The relationship between culture and language

文化艺术类专业博士计划书英文回答：Research Proposal for a PhD in Culture and Arts.Abstract.This research proposal outlines a plan for a PhD in Culture and Arts. The research will explore therelationship between culture and the arts, and how each informs the other. The research will also examine the role of the arts in society, and how they can be used to promote social change.Literature Review.The literature review will examine the existing research on the relationship between culture and the arts. The review will focus on the following key areas:The definitions of culture and the arts.The history of the relationship between culture and the arts.The role of the arts in society.The impact of the arts on social change.Research Methods.The research will use a qualitative approach, including interviews, focus groups, and participant observation. The research will be conducted in a variety of settings, including museums, theaters, and community centers.Data Analysis.The data will be analyzed using a thematic analysis approach. The analysis will focus on identifying the key themes that emerge from the data.Expected Outcomes.The expected outcomes of the research are:A deeper understanding of the relationship between culture and the arts.A new understanding of the role of the arts in society.A set of recommendations for how the arts can be used to promote social change.中文回答：文化艺术类专业博士计划书。

The relationship between language and cultureIntroductionLanguage is the important means of communication, and it is the carrier of culture and a part of culture, any language was born with formation of its culture, develops with the development of culture, and in most cases, perishes with death of its culture.1. Language, as a concrete system of signs, has its own significance in the culture communicationIt has long been recognized that language is an essential and important part of a given culture and that the importance of culture upon a given language is something indispensable.1.1 Language is a systemThe important of language to the study intercultural communication is clearly captured in the American poet Ralph Waldo Emerson’s simple sentence “Language is the archives of history.” His declaration takes on added significance when we realize that one of the major characteristics identifying us as human is our ability to use language –to make sounds and marks serve as substitutes for things and feelings.Over millions of years, we have evolved the anatomy necessary to produce and receive sounds have taken on meaning by representing things, feelings, and ideas. This combination of evolution and culture has led to the development of a four-part process that enables us share our internal states with other human beings. In short, we can receive, store, manipulate, and generate symbols to represent our personalized realities.1.2 The importance of languageLanguage is extremely important to human interaction because it is how we reach out to make contract with our surroundings. If we were to survey a normal day, we would soon see that we use words for a wide variety of purposes we may use language when we first awake: “Good morning!” We use words as a wa y to write with the outside world. Or we may use words to share an unpleasant experience and to get support from other: “Let me tell you about the horrible dream I had last night.” This example also demonstrates how we employ words to relate to the past, that is, to talk about something that has already happened.We use words so that we can experience some control over the present: “please pass me thesalt and pepper.” We each seek to affect our environment, to influence many lf the daily situations in which we find ourselves. Words, and how we manipulate them, permit us to make those alterations through symbolic transactions with others.We also use words to form images of the future: “I have meet with Jane at work today, but I dread seeing her, because I k now she’s going to be upset about the changes I’m making in her work schedule.” Our wording ability allows us to predict and describe the future .We use words to persuade to exchange ideas, to exchange ideas, to express views, to seek information, and to express feelings. When we study another language, we soon discover that the symbols, the sounds for those symbols, and the rules for using those symbols and sounds are different.2. Language, as a culture institution, is born with culture. It develops and interacts with the cultureTo preserve the language of a nation is to preserve its special culture and history. When people can not understand the old language, they will be less tightly connected to or even gradually lose their cultures and histories. Their enemies know much more clearly than themselves as to this point.We still remember that in the famous article The Last Lesson, the first thing Prussians did when they intruded France, was to replace French with Prussian in the school education. Japanese also took the same strategy in order to cut off the connection between people and their histories and cultures. This evil refused to only stay in people's memory and is still threatening certain cultures and nations. Thus both Jews and Tibetans are still fighting to preserve their languages for the sake of their cultures and histories at the edge of being extinguished.2.1 Explain the meaning of the cultureWhen delivering daily speech, the word "culture" refers to pursuits such as literature and music. More broadly, we can define "culture" as all the modes of thought, behavior, and production that are handed down from one generation to the next by means of communicative interaction── speech, gesture, epic, construction, and all other communication among hu mans── rather than by genetic transmission or heredity. "Culture" is an essential concept for it is what makes humans unique in the animal kingdom. All familiar forms of social organizations, ranging from the simplest family to the most sophisticated corporation depend upon "culture" for their existence. Nevertheless, "society" and "culture" might be confusing forone to distinguish. "Society" is population that is organized to carry out the major function of life.A society's "culture" consists of all the ways in which its members think about it among themselvesCulture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. As culture is so inclusive, it permeates virtually every aspect of human life and influences predominantly people’s behavior, including linguistic behavior. