论文的学术水平。

注意事项在进行毕业论文的外文翻译时，以下几个注意事项应牢记于心：1.准确性和可信性：翻译的准确性和可信性是首要关注的问题。

翻译者必须确保所翻译的内容与原文的意思保持一致，并尽量使用准确和专业的词汇。

对于生僻词汇或特定领域的术语，可以借助专业工具或咨询相关领域的专家以确保翻译的准确性。

2.语言风格的调整：毕业论文的外文翻译需要根据中文写作的习惯和规范进行语言风格的调整。

例如，外文中可能使用了复杂的句子结构或文化隐喻，翻译时应尽量使用简明清晰的中文表达，以确保读者能够准确理解研究内容。

3.文化背景的融入：语言与文化密不可分。

在外文翻译过程中，翻译者需要了解原文所处的文化背景，并适当融入到翻译中。

这样才能确保翻译的内容在目标文化中具有更好的可读性和可理解性。

4.保护原文作者的权益：毕业论文的外文翻译要尊重并保护原文作者的权益。

在翻译时，应注明原文出处，以遵守学术诚信规范，并尽量避免篡改、删减或误解原文的意思。

如果有需要，可以适度加入个人的理解或注释，但必须清晰标注为个人观点。

5.翻译工具的利用：在进行毕业论文的外文翻译时，可以利用翻译工具辅助翻译。

然而，机器翻译并不能完全取代人工翻译的重要性。

毕业论文的外文翻译要求毕业论文是学生完成学业的重要标志，而其中的外文翻译部分更是为了提供更全面的学术支持和国际交流。

为了确保翻译的准确性和专业性，我们有一些明确的要求和规定。

一、译稿准确性要求1.1 语义准确：译稿应准确地传达原文的含义，翻译词语和句子应与原文相对应，确保不出现歧义或误解。

1.2 文法准确：译稿应符合外语语法规范，句子结构要清晰连贯，语法错误应予避免。

1.3 词汇准确：译稿应使用准确的词汇，能够准确表达原文中的专业术语和概念。

1.4 表达准确：译稿应能充分表达原文作者的意图和观点，不改变原意，不添加任何无关信息。

二、格式要求2.1 页面设置：译稿与正文部分应保持一致，包括页边距、字体、字号和行间距等方面。

2.2 段落格式：译稿应采用适当的段落划分，确保内容结构清晰，段落之间应有明显的过渡关系。

2.3 标点符号：译稿中的标点符号应准确无误，与原文保持一致。

2.4 图表翻译：如原文中包含图表、图片等内容，应准确翻译并清晰插入，保持与原文的对应关系。

三、语言风格要求3.1 学术性语言：译稿应以学术性的语言进行表达，避免使用口语或俚语词汇。

3.2 表达简明：译稿应尽量使用简明扼要的语言，避免冗长和啰嗦的表达。

3.3 文体恰当：译稿应根据原文的文体特点，保持与之一致的语言风格，如正式、客观等。

3.4 遵循学科要求：根据不同学科的要求，译稿应遵循相应的学科规范和术语。

四、参考文献要求4.1 引用准确：如译稿中涉及引用原文中的内容，应准确标注出处，遵循学术引用规范。

4.2 参考文献著录：如译稿中有参考文献部分，应按照规范的著录格式进行排版，确保引用的准确性。

4.3 翻译标注：如译稿中对参考文献进行翻译或添加注释，应将其清晰标注，以区分原文与译文。

总结：毕业论文的外文翻译要求是多方面的，从译稿准确性、格式要求、语言风格要求到参考文献要求，都需要学生严格遵循。

合理的格式和清晰的语言表达是展示学术水平和专业素养的重要方面，而译稿的准确性更是毕业论文的基石。

毕业论文外文翻译以下是关于毕业论文700字的外文翻译：Title: The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on the Job Market Introduction:Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the development of computer systems that can perform tasks that would normally require human intelligence, such as speech recognition, decision-making, and problem-solving. With advances in technology, AI has become more prominent in various industries, and its impact on the job market has drawn significant attention.Body:1. Automation and Job Displacement:AI has been widely adopted in the automation of certain tasks across industries. For instance, AI-powered machines can handle repetitive tasks more efficiently and accurately than humans, leading to job displacement in certain sectors. Industries such as manufacturing, transportation, and customer service have already seen significant impacts, with robots and virtual agents replacing human workers.2. Job Creation and Augmentation:While AI may displace certain jobs, it also has the potential to create new ones and augment existing ones. The development and implementation of AI systems require skilled professionals in various domains, such as data science, programming, and machine learning. Additionally, AI can enhance human capabilities by augmenting decision-making processes and providing valuableinsights.3. Skill Shifts and Reskilling:With the rapid advancement of AI, certain skills may become less in demand while others may become more valuable. For example, skills such as data analysis, coding, and problem-solving are becoming increasingly important in the AI-driven job market. As a result, individuals may need to reskill or upskill to remain competitive in the workforce.4. Impact on Specific Industries:Certain industries are expected to be significantly impacted by AI. For instance, the healthcare industry can benefit from AI-powered diagnostic tools and predictive models. Likewise, the finance industry can leverage AI to improve fraud detection and risk assessment. However, these advancements may also lead to job displacement in certain roles, such as medical coders and financial analysts.Conclusion:The growth of AI technology has both positive and negative impacts on the job market. While it may lead to job displacement in certain sectors, it also has the potential to create new job opportunities and augment existing ones. In order to adapt to the changing job market, individuals may need to acquire new skills and embrace lifelong learning. Policymakers also have a role to play in facilitating the transition and ensuring the benefits of AI are distributed equitably.。