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, belief or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.Generally speaking, there are two types of culture: material and spiritual. While material culture, as the term itself suggests, is concrete, substantial and observable, most of spiritual culture, the products of mind, is abstract, ambiguous, and hidden. In contrast with nature in the sense of what is born and grows, culture refers to what has been grown and brought up with, in other words, what can be nurtured. Culture, especially material culture, is reproduced and preserved through the maintaining of beliefs, traditions, education and other institution mechanisms, mean while, it changes slowly with the development of the society.2.2 The relationship between language and cultureWe begin our preview of language by noting that it is impossible to separate our use if language from our culture. In its most basic sense, language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people. When we study another language, we soon discover that not only are the symbol and sounds for those symbols different, but so are the rules (phonology, grammar, syntax, and intonation) for using those symbols and sounds.Word different are obvious in various language. In English, we live in a house. In Spanish, we live on a case. In Thai we live in a ban. Phonology also varies culturally. In English, we have 21 consonant sounds and 5 vowels that combine to from 38 various sounds. “Vie tnamese has 34 segmental phonemes consisting of vowels, semivowels and consonants.” The Filipino language has 16 consonants and 10 vowels forming 26 phonemes. Portuguese has 21 consonants and 13 vowels that form 34 basic phonemes. Grammatical structures are unique to each language as well. In English verb tenses express contrast between past, present, and future acts, but in Vietnamese, the same verb reflects all three and the time of action is inferred from the context. Syntax, or theword order and structure of sentences, also varies depending on the language. The normal woes order for simple sentences in Filipino is the reverse of the word order in English. That is, the predicate is followed by the subject. For example, the English sentence “The teacher died” would be “Namatay ang guro” or “died the teacher” in Filipino. In English, the subject is followed by a verb and then an object, but in Korean, the subject is followed by the object and then the verb. So in English we might say, “The cat ate the mouse,” but in Korean, “Cat mouse ate” would be correct.These examples indicate that if we want to communicate in another language, it is important for us to know not only the symbols of that language, but also the rules for using those symbols. As you know language is much more than a symbol and rule system that allows us to communicate with another person-language also shapes the process by which people became introduced to the order of the physical and social environment. As Nanda indicates, “language, therefore, would seem to have major impact on the way an individual perceives and conceptualizes the world.”2.2.1Language not only express a person’s meaning but also express a nation’s cultureWe can have different meanings for the same word. For instance, to one person, the woes grass might mean something in front of then house that is green, has to be watered, and must be mowed once a week: to another person, grass may mean something that is rolled in paper and smoked. All people, drawing on their backgrounds, decide what a word means. People have similar meanings only to the experience includes baseball, to us a rope is a line driver. If our background lies in the world of jazz music, the word ax does not indicate something used to chop wood but any horn or woodwind instrument. And it is likely that we and a physician respond differently to the woes cancer.If we include culture as a variable on the process of abstracting meaning, the problems became all the more acute, for culture teaches us both the symbol and what the symbol represents. When you are communicating with someone from your own culture, the process of using words to represent your experience is much easier because within a culture people share many similar experiences. But when communication is between people from distinct cultures, different experiences are involved and the process is more troublesome. Objects, events, experiences, and feelings have the labels or names they do because a community id people arbitrarily decided to so name them. If we extent this notion to the intercultural setting, we can see that diverse cultures can have both different symbols and different responses.There are even differences between British and American usage in word meanings. Although some words are spelled and pronounced the same, they have different meanings. For instance, the words boot, bonnet, lift, and biscuit in British English translate into American English as car trunk, car