European case law and theWTO ruling on conflictsbetween geographical indications and trademarks1 IntroductionGeographical indications (hereinafter referred to as GIs) are geographical or traditionalnames which identify a good as originating in a particular territory, where aThis paper is the written version of the presentation given by the author at the ERA conference on―Recent developments in European intellectual property law‖, held in Trier on 1–2 December 2008.A word of appreciation and thanks for suggestions and encouragement during work on this article isdue to Bernard O‘Connor, senior partner of O‘Connor and Company, and Florence Hartmann-Vareilles, Head of the ―European Business Law‖ Section at the Academy of EuropeanLaw in Trier.given quality, reputation or other characteristics of the good are essentially attributableto its geographical origin. Examples of such indications are Parmigiano Reggiano, Roquefort, Irish Whiskey, Manchego, Cognac, Teruel and Parma hams, Feta cheese, Tuscany olives and many other well known names of foods in Europe.The main function of GIs is to identify the origin of goods and expressly note the specific qualities which are due to the geographical origin. Evidently, this helps in differentiation of the products among similar goods and their identification as specific quality products on the market. For these reasons geographical indications are recognised as a valuable tool for achievement of rural and social development goals. Besides, they address quality concerns and provide marketing opportunities for traditionalproducts. Their economic benefits cannot be underestimated; GIs help producersto obtain premium prices for their products, guaranteeing at the same time safetyand quality of products to consumers. By acquiring recognition, GIs are increasingly becoming known as traditional quality products from specific regions. GIs have a long history in Europe and are of particular importance for the European Union at present.1Council Regulation 510/2006 on the protection of geographical indications and designations of origin for agricultural products and foodstuffs2 is central in the EC legal framework for the protection of GIs. The protection of geographical indications for wines in the EC is regulated by Council Regulation 479/2008 of 29 April 2008 on the common organisation of the market in wine,3 which lays down the rules and standardsfor designations of origin and geographical indications for wines. With respectto wines, Commission Regulation 753/2002 of 29 April 2002 on the description, designationand protection of certain wine sector products is also relevant, as it lays downthe rules for the labelling of wine.4 Regulation 110/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008 on the definition, description, presentation, labelling and the protection of geographical indications of spirit drinks deals with the use of geographical names for spirits.5There have been a number of disputes concerning the provisions of the above mentioned European regulations involving geographical indications. The major issues concerned generic character of registered and protected names,6 the use of partsof compound geographical indications,7 definition of geographical area of protection of GI products,8 particularities of specifications9 and various others.10 However, without doubt, the most extensive European case law concerns conflicts between geographicalindications and trademarks. This article, therefore, reviews the cases dealtwith by the European Court of Justice involving conflicts between geographical indicationsand trademarks and inquires into the WTO dispute, which examined relevantEU provisions on GIs and trademarks.2 Interface between geographical indications and trademarksIn performing their function of identification of goods, geographical indications, in spite of being recognised as a separate intellectual property type, are often linked with trademarks, particularly because in a number of WTO members GIs are protected as trademarks.11Trademarks, similar to geographical indications, serve for identification of goods. Their main purpose is to distinguish the goods or services of one undertaking from goods or services of another undertaking. However, even though there are some similaritiesbetween geographical indications and trademarks, they are different legal concepts. Besides, geographical indications and trademarks play a different role with regardto development of rural communities and information transmitted to consumers.The possibility of conflict between geographical indications and trademarks is recognised both in national and international law. As to the international treaties,few of them regulate expressly the relationship between trademarks and geographical indications.12 Only one, the TRIPS Agreement, deals comprehensively with both types of intellectual property rights in the same instrument.The EU legislation also devotes attention to the issue in question. Regulation510/200613 Article 14 helps to regulate the problems arising when a trademark that includes a geographical name clashes with a protected geographical indication or a protected designation of origin.14 The Regulation distinguishes between three situations.The simplest case is the first one, referred to in Article 14.1 of the Regulation. Any application for a conflicting trademark for the same type of product made after the date of application for protection of the geographical name at Community level will be refused. In this case, the regulation gives priority to the geographical name.The second case, referred to in Article 14.2 of the Regulation, provides for coexistencein certain cases. However, a conflicting trademark can only continue to be usedin accordance with Community law if:– the trademark was applied for, registered or established by use in good faith before the date of protection in the country of origin or the date of submission to the Commissionof the application for