hood, elevator, and cookie. In the area of business, there are also some interesting differences. For example, the British term annual gunnel meeting translates in American English as annual meeting of shareholders; scheme translates as pension plan. From these examples, we see that culture exerts an enormous influence on language because culture teaches not rules for using those symbols and rules for using those symbols, but more important, the meaning associate with the symbols. Further, culture influences the way people use language.2.2.2 Language and its culture influence are exemplified in the theoretical formulations of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesisLanguage and its culture influence are exemplified in the theoretical formulations of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which in essence states that language is a guide to “social reality.” T his hypothesis implies that language is not simply a means of reporting experience but, more important, it is a way of defining experience. Sapir wrote:Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society …The real world is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached. Nanda provides an excellent example if the Sapir-Whorf concept in practice: If my language has only one term-brother-in-law- that is applied to my sister’s husband, my husband’s brothers, and my husband’s sisters’ husbands, I am led by my language to perceive all of these relatives in a similar way. Vocabulary, through what it groups together under one label and what it differentiates with different labels, is one way in which language shapes our perception of the world.3. Linguistic evidence of cultural differenceAny linguistic may be simultaneously of a denotative, connotative, or iconic kind of meanings. To begin with, any sign has a meaning that can be found in a dictionary, this is the denotative meaning. For example, “rose” is a flower that has a pleasant smell and is usually red,pink, white, or yellow etc. On most occasions “rose” means more than a flower, it also triggers many associations mostly good ones such as love, fragrance, passion and beauty etc. These are its connotations or connotative meanings. Moreover, the word “rose” also invok es image to people. The famous line “my love is a red rose” stirs up vividly the imagination if a beautiful young lady. This is the iconic meanings.All these types of meanings are bound with culture encodings from their associations. Each language has its own metaphors that provide semantic cohesion within its boundaries. Motivated by the need and desire to influence others, people choose to use words which emphasize denotative meaning, connotative meaning or iconic meanings or all of them, during the same process its cultural meanings are created.The following are some illustrations of the cultural differences in language use which we may often come across in our daily life.3.1 A Comparison of Chinese and British Hospitality in Treating GuestsIn China, people’s hospitality is shown by the number of the dishes offered as well as by the eagerness to impress the guest with the most expensive and nutritious food.While in Britain, people value equality. Their hospitality is shown by treating the guest as an equal with the host. Believing in simplicity regarding food, they may offer their guest the same type of meal they usually eat. Part of the reason is their egalitarianism and other reason is that the host wants to introduce the foreign guest to British food and eating customs, and make the guest feed comfortable.The foreign guest might think of the saying. “When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”3.2Different Topics between China and West Common topics in China3.2.1Common topic in ChinaSince there is not much privacy that is found in China. People feel free to ask almost any question without being offensive. The most common topics are age, income, property, family life, especially children, politics and religion. Also, when a purchase, is made, Chinese people will often ask or voluntarily tell the item’s price in order to share the happiness of shopping. But most Westerns feel it very inappropriate to talk about the price of products they have purchased. That information is considered private, so question about price should not be asked.Elderly people are highly respected in China, of “old” means wisdom and experience, theolder the better. Males especially will often ask about each other’s age to show respect for the elder one. And the elder one feels very happy to be addressed as “lao” plus surname.Today, more and more Chinese women, who have been influence by the Western cultures, do not want to give their ages.However, it is very rude for person to address the senior or the elder only by their family names. Some topics concerning the death will always be avoided.3.2.2 Common topics in the westPeople in the West like to talk about the weather, sports, news, traveling, interests and hobbies. Do not ask personal questions about age, weight, illness, income, property, religion and politics. In general conversations asking about these political issues. Beware that politics is an “emotionally changed” topic because the people in the conversation may have differing viewpoints within the group.General question about family can be asked to start a conversation. You may ask if a person is single or married. Depending on how the conversation is going, you can either ask directly by saying, “Are you single?” or “Are you married?” or indirectly by saying, “Do yo u have a family?”3.3 Friendship3.3.1 Friendship in ChinaIn China most people expert their friends to do for then when they are in need. There is an obligation to a friendship. People feel obligated and a duty to do for their friends. We have a lot for Chinese sayings concerning friendship:“为朋友两肋插刀”(people can take any risks, even risk of their lives, especially among male friends, to do everything for their friends disregarding whether it’s right or wrong);“有难同当，有福同享” (people can not only share bitterness ,hardships but also happiness with their friends). Other proverb and sayings such as “一个篱笆三个桩，一个好汉三个帮”(As one fence needs three stakes, a good guy needs three fellows.)