registration of the protected geographical indicationor protected designation of origin;– there are no grounds for invalidity or revocation of the trademark under applicable Community legislation.The third situation is different. In case of conflicts between registered trademarks and geographical indications, the registration of the latter is not allowed if it would mislead the consumer in light of a trademark‘s reputation and the length of time it has been used.15 As an illustration of this situation, consider a hypothetical example of application for registration of ―Guinness‖ bee r from the little village of Guinness in France. Such an application would be refused in light of the protection of the Irish trademark ―Guinness‖.163 The European case law involving conflicts between geographical indications and trademarksThe European case law on conflicts between geographical indications and trademarks is the most extensive. This is not surprising, considering that even during the negotiationsof the WTO TRIPS Agreement the issue of geographical indications and trademarks was the most contentious. These negotiations might have been influenced by the famous ‗Torres‟ case. In this case, the ―Miguel Torres‖ trademark had been registered in Spain and used for wine for many years. The Portuguese government declared ―Torres Vedras‖ a geographi cal indication, which, under a European Commissionregulation on wine, would have resulted in prohibiting the use of the ―Miguel Torres‖ trademark since it was in conflict with a geographical indication. As a consequenceof this case, the European Commission subsequently amended its regulationto allow the co-existence of both the geographical indication and the trademark.3.1 The Austrian ‗Cambozola‘ cheese case17The Italian Consorzio per la Tutela del Formaggio Gorgonzola brought proceedings against Käserei Champignon Hofmeister GmbH & Co. KG and Eduard Bracharz GmbH (Austria) prohibiting the marketing in Austria of a blue cheese under the designation…Cambozola‟ and requiring cancellation of the …Cambozola‟ trademark. The applicant referred to Article 3 of the International Stresa Convention for the Use of Designations of Origin and Names of Cheeses,18 which provided that only “cheese manufactured or matured in traditional regions, by virtue of local, loyal and uninterruptedusages” may benefit from designations of origin governed by national legislation.Article 1 of the Convention also prohibited the use of descriptions which contravene that principle. Article 2 of the Agreement between the Austrian Governmentand the Italian Government on geographical designations of origin and names of certainproducts, signed in Rome on 1 February 1952, prohibited the importation andsale of all products bearing, or displaying on their packaging or in their trademarks, designations and names listed in the annex, which were liable to mislead the public as to the origin, variety, nature or specific qualities of those products or goods.The European Court of Justice ruled that the principle of free movement of goods does not preclude Member States from taking the measures incumbent upon themin order to ensure the protection of designations of origin registered under Council Regulation 2081/92. Use of a name such as …Cambozola‟ might therefore be deemed, for the purposes of Article 13(1)(b) of that Regulation, to evoke the protected designationof origin …Gorgonzola‟, irrespective of the fact that the packaging indicates the product‘s true origin.The European Court of Justice ruled that it is for the national court to decide whether, on the facts, the conditions laid down in Article 14(2) of Regulation 2081/92 allow use of an earlier trade mark to continue notwithstanding the registration of the protected designation of origin …Gorgonzola‟, having regard in particular to the lawin force at the time of registration of the trademark, in order to determine whether such registration could have been made in good faith, on the basis that use of a name such as …Cambozola‟ does not, per se, constitute an attempt to deceive the consumer.3.2 Misleading labels on the beer in the ‗Warsteiner‘ case19Warsteiner Brauerei (a German beer producer and the owner of the trademark …Warsteiner‟) had run a brewery inWarstein in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany, since 1753. In autumn 1990, Warsteiner Brauerei acquired a brewery located in Paderborn, 40 km from Warstein, where it brewed …Light‟ and …Fresh‟ type beers until the end of 1991. The labels on the front of the bottles for these beers bore inter alia the name …Warsteiner‟ or …Marke Warsteiner‟ (…Warsteiner Brand‟). The back labels indicated inter alia that the beers were brewed and bottled “in unserer neuen Paderborner Brauerei” (―in our new Paderborn Brewery‖).The Schutzverband gegen Unwesen in der Wirtschaft, an association founded to combat unfair competition, thought that these labels were misleading and broughtan action against Warsteiner Brauerei before the Landgericht (Regional Court), Mannheim, seeking an injunction, pursuant to Paragraph 3 of theUWG (Gesetz gegen den unlauteren Wettbewerb—Law against Unfair Competition), restraining it from using …Warsteiner‟ as a geographical indication of source for beer brewed in Paderborn.The Landgericht prohibited the defendant from offering for sale, distributingand/or putting into circulation beer with the offending labels. On appeal, the Oberlandesgericht(Higher Regional Court), Karlsruhe, quashed the judgment of theLandgericht and dismissed the action of the Schutzverband. The dispute finally camebefore the Bundesgerichtshof.relationship between the national legislation and the Regulation. The Court acknowledgedthat Council Regulation 2081/92 did not preclude the application of national legislation which prohibits the potentially misleading use of a geographical indication of source in cases where is no link between the characteristics of the product andits geographical provenance.。