“在家靠父母，出门靠朋友”(It is your parents that you can rely on at home, but it is your friends that you can count in when out in the society ), show that friendship really counts or is very important to a person in the society.Having friends reflects having a good personality you have and more sociable you are. Your life will be better if you have more friends, and will be worse without friends. One needs a friend to help him or her out when difficulties occur, and one needs a friend to offer financial supportwhen there is a lack of money. So in other words, one cannot be without friends in his or her life. Actually, there is a lot to say about Chinese friendships, and I am sure you have more explanations you can add to this list because of a better understanding of your own personal friendships.3.3.2Friendship in the United StatesIn general, American has causal, friendly relationships with many people, but deeper, closer friendships with only a few. Friendship requires time and commitment (The state of being bound emotionally or intellectually to a course of action or to another person or persons) and depending on the American is commitment to family, which is a priority, and time require for work or school, various types of friendships will be developed.3.3.3 Different ways of Expressing FriendshipPeople in the west apologize to their friends over things like asking for help in some small matter or telephoning late at night. They tend to use polite forms such as “could you”, and “would you” even with their friends. They may sound cold and distant when they feel perfectly friendly.Chinese people tend to make more direct requests to their friends. They address those they know quite well in a very direct way. They may sound rude and demanding when they intend to sound friendly.3.4 Greetings and term of addressIt is estimated that in English there are at least a dozen different g reetings, from “Hi” and “Hello” to more specific and longer ones like “How are you getting on?” or “How is everything with you?” People choose the proper one to greet different people they meet on different occasions. For example, people greet a new acquai ntance with “How do you do?” and expect the same in answer, but they greet an old friend differently. When friends meet, you may find more than once they are uttering” How are you?” at the same time to each other, and they both answer “Fine, thank you.” Di fferently, a Chinese speaker may greet his friends or new acquaintance with “Nin hao” or “Nihao”, whether they meet for the first time or anytime in the day.Another noticeable difference between the two greeting systems is that most Chinese people tend to greet acquaintances with “have you eaten?” or “Where are you heading for?” Obviously, if we greet the native speakers of English in this way, it will certainly cause misunderstanding.Sometimes different terms of address can be equally misleading for Chinese learners ofEnglish or English learners of Chinese. While in China “Tongzhi” was once used for all people irrespective of sex, position or marital status, in English –speaking communities “Mr.” “Mrs.” “Miss.” “Ms.” would be appropriate in similar situa tions. It is also interesting to note that in recent years “Mr.” and “Miss.” Are picked up again to replace “Tongzhi” with the changes in society. Meanwhile “shifu” is frequently used to show respect for strangers. English speakers, on similar occasions, w ould use “Sir” or “Madam”.The extension of kinship term is another feature of Chinese culture . Term such as “uncle, aunt, grandpa, and granny” are used as honorific titles for senior people or strangers, as in “ Granny Li” and “Uncle “Zhang”. Native spea kers of English would be puzzled if they are addressed in this way by people outside the immediate family. Similarly, the use of respectful titles-Chair-man Jiang, Premier Zhou, Director Ma-to indicate people’s influential status is typical of Chinese culture. Such practice, however, is less common in English –speaking cultures.3.5 Natural environmentIn Chinese, "the east wind" makes one feel warm genial, the grass long hawk flies, mixed peanut tree, but "the west wind" then just right is opposite, some one kind the flavor which sends the human to the bone to inter the body or bones of a monk. Yan Shu had written that “last night the west wind withered the blue tree”, Ma Zhiyuan had written that “ancient road, the west wind and thin horse.” All these are illustrations. However English situation is actually different from Chinese. We can read to Samuel Butler’s poem that” biting east winds”. Charles Dickens had written that “How many winter days have I seen him. Standing blue nosed in the snow and east win d! “About the west wind, then has John Milton’s line from his poem” And west winds with musky wing”. John Masefield had written that “It is a want wind the west wind full of birds ' cries. “The meaning of the two kinds of wind association of summer is so d ifference in Chinese and English people’s mind. The reason is also the geographical position. China is located in the Asian mainland. Because of the continental climate in China, the four seasons are distinct. In summer the most obvious characteristic is a scorching sun and unendurable hot. But England is located in the North temperate zone. Because of the marine climate, the summer in England is so beautiful, temperate and satisfied.3.6 manners and customsIn English there is only a word “cousin” but in Chinese there male cousin, younger male cousin, younger female cousin to express the same meaning. We can find that, Chinese relates unexpectedly the cousin obtains so strictly. It must say the sex and branch out the size. That is different from using only one word in English .The reason of this language phenomenon should attribute to the Chinese 23,000 years long time feudal rule. This kind of feudalism patriarchal society takes the blood relationship relations highly. It emphasized specially rank difference, and advocated the precedence and maintained between seniors and juniors. Westerner’s ideal is everybody pursues equality .They want to obtain the equal standing with the dialogue person. So westerners always directly shout the name of their sisters, brothers even their father and mother.3.7 Thanks and complimentsCulture differences are also evident in the ways gratitude and compliments are expressed. It is noted that people in the West tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and that the westerners tend to accept thanks and compliments more directly and frankly than we Chinese do.When a native English speaker expresses to us his gratitude, a Chinese speaker may feel embarrassed and would sometimes say “no, no” t o decline whatever expressions of gratitude. However, English speakers, in a similar situation , would say something like “I am glad to hear it “ or “I am glad to be of help “ to acknowledge and accept the thanks. To native speakers of Chinese, expressions like “Not at all” or “It is nothing” which are sometimes used by Englishmen to turn down thanks may sometime lead to misunderstanding.Similarly, many native Chinese speakers will feel embarrassed when they hear compliments like “you speak excellence English” or “You have acquired a native English speaker accent.” To show their modesty and that they do not deserve a compliment, is sincere, they tend to use an emphatic “no”. English speaking people, unlike Chinese, will accept compliment. Therefore, they think it is inappropriate to show false humility, or pretended modesty.3.8 Privacy and taboosAlthough people of different culture have many common areas of privacy or taboos, there are also areas where our culture differs from western culture. As the sa ying goes “A man’s home is high value on privacy. It is not appropriate for us to ask questions about personal information like age, family background, salary, or questions on personal activities. It is advisable we shouldnot talk about such things, when conversing with English –speaking people unless they indicate clearly that they do not mind or they talk about them first themselves. Some of these questions are listed below:How old are you?What are your wages?How much do you earn?You make a lot of mo ney, don’t you?What’s you name?How much did that pair of shoes cost you?Moreover, we should be careful to avoid expressions related sexual intercourse, some organ of human body, four-letter words and racism etc.In China when two people first meet each other, they will ask many questions to each other. After three minutes, they will know each other very well. They have got much privacy information clearly from each other. Include family situation, individual condition. This also is the different cultural context which both sides locates is having an effect. The English beautiful women pay great attention to individual privacy specially. They thought individual matter shouldn’t let others know. And they wouldn’t others to intervene. Since 1100 years Chines e people live in a village near to each other and contact each other very often. So their privacy affair was difficult to let other persons know. Therefore they very are willing to understand others good and bad in life, others also want honestly to consider.3.9 Culture –relate idioms, proverbs and metaphorsDifferent languages may reflect different culture, different cultures entail different language expressions. Idioms, proverbs and saying and metaphors in different languages, derived from different origins, also demonstrate cultural differences. Different languages may have different idioms owing to different living environments, social conventions and literature tradition etc. A constellation of examples could be picked up from different levels of language analysis to illustrate the interplay of language and culture.When you get your hands dirty, it does not necessarily mean in the American culture that you have done some manual work and need to wash your hand.When you have enough dumbbells, it does not necessarily mean that you keep pair if this instrument for regular physical practices.Another example that since English people view dog as human being’s best friend, we can find more English people view dog as human being’s best friend, we can find more English expressions with dog than in Chinese.Luck dog: a luck personClever dog: a clever boy or smart ladDumb dog: silent person or a person who keeps secretsLead a dog’s life: to live an exhausted and unhappy lifePut on the dog: put in airAnd some proverbs and saying with dogs are listed as fellows.Every dog has his day.Dog does not eat dog.Give a dog an ill name and hang him.Barking dogs seldom bite.Beware of a silent dog and still water.Love me, love my dog.As to metaphor, we can easi ly find that in Chinese anger id compared with “liquid” or “qiti” as in “wo qi si le”(I am anger to death)while in English anger is more compared with “fire” as in “he is outraged.” “His face turned red with anger.” “She lost her temper.”, to mention just a