外文翻译怎么找要找一篇700字的外文翻译，你可以按照以下步骤进行：1. 确定翻译需求：确定你需要翻译的外文文档的主题和内容，以及翻译目标语言。

2. 确定翻译来源：如果已经有一篇具体的外文文档需要翻译，可以将其作为翻译来源。

如果没有具体文档，可以通过以下方式寻找翻译来源：- 在专业领域的学术论文数据库或期刊网站上搜索相关主题的论文摘要或全文。

- 在知名新闻或商业网站上搜索相关的报道或文章。

- 寻找公开发布的技术文档、手册、报告或书籍。

3. 了解翻译难度：评估所选外文文档的难度和复杂程度，确保其在你可以翻译的范围内。

4. 确定译者资质：找到一位具备目标语言的翻译资质和经验的译者。

这可以通过以下方式实现：- 在翻译平台或自由职业者市场上寻找注册的、经过验证的译者。

- 向翻译机构或翻译服务提供商咨询，了解他们的翻译团队和译者资质。

5. 联系译者并提供文件：与选定的译者联系，向他们提供外文文档，说明翻译要求，包括译稿的字数要求。

6. 确定翻译时间和费用：与译者商议翻译所需时间和费用。

根据700字的篇幅，可以预估大约需要多长时间完成翻译，并与译者协商费用。

7. 确认翻译细节并签订合同：确保与译者达成一致，明确翻译细节（如格式要求、专业术语等），并签订合同以确保双方权益。

8. 进行翻译：译者按照约定的时间和要求进行翻译。

9. 校对和审查：完成翻译后，进行校对和审查，确保翻译准确，并根据需要进行修改和调整。

10. 编辑和交付：最后，将翻译稿进行编辑和整理，确保其符合格式和完成度要求，然后交付给客户或发布使用。

需要注意的是，以上步骤只是一个大致的指导，具体步骤和流程可能因个人或组织的不同而有所差异。

在寻找外文翻译时，建议选择有信誉和经验的译者或机构，以确保质量和准时交付。

外文原文(一)Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciple s*M. H. HoeflichFriedrich Carl von Savigny, nobleman, law reformer, champion of the revived German professoriate, and founder of the Historical School of jurisprudence, not only helped to revolutionize the study of law and legal institutions in Germany and in other civil law countries, but also exercised a profound influence on many of the most creative jurists and legal scholars in England and the United States. Nevertheless, tracing the influence of an individual is always a difficult task. It is especially difficult as regards Savigny and the approach to law and legal sources propounded by the Historical School. This difficulty arises, in part, because Savigny was not alone in adopting this approach. Hugo, for instance, espoused quite similar ideas in Germany; George Long echoed many of these concepts in England during the 1850s, and, of course, Sir Henry Sumner Maine also espoused many of these same concepts central to historical jurisprudence in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Thus, when one looks at the doctrinal writings of British and American jurists and legal scholars in the period before 1875, it is often impossible to say with any certainty that a particular idea which sounds very much the sort of thing that might, indeed, have been derived from Savigny's works, was, in fact, so derived. It is possible, nevertheless, to trace much of the influence of Savigny and his legal writings in the United States and in Great Britain during this period with some certainty because so great was his fame and so great was the respect accorded to his published work that explicit references to him and to his work abound in the doctrinal writing of this period, as well as in actual law cases in the courts. Thus, Max Gutzwiller, in his classic study Der einfluss Savignys auf die Entwicklung des International privatrechts, was able to show how Savigny's ideas on conflict of laws influenced such English and American scholars as Story, Phillimore, Burge, and Dicey. Similarly, Andreas Schwarz, in his "Einflusse Deutscher Zivilistik im Auslande," briefly sketched Savigny's influence upon John Austin, Frederick Pollock, and James Bryce. In this article I wish to examine Savigny's influence over a broader spectrum and to draw a picture of his general fame and reputation both in Britain and in the United States as the leading Romanist, legal historian, and German legal academic of his day. The picture of this Anglo-American respect accorded to Savigny and the historical school of jurisprudence which emerges from these sources is fascinating. It sheds light not only upon Savigny’s trans-channel, trans-Atlantic fame, but also upon the extraordinarily*M.H.Hoeflich, Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciples, American Journal of Comparative Law, vol.37, No.1, 1989.cosmopolitan outlook of many of the leading American and English jurists of the time. Of course, when one sets out to trace the influence of a particular individual and his work, it is necessary to demonstrate, if possible, precisely how knowledge of the man and his work was transmitted. In the case of Savigny and his work on Roman law and ideas of historical jurisprudence, there were three principal modes of transmission. First, there was the direct influence he exercised through his contacts with American lawyers and scholars. Second, there was the influence he exercised through his books. Third, there was the influence he exerted indirectly through intermediate scholars and their works. Let us examine each mode separately.I.INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSLATED WORKSWhile American and British interest in German legal scholarship was high in the antebellum period, the number of American and English jurists who could read German fluently was relatively low. Even those who borrowed from the Germans, for instance, Joseph Story, most often had to depend upon translations. It is thus quite important that Savigny’s works were amongst the most frequently translated into English, both in the United States and in Great Britain. His most influential early work, the Vom Beruf unserer Zeitfur Rechtsgeschichte und Gestzgebung, was translated into English by Abraham Hayward and published in London in 1831. Two years earlier the first volume of his History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages was translated by Cathcart and published in Edinburgh. In 1830, as well, a French translation was published at Paris. Sir Erskine Perry's translation of Savigny's Treatise on Possession was published in London in 1848. This was followed by Archibald Brown's epitome of the treatise on possession in 1872 and Rattigan's translation of the second volume of the System as Jural Relations or the Law of Persons in 1884. Guthrie published a translation of the seventh volume of the System as Private International Law at Edinburgh in 1869. Indeed, two English translations were even published in the far flung corners of the British Raj. A translation of the first volume of the System was published by William Holloway at Madras in 1867 and the volume on possession was translated by Kelleher and published at Calcutta in 1888. Thus, the determined English-speaking scholar had ample access to Savigny's works throughout the nineteenth century.Equally important for the dissemination of Savigny's ideas were those books and articles published in English that explained and analyzed his works. A number of these must have played an important role in this process. One of the earliest of these is John Reddie's Historical Notices of the Roman law and of the Progress of its Study in Germany, published at Edinburgh in 1826. Reddie was a noted Scots jurist and held the Gottingen J.U.D. The book, significantly, is dedicated to Gustav Hugo. It is of that genre known as an external history of Roman law-not so much a history of substantive Roman legal doctrine but rather a historyof Roman legal institutions and of the study of Roman law from