few.3.10 Color wordThere are many color words in our language, such as red, white, black, yellow, purple and so forth, which are used frequently. In the first place, I’d like to introduce the common usages of the color words.English abounds with phrases containing color words. Colors may convey different messages to people of different cultures. Due to the respective cultural background and tradition, some phrases containing color words have far surpassed their original meanings, forming different connotations.What does see red mean? If he is in a blue mood, what kind of mood is he in? Is he happy, sad, or what? Obviously, red and blue do not mean just the color. Each has additional meanings-certain cultural associations-that are hidden behind the word. The following part will be devoted to the discussion of cultural differences of certain color words.In both Chinese and English, red is usually associated with happy occasions. On calendar,。

The relationship between ancient Greek culture and ancient RomancultureAncient Greek and Roman culture is the cradle of western culture,it has great effect on Europe and even the whole world.The ancient Greeks absorbed and used for reference to ancient Egypt and west Asia cultural heritage.Then created colorful Greek culture. The ancient Romans inherited Greece and eastern culture achievements, and built Roman culture gradually.Sculpture ArtAncient Greek and Roman sculpture’s common features is seek f or a harmonious beauty especially classical period and the hellenistic period of the sculpture.The highlight achievement is embodied in the portrait (including gods) sculpture, especially human body sculpture. Roman sculpture’s achievement are focused on the carved image, its characteristic is both realistic and personalized. However, the ancient greeks in sculpture creat,they aspired ideality,simple, emphasize the common and harmonious; However,the ancient Roman social reality lead to theirs sculpture art is very luxury .Architectural ArtThe most developed architecture in ancient Greek is temple. It has the greatest influence on later generations of it’s very perfect form of construction. And thanks to the invention of theancient Rome by natural volcanic ash, sand and lime consists of the concrete, in the technical aspects of coupons arch structure has made great achievement. nd in order to adapt to the huge of the Roman empire’s various needs . Roman people was created a series of new building type.The relationship between Greek and Roman art is original and imitation, foundation and develop.The ancient Roman art can be said that it inherited and developed on the basis of ancient Greek. However, the ancient Greeks is democratic society, and in the aspire of art will be more culture.This side of ancient Roman is natural and pursuit of the beauty of human body. And the Roman is the monarchy.W hat’s more，it contain tyranny and autocratic colour, there are not too much great achievements. But as the integrate and rich laid a good economic basis for art, the Roman art has a very big development.组长：陆玉芳 201011901122组员：朱鑫雅 201011901110 陈远晋 201011901117郭文娟 201011901217 刘瑞果 201011901221。

The Connections between Culture and Communication Culture and communication, although two different concepts, are directly linked. They are so inextricably bound that some anthropologists believe the terms are virtually synonymous. As smith noted, “whenever people interact they communicate. To live in societies and to maintain their culture they have to communicate.” Culture is learned, acted out, transmitted, and preserved through communication.To begin with this topic, we quote Barnlund's saying: “The individual and society are antecedent and consequent of each other: every person is at once a creator of society and its most obvious product.”Having further discussion about communication and culture, we now are ready to discuss communication and culture separately.First, we talk about communication. Communication, our ability to share our ideas and feelings, is the basis of all human contact. Why do people need to communicate? Because they have to survive, they have to share their ideas and feelings, they have to live in societies and maintain their culture. All of us communicate, receive and respond to messages, yet the nature of our responses is rooted in our culture. The grief associated with the death of a loved one is as natural as breathing: each culture, however, determines ways of coping with and sharing that grief. These responses to the outside world range from outwardly to maintaining a stoic exterior. Our response to someone's message does not have to be immediate. We can respond minutes, days, or even years later. For example, your second grade teacher may have asked you to stop throwing rocks at a group of birds. Perhaps the teacher added that the birds wereCulture strongly influences our subjective reality and there are direct links among culture, perception, and behavior. There are some factors in cultural belief, value, and patterns that might influence communication.Firstly, belief systems are significant to the study of intercultural communication, because they are at the core of our thoughts and actions. They are our conviction in the truth of something. They tell us how the world operates. Belief systems are important because they are learned and hence subject to cultural interpretation and cultural diversity. We must be able to recognize the fact that cultures have different realities and belief systems. Beliefs are such an influential factor in intercultural communication because they affect our conscious and unconscious minds, as well as the manner in which we communicate.Secondly, one of the most important functions of belief system is that they are the basis of our value. Formally, a value may be defined as an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct of end-state of existence is personally of socially preferable to another. An awareness of cultural value also helps us understand our own behavior. Thus, value is another very important factor to affect intercultural communication.Thirdly, cultural patterns can affect intercultural communication; culture is extremely complex and consists of numerous interrelated cultural orientations besides beliefs and value. Cultural patterns refer to both the conditions that contribute to the way in which a person perceives and thinks about the world, and the manner in which they live in that world.These three factors make people have different culture, and also affect communication.。

The Relationship Between Culture and Communication【】This paper aims to study the relationship between culture and communication. As we know， culture and communication cannot be separated from each other. Several examples are used in this paper to help pepole further understand the close relationship between them.【作者?介】庞磊（1997.6.5- ），女，汉族，河南新安人，天津外国语大学，本科在读，研究方向：商务英语。

Introduction Culture and communication exist in almost every corner in our daily life. People may not realize their existence or pay special attention to them， but we have to admit that people unconsciously deal with them every day. Therefore，I think it is necessary to figure out the relationship between culture and communication. Hall pointsout“ Cult ure is communication and communication is culture.” That is to say when people look at culture and communication， it is hard to decide which is the voice and which is the echo.This saying indicates a close ralationship between culture and communication. They are influnced by each other and they cannot separate from eachother. Culture cannot be what is like today without communication and at the same time communication cannot be what is like today without culture. The definition of culture and communicationCulture is the social behavior and norms found in human societies. It can be divided by two categories including the material culture and the immaterial. “The concept of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture， such as technology， architecture and art，whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of social organization comprise the intangible cultural heritage of a society.”（http：///wiki/culture 2017.12.17） In a word，almost everything in human life including the people’s behavior， thoughts， values， movies and musics can reflect the culture. Culture is like the water that fish swim in and a reality that is taken for granted and rarely examined. While communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. （http：///wiki/communication2017.12.17）Samovar once said “ Communication occurs whenever meaningis attributed to behavior or the re sidue of behavior.” For me， I think communication is a process involving exchanging ideas and thoughts between different individuals， different groups or even different states. The analysis of the relationship between culture and communicationAs for the relationship between culture and communicatin， I think communication is influenced by culture and at the same time culture is also influenced by the communication and they are inseparable from each other.First， the way of the communication and the content in the communication are determined by the culture and help define the culture. As we know all social units deveop a culture. Even in two-person relationship， a culture develops over time. Different cultures may cultivate different rules， values and norms. These different rules，values and norms are rooted in people’s minds for a long time and unconsciouly direct people’s behaviors when people communicate with each other. At the same time， the different behaviors in commmunication also reflect different backgrounds and different values which are theaspects of culture.In this way， the communication can be determined by the culture and can also help define culture. For example， people may use different body languages to convey the same meaning. These different body languages are the results of different cultures. In China and most countries， nodding our heads means that we agree with somebody or we consent to someone’s requests. However，the situation is totally different in India. When someone shows his or her approvement or gives a positive answer，the person may shake the head. In contrast， people nod their heads to show their negative attitude. As we can see，Indians use the same body language nodding， but it can convey the different message to people.Only the people who know about the Indian local culture can understand what their body languages mean. And this difference also help define the Indian culture itself. Another example is that peoploe in different cultural background may show the different attitudes when communicating. In Chinese traditional culture， people pay much attention to the interpersonal relationship. Impacted by this kind of culture， people tend to be show their warm-hearted and hospitable attitude when talking to other people. So theydon’t think there is any problem to talk about the ages，professions， income and so on. Chinese people think if people talk about these topics with us， it means people care about us. But in western countries， people pay much attention to their privacy. They think it is rude and impolite to ask people about their private problems such us political belief， income， education and so on. They don’t want to interfere others’private life and for the same reason they do not want to be interfered by others. These two different attitudes towards the same