antiquity through the nineteenth century. It is very much a polemic for the study of Roman law and for the Historical School. It imparts to the reader the excitement of Savigny and his followers about the study of law historically and it is clear that no reader of the work could possibly be left unmoved. It is, in short, the first work of public relations in English on behalf of Savigny and his ideas.Having mentioned Reddie's promotion of Savigny and the Historical School, it is important to understand the level of excitement with which things Roman and especially Roman law were greeted during this period. Many of the finest American jurists were attracted-to use Peter Stein's term-to Roman and Civil law, but attracted in a way that, at times, seems to have been more enthusiastic than intellectual. Similarly, Roman and Civil law excited much interest in Great Britain, as illustrated by the distinctly Roman influence to be found in the work of John Austin. The attraction of Roman and Civil law can be illustrated and best understood, perhaps, in the context of the publicity and excitement in the English-speaking world surrounding the discovery of the only complete manuscript of the classical Roman jurist Gaius' Institutes in Italy in 1816 by the ancient historian and German consul at Rome, B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, the greatest ancient historian of his time, turned to Savigny for help with the Gaius manuscript (indeed, it was Savigny who recognized the manuscript for what it was) and, almost immediately, the books and journals-not just law journals by any means-were filled with accounts of the discovery, its importance to legal historical studies, and, of course, what it said. For instance, the second volume of the American Jurist contains a long article on the civil law by the scholarly Boston lawyer and classicist, John Pickering. The first quarter of the article is a gushing account of the discovery and first publication of the Gaius manuscript and a paean to Niebuhr and Savigny for their role in this. Similarly, in an article published in the London Law Magazine in 1829 on the civil law, the author contemptuously refers to a certain professor who continued to tell his students that the text of Gaius' Institutes was lost for all time. What could better show his ignorance of all things legal and literary than to be unaware of Niebuhr's great discovery?Another example of this reaction to the discovery of the Gaius palimpsest is to be found in David Irving's Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law. This volume is also more a history of Roman legal scholarship and sources than a study of substantive Roman law. Its pages are filled with references to Savigny's Geschichte and its approach clearly reflects the influence of the Historical School. Indeed, Irving speaks of Savigny's work as "one of the most remarkable productions of the age." He must have been truly impressed with German scholarship and must also have been able to convince the Faculty of Advocates, forwhom he was librarian, of the worth of German scholarship, for in 1820 the Faculty sent him to Gottingen so that he might study their law libraries. Irving devotes several pages of his elementary textbook on Roman law to the praise of the "remarkable" discovery of the Gaius palimpsest. He traces the discovery of the text by Niebuhr and Savigny in language that would have befitted an adventure tale. He elaborates on the various labors required to produce a new edition of the text and was particularly impressed by the use of a then new chemical process to make the under text of the palimpsest visible. He speaks of the reception of the new text as being greeted with "ardor and exultation" strong words for those who spend their lives amidst the "musty tomes" of the Roman law.This excitement over the Verona Gaius is really rather strange. Much of the substance of the Gaius text was already known to legal historians and civil lawyers from its incorporation into Justinian's Institutes and so, from a substantive legal perspective, the find was not crucial. The Gaius did provide new information on Roman procedural rules and it did also provide additional information for those scholars attempting to reconstruct pre-Justinianic Roman law. Nevertheless, these contributions alone seem hardly able to justify the excitement the discovery caused. Instead, I think that the Verona Gaius discovery simply hit a chord in the literary and legal community much the same as did the discovery of the Rosetta Stone or of Schliemann’s Troy. Here was a monument of a great civilization brought newly to light and able to be read for the first time in millenia. And just as the Rosetta Stone helped to establish the modern discipline of Egyptology and Schliemann's discoveries assured the development of classical archaeology as a modern academic discipline, the discovery of the Verona Gaius added to the attraction Roman law held for scholars and for lawyers, even amongst those who were not Romanists by profession. Ancillary to this, the discovery and publication of the Gaius manuscript also added to the fame of the two principals involved in the discovery, Niebuhr and Savigny. What this meant in the English-speaking world is that even those who could not or did not wish to read Savigny's technical works knew of him as one of the discoverers of the Gaius text. This fame itself may well have helped in spreading Savigny's legal and philosophical ideas, for, I would suggest, the Gaius "connection" may well have disposed people to read other of Savigny's writings, unconnected to the Gaius, because they were already familiar with his name.Another example of an English-speaking promoter of Savigny is Luther Stearns Cushing, a noted Boston lawyer who lectured on Roman law at the Harvard Law School in 1848-49 and again in 1851- 1852.Cushing published his lectures at Boston in 1854 under the title An Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. He devoted a full chapter to a description of the historical school and to the controversy betweenSavigny and Thibaut over codification. While Cushing attempted to portray fairly the arguments of both sides, he left no doubt as to his preference for Savigny's approach:The labors of the historical school have established an entirely new and distinct era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence; and though these writers cannot be said to have thrown their predecessors into the shade, it seems to be generally admitted, that almost every branch of the Roman law has received some important modification at their hands, and that a knowledge of their writings, to some extent, at least, is essentially necessary to its acquisition.译文(一)萨维尼和他的英美信徒们*M·H·豪弗里奇弗雷德里奇·卡尔·冯·萨维尼出身贵族，是一位出色的法律改革家，也是一位倡导重建德国教授协会的拥护者，还是历史法学派的创建人之一。

毕业论文中的外文翻译毕业论文是大学生们完成学业的重要一环，而其中的外文翻译部分更是让许多同学头疼的难题。

外文翻译不仅要求准确无误地传达原文的意思，还要符合学术规范，使得读者能够轻松理解。

本文将探讨毕业论文中外文翻译的重要性、挑战以及一些应对策略。

首先，我们来看一下为什么外文翻译在毕业论文中如此重要。

随着全球化的发展，学术界的交流与合作变得越来越频繁。

许多重要的学术成果都是以英文等外语发表的，因此，能够准确翻译这些外文文献对于我们理解前沿研究、扩展知识面至关重要。

此外，外文翻译还能够提供不同学术观点的对比，促进我们的思考和创新。

然而，外文翻译并非易事。

首先，语言的差异是一个挑战。

每种语言都有其独特的语法、词汇和表达方式，因此，直译往往会导致意思的失真。

此外，学术领域的专有名词和术语更是需要准确翻译，否则会影响读者对论文的理解。

其次，文化背景的差异也是一个问题。

不同文化对于同一个事物的理解和描述方式可能存在差异，因此，翻译时需要考虑读者的文化背景，以确保翻译的准确性和通俗性。

面对这些挑战，我们可以采取一些策略来提高外文翻译的质量。

首先，我们可以利用各种翻译工具和资源。

例如，使用在线词典和翻译软件可以帮助我们理解和翻译生词和长句。

此外，还可以查阅专业词典和学术文献，以获得更准确的翻译。

其次，我们可以借鉴其他学者的翻译经验。

阅读他们的翻译作品，学习他们的翻译技巧和思维方式，可以提高我们的翻译水平。

此外，与他人交流和讨论也是一个很好的学习途径，可以帮助我们发现和解决翻译中的问题。

除了这些具体的策略，我们还应该注重提高自身的语言能力和跨文化交流能力。

语言能力是翻译的基础，只有具备扎实的语法和词汇基础，才能进行准确的翻译。

因此，我们可以通过大量阅读外文文献、听取外语讲座和参加语言培训等方式来提高语言能力。

而跨文化交流能力则包括对不同文化背景的理解和尊重，以及在跨文化环境中的沟通和协作能力。

这些能力的提升可以通过与外国学者合作、参加国际学术会议和交流项目等方式来实现。

Utilization of urban sewage sludge: Chinese perspectives Purpose Urbanization and industrialization in China has resulted in a dramatic increase in the volume of wastewater and sewage sludge produced from wastewater treatment plants. Problems associated with sewage sludge have attracted increasing attention from the public and urban planners. How to manage sludge in an economically and environmentally acceptable manner is one of the critical issues that modern societies are facing.Methods Sludge treatment systems consist of thickening, dewatering，and several different alternative main treatments(anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, drying, composting, and incineration). Agricultural application, landfill, and incineration are the principal disposal methods for sewage sludge in China. However, sewage sludge disposal in the future should focus on resource recovery, reducing environmental impacts and saving economic costs.Results The reuse of biosolids in all scenarios can be environmentally beneficial and cost-effective. Anaerobic digestion followed by land application is the preferable options due to low economic and energy costs and material reuse.Conclusion It is necessary to formulate a standard suitable for the utilization of sewage sludge in China.1 IntroductionIn 2008, it is estimated that 57 billion tons of municipal wastewater was discharged in China, 58% of which came from municipal domestic sewage, while the production of municipal wastewater and dewatered sewage in China increased approximately 5% per year on average from 1998 to 2009 as shown in Fig.1.Sewage sludge as an inevitable by-product of wastewater treatment process presents a number of environmental concerns.Wastewater treatment processes concentrate various pollutants such as heavy metals, organic micro-pollutants, and pathogens into sludge. Sludge disposal can thereby result in the release of toxins into the environment and subsequently into the food chain. On the other hand, it has been estimated that depending on technology choice, approximately 30∼60% of sewage treatment plant operating costs are related to sludge treatment activities. Therefore, the management of sewage sludge in an economically and environmentally acceptable way is a matter of increasing importance.Fig. 1 Production of municipal wastewater and dewatered sewage sludge in ChinaAn ideal way to solve the issue of sludge waste is to minimize its production in biological wastewater treatment processes, rather than rely on post-treatment. When mechanical wastewater treatment is used, a diversity of approaches for sewage sludge treatment processes and end use exists, each with different associated costs and environmental impacts. Strategies on end uses of biosolids have traditionally been based on cost, regulatory, environmental, and public acceptance considerations. In recent years, several methods have been used to evaluate their economic and environmental acceptability. Hospido et al considered land application as an acceptable option for anaerobic digested sludge by evaluating environmental and economic costs of threescenarios (land application, incineration, and pyrolysis of dried sludge), but the environmental impact of construction was ignored. Also little detailed economic analysis information is available for other alternative scenarios. Barber used a model comparing the environmental impacts and economic costs of different alternative treatment and disposal scenarios. Nevertheless, the transport costs associated with the full range of biosolids management options were not discussed, which may be one of the limiting factors of sludge land application in China. Few investigations have been reported on the environmental and economic impacts of pyrolysis and gasification scenario, partly due to their high cost and scarce application in practice. Therefore, more detailed papers should be investigated for an overall comparison of different treatment and end use of urban sewage sludge, to determine which combinations are more sustainable.There are 1,258 municipal wastewater treatment plants(WWTPs) in China. The method of sewage sludge disposal is carried out using four processes: 45% of the sludge produced is being utilized in agriculture, 3.5% is being incinerated, 34.5% is landfilled including 3.5% with domestic waste, while 3.5% is used in some other areas (Fig. 2). There are political and economic incentives to increase the agriculture application of sludge since it contains large amounts of organic matter and nutrients, such as N and P. However, the reduced availability of land, increased public comprehension of pathogen risk, the potential for food chain contamination by heavy metals, and the risk of uncertainty surrounding organic micropollutants act to limit sludge land application. Landfill is also decreasing because of technology, economic capacity, and new legislation. Incineration due to significant dry solid volume reduction and energy recovery from the sludge can contribute to a sustainable biosolids strategy, but environmental pollution and the cost should becarefully treated. Other disposal options such as pyrolysis, gasification,combustion,and co-combustion of sewage sludge with other materials and use as an energy source in the production of cement or building materials have been intensively investigated. These processes which can recover energy from sewage sludge will probably become the future trends of development.Fig. 2 Ways of sludge disposal and utilization in China (2010)Based on the above considerations, it can be expected that studies for the treatment of sewage sludge shall focus on the following aspects: safe handling, resource recovery, and low economic costs. In all these respects, the recovery of sustainable energy from sewage sludge will be of obvious importance. Another issue of concern is to reduce toxins in sewage sludge before the final treatment and minimize the negative impacts on human and ecosystem health. The aim of this paper is to discuss the current situation and future outlook for sewage sludge treatment and disposal and estimate the environmental and economic impacts of various options from sewage sludge. It also provides some reference for decision makers to better manage sewage sludge.2 Composition of sewage sludge in ChinaThe composition and characteristics of sewage sludge depend on several factors, such as the origin of the wastewater, the purification treatment of the wastewater, stabilization treatment, time and storage conditions, or the coagulant agents used. Generally, sewage sludge is composed of organic compounds, macronutrients, and a wide range of micronutrients, non-essential trace metals, organic micropollutants, and microorganisms. It should be stated that some parameters are important when considering the ultimate disposal of the processed sludge and energy reuse from the sludge during treatment. Dry matter has an effect on fuel requirements, exhaust gas production at the incineration process, and the cost of sludge transportation. V olatile matter, a measure of the sludge organic content, is the most important parameter regarding the energetic use of sewage sludge. Other factors, such as harmful organic compounds, micropollutants, nutrients, and heavy metal, cannot be neglected. According to Hua et al., polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons have become one of the primary pollutants in sludge of Zhejiang WWTPs instead of heavy metals, which has a great influence on agriculture application of sewage sludge. Emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products, illicit drugs, flame retardants, and perfluorinated compounds should be focused on, due to their endocrine-disrupting properties. N and P are essential resources especially with respect to P. Natural P deposits of sufficient quality are becoming scare, prompting rapid price increase. As a result, large quantities of sludge are applied to farmland. Heavy metal content which is very sensitive to the wastewater source decides whether sewage sludge can be applied to land or not. The threshold value of heavy metal for sludge end use should meet the Pollutants Control Standard of Sludge.3 Sewage sludge treatment process and anaerobic digestionSludge treatment process Biosolids management was divided into categories for sludge treatment and end use, which are likely to be realized by different entities—the wastewater treatment plant and the recipient of treated sludge. Sludge treatment systems generally consist of thickening, dewatering, and several alternative main treatments, such as anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, drying, composting, and incineration, which are critical in determining biosolids quality and post-treatment options. Anaerobic digestion or composting is used to meet regulatory requirement for pathogen and remnant organic materials reduction prior to land application. Although incineration can significantly decrease dry solid volume and effectively attain a 100% reduction of pathogens and viruses, it produces dioxins, furans, and fly ash, as incurring as higher running/operational costs. Drying is a necessary process prior to thermal utilization of sewage sludge. The moisture content should meet standards regulated by Chinese legislation after sludge treatment.Life cycle assessment as an environmental information analysis tool to aid planners in the wastewater treatment plant has been extensively applied to sludge treatment. Hong et al carried out a quantified environmental and economic analysis of six alternative scenarios: dewatering, dewatered sludge composting, dewatered sludge drying, dewatered sludge incineration, incinerated ash melting, and dewatered sludge melting, each with and without digestion. The results show that sewage sludge digestion leads to the lower economic and environmental impacts, while dewatered sludge melting is an environmentally optimal and economically affordable method. Murry et al. did an integrated study, comparing nine alternative treatment schemes and arranged them in order of environmental and economic impacts. They proposed that anaerobic digestion (no lime) is overall the most preferable sludge treatment option whereas incineration, particularly coal-fired, is the most costly. Acommon feature of these methods was the utilization of the resource embodied in sludge; for example, heat drying with compost takes advantage of embodied nutrients, anaerobic digestion, and incineration of sewage sludge takes advantage of embodied energy. Overall, in order to decrease the environmental and economic impacts during sludge treatment, maximizing potential offsets, including the efficiency of the thickening process, energy capture from anaerobic digestion, and the electricity production rate generated from biogas, is required.Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic digestion is considered an essential process in a modern WWTP due to reduction of sludge volume, generation of energy-rich biogas, and production of a nutrient-rich final product. Compared with other technologies, it is the most efficient method to capture energy from biosolids with high water content. Barber reported that the conversion of methane produced from anaerobic digestion to electricity and heat is the main contributor to renewable energy within the WWTP. In the EU, 50% of sewage treatment plants have anaerobic digestion, 18% incorporate aerobic digestion, and 4% lime stabilization, whereas 24% of the plants undertake no sludge stabilization. The same tendency is observed in China, but no detailed available information was reported. However, its application has often been limited by very long retention times and low overall degradation efficiency. In order to increase biodegradability and enhance anaerobic digestion with lower retention time and higher biogas production, various sludge pretreatment techniques have been applied in sludge digestion. These processes include biological (largely thermal phased anaerobic), thermal hydrolysis, mechanical (such as ultrasound, high pressure and lysis), chemical with oxidation (mainly ozonation), alkali, and combined pretreatment.Currently, combined sludge digestion with other processes to achieve maximum utilization has attracted more and more attention. Using energy released by microbial decomposition to complete water evaporation in the process of biological drying is a promising method for dewatering sludge. There are some advantages in this process such as low-cost and energy consumption since no fossil fuel is depleted in such systems. Moreover, CO2 emission can also be significantly reduced, while the remaining sludge can be converted into amino acid salt with a content of 90% amino acid after acidification. An effective project like this has already been applied in Qinhuangdao City, China.4 Ways of sludge disposal and utilization4.1 Main disposal methods in ChinaLandfill Landfill is economical and low energy consumption due to its low-technology processes. However, it is a significant source of CH4and N2O, which are greenhouse gases with a high global warming potential. Leachate containing P and heavy metal can threaten surface and ground waters, and none of the nutrient or energy content is recovered from landfill. Biosolid management technologies for very small towns, with limited technical and financial resources, may justifiably consider investing in biofiltration or methane trapping and flaring at their local landfill.Land application Land application of sewage sludge has a great incentive in view of its fertility and soil conditioning properties. It has been shown that the use of sewage sludge derived soil amendments can improve soil physical properties, such as porosity, aggregate stability, bulk density, water retention and movement, and sequester carbon in the soil, thereby reducing atmospheric CO2content and global warming potential. The environmental offset in electricity and fuel consumption is also great when sludge is usedin place of synthetic fertilizers.Land application of sewage sludge is convenient and low requirements. Various stabilized biosolids such as slurry, dewatered cake, and dried pellets can be applied to land. However, sludge utilization can be limited due to its heavy metal, organic micropollutants, and pathogen content. Heavy metal concentrations depending on the relative contributor of industrial wastewaters to the overall flow can be decreased from sludge via source control. Pathogens are removed by pretreatment such as thermophilic anaerobic digestion, or composting.Land application is available only when the sludge quality meets the local criteria with respect to pathogens and heavy metal content. In addition, the doses and rates of sludge application should also be carefully considered. Reports show that excessive application of sludge has increased the bioavailability of heavy metals, which might pose a serious risk to human health. While long-term application of sewage sludge can result in leaching of P and heavy metals, the risks of which are greater than the transfer of heavy metals into plant tissue and the food chain in the case of crops.In addition, recovery of N and P should also be taken seriously. It is generally accepted that with the rapid urbanization in China, increasing amounts of N and P are entering the cities through food consumption. It is estimated that N and P contained in urban sewage sludge were 31,500 and 23,600 tons, respectively, in 2009. With increasing urbanization, the improvement of sewage treatment systems and nutrient use efficiency in food production systems, it is anticipated that nutrients contained in the urban waste stream are likely to increase dramatically in China in the next 10–20 years. Although the absolute amounts of N and P in sewage sludge are not great as compared to chemical fertilizersapplied to agricultural land in China, their emission to the environment will have serious impacts on water quality and ecosystem health. P, as a nonrenewable resource, is becoming depleted, and production of P fertilizer is increasingly more expensive, thus threatening food security globally. Therefore, recovery of nutrients from sewage sludge in a sustainable way is becoming an important challenge for environmental engineers.4.2 Thermochemical processes for sludgeIncineration Incineration of sewage sludge is a process in which its organic matter is completely transformed into CO2 and H2O under high-temperature and aerobic conditions, while inorganic compounds remain in the ash. It is an effective way to dispose of sludge with advantages such as large reduction of sludge volume, thermal destruction of toxic organic compounds, and minimization of odor generation. The final sludge volume after incineration is approximately 10% of that after mechanical dewatering. The energy produced in the incineration process can be used for drying the mechanically dewatered sludge cake prior to the incineration process or can be used for the production of electricity. The amount of energy produced strongly depends upon the water content of the sludge and performance of the incineration.Incineration as an attractive disposal method has been applied worldwide. For example, the amount of sludge being incinerated in Denmark has already reached 24% of the sludge produced, 20% in France, 15% in Belgium, and 14% in Germany, while in USA and Japan the percentage has increased to 25% and 55%, respectively. The main problems for combustion of sludge are high running cost and environmental impacts. Environmental problems relate to the accumulation of heavy metals in ashes and exhaust gases to the atmosphere. The former can be solved by using incineration ash as raw materials in cementmanufacturing, during which process heavy metals are immobilized in cement. Exhaust gases consist of dioxins, furans, and other pollutants (CO2, NO x, N2O, and SO x). Emissions of dioxins and furans are not generally a problem if temperatures above 600°C are kept and flue gases are rapidly cooled below 400°C. N2O can effectively be eliminated by increasing the combustion temperature to 880°C. Addition facilities such as electrostatic precipitators, wet scrubber system, etc. are also needed to comply with the strict exhaust gas emission standards. Large investment for the purification of flue gases may raise social objections.Co-combustion of sewage sludge with other natural resources (coal, lignite, or wood) or municipal solid waste is also an alternative method for the management of sewage sludge. Environmentally and economically, technology scenarios for co-combusting of biosolids meet Waste Incineration Directive emission criteria and provide a net energy gain, but absence of policy and legal clarity, supply chain insecurity, and market immaturity hinder the development of co-combustion.Incineration is suitable for cities; for example, Hangzhou has switched to incineration as the preferred option in sewage management, where land is very valuable. To avoid the high operation cost for sludge incineration and also to improve the energy recovery efficiency, exploiting new types of sewage sludge incinerators, implementation of a combined heat and power production unit at incineration plants, and the use of the polluted drying gas in the incineration process are feasible. It is expected that incineration will play an increasingly important role in sewage management in China in the coming decade. Pyrolysis Pyrolysis is a thermal decomposition of organic substances in the absence of air or in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere. The products of pyrolysis are biogas (noncondensable), bio-oil (condensable volatiles), and carbonaceous bio-char residue all of which have a potential end use and can be maximized by modulating the process conditions. Compared to incineration, pyrolysis has some potential advantages. One advantage is that the conversion of the combustible gases into electrical power can be achieved more efficiently.In addition, the formation and emission of toxic organic compounds, such as dioxins, NO x, and SO x, can be avoided in pyrolysis with low oxygen concentration.Using steam pyrolysis to treat sludge is currently a practice being conducted in China, for example, in the city of Shenzhen. After treatment, the moisture content of sludge is reduced from 80% to 50%, resulting in the final sludge volume decreasing by 60%. During this process, pathogen and odor can be thoroughly removed. The treatment sludge can be made into organic fertilizer, which can be used for horticulture and forestry cultivation. It is a proof of concept for the sustainable development of the circular economy.Other technologies, such as production of bio-oil from the pyrolysis of sewage sludge, have attracted attention due to the non-renewable nature and the increasing price of fossil fuel. Because the mechanism of such a process is complex, many parameters such as temperature, sewage sludge types, retention time, and the catalysts used affect bio-oil production. Literature concerning the production of bio-oil from sludge has demonstrated that the temperature and volatile solid content were the primary factors affecting oil and char yields. The maximum oil yield was achieved with primary sludge at 500°C, and the optimum pyrolysis temperature for waste activated sludge was 400°C. It is also stated that the optimal pyrolysis temperature for bio-oil production is 450°C. Experimental studies on pyrolysis liquids obtained from different sewage sludge have come to very interestingconclusions: High sewage sludge ash content favored the decrease in the char yield and the generation of nonvolatile gases, while the sewage sludge with less content of oxygen-containing compounds would favor the quality of the pyrolysis liquids. It elucidates some recommendable characteristics in order to use sewage sludge as pyrolysis feedstock. Metal oxide catalysts can have different influence on pyrolysis. The presence of Fe2O3 and ZnO probably inhibited the decomposition of organic matters in demineralized sludge samples to generate more solid residues, while Al2O3,CaO,and TiO2 promoted the degradation of organic matters to produce less solid residues. Al2O3 and TiO2 may decrease pyrolysis time, while CaO, Fe2O3, and ZnO may prolong pyrolysis time. It is therefore important to formulate optimal catalysts for such systems.However, the acceptance of this technology may be limited by the low economic value of the product, as well as the relative complexity of the processing equipments. The economic viability of pyrolysis may be improved if the yield of oil were enhanced or if value-added products such as adsorbents could be produced from the pyrolysis chars.5 PerspectivesThis paper reviews present and future directions of sewage sludge management in China. Up until now, most of the sewage sludge produced in the process of wastewater treatment has been used in agriculture or disposed of in landfills, or via incineration. Sewage sludge is rich in resources including nutrients and energy. Given the vast population and rapid urbanization in China, sewage sludge represents a major issue in environment and resource management. To resolve this issue, we propose that a holistic approach should be taken to manage sewage sludge in China, and future research and commercialization should focus on the following aspects:• Life-cycle analysis of food and water consumption in urbanized regions to provide a full account of nutrient flow within urban ecosystems and to calculate the value of sewage sludge within a given boundary/region• Diverse resource recovery systems (for nutrients, bioenergy, and raw substances for building materials) should be developed and applied for sewage sludge management, and in many cases, these systems should be integrated and optimized depending on the quality of sewage sludge and the scale of the region producing sewage sludge. Cost–benefit analysis should also be conducted so that the best technology available can be selected for different scenarios• Novel and environmentally friendly materials derived from sewage sludge, such as PHA, are appealing, and the potential of different bacterial species and recombinant strains should be explored further in the context of increased PHA yield and productivity• For sustainable management of sewage sludge, frameworks for risk assessment should be developed for different options of resource recovery, and the risks should be communicated to the public• New energy policies and regulations such as the climate change levy and enforcing source control to municipal sewers are critical in determining the sustainability of the future in sludge management。