topics in conversation reveal the different cultural values in eastern and western countries. So from these examples we can conclude that communication， to some degree， is determined by culture and help define culture. Second， culture is learned， acted out， transmitted， and perserved through communication. When two persons or two groups of people representing two kinds of cultures communicate with each other， it not only means a simple exchange of ideas but also means the exchange of two cultures. In the process of communication， different kinds of cultures are interacted， mingled and learned. So communication is a medium of cultural exchange and culturalinheritance. For example， in the old time， the long silk road already existed providing a communication channel between old China and other central and wetern Asian countries. The caravan on the silk road transported the Chinese goods like silk， tea and porcelain to them and brought their herbs and rare plants to our country. The whole process was a kind of business communication. However， not only those material goods but our Chinese civilization including our papermanking technology and art of printing was also spreaded into the central and western Asia through this business communication. In this way，Chinese culture was learned by other areas to further improve the scientific development and productive force in those areas. Actually， this long silk road linked all kinds cultures including the Chinese culture， Pesian culture，Arabic culture and Indian culture. Various cultures were transimitted and learned through this communicatin channel. Nowadays，with the development of “ One belt，One road” proposed by president Xi， I think this communication channel silk road will play a more and more important role in promoting the exchanges of different cultures. Therefore， communication is a key medium for variouscultures to be learned， transmitted and perserved. ConclusionCommunication is impacted by culture while culture is also impacted by communication. Every culture around the world has its own unique characteristics including ideals，values， beliefs， traditions.These characteristics will in turn attribute one’s communication. It is the culture essentially tha t determine the people’s way of communication. And it is the communication that make it possible that diffetrent cultures can be transmitted and perserved. There is no doubt that communiation plays an important role in promoting cultural development. In a word， communication and culture cannot be separated from each other.References：[1]单锡娜.A Brief Introduction about Culture and Communication.China：2013.[2]侯丽琼.Reflections on Intercultural Communication：Culture and Communication.China：2014.[3]王瑞芳.A Consideration On Language，Culture and Communication.China：2000.[4]?s新江.丝绸之路与东西文化交流[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2015.。

On the relationship between culture andtranslationAbstract: how to get rid of different cultural backgrounds and language barriers, more effectively convey the original meaning has been expressed in the focus of attention. This difference in thought and Western culture, cultural psychology, religion, customs, natural environment and living a few aspects, clarify cultural differences on English Translation.Paper Keywords: translation and cultural awareness of culture and thinking 1. Introduction Mr. Zhu Guangqian that the associative meaning of foreign literature in translation in the most difficult. Because it is the context in literature has a special meaning, this meaning is not find in the dictionary, but for literature but it is important. This requires us to understand a country’s customs and history, culture, otherwise there will be time to do the translation can not start feeling. (Guangqian, 1996:184). British anthropologist Edward Taylor In “ <Primitive Culture> “(1871), a b ook for the first time a concept of culture as mentioned, and described as:” Culture is a complex, which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,custom, and his works Acquisition of the ability of the society and habits. “shows a very wide coverage o f culture, it is a complex system. language as an integral part of culture, reflecting the rich cultural phenomenon of a nation.The reason is not so easy to translate, but because the language reflects culture, and carries the rich cultural connotations, and by cultural constraints. Once the language into the communication, then there is the understanding of the cultural meaning and expression issues. This requires the translator is not only be bilingual, but must be double-cultural and even multi-cultural knowledge, especially of the two languages ​​to the national mentality, cultural formation, history, customs and traditions, religious and cultural and geographical landscape features and a series of factors have become mutually a certain understanding. is mutual change of these factors, only the English and Chinese language and culture reflects its own unique national characteristics.2. Translation of the cultural elements of 2.1 Religion We all know that, “<Bible>> cultural lifein the West play the role of the source. Relevant data show that: the vast majority of Americans still believe religion. While the Chinese have long been the impact of Confucianism, even in China Buddhism spread widely, but also a profound secular effect by polytheism, which is different from the western Great Unification of the concept of monotheistic religions. Chinese people believe in Buddhism Taoism, in the language there, “Jade Emperor”, “ Buddha’’and other words, while Western p eople believe in Christianity, so there is “God”. Chinese, “Man proposes, God disposes”, in English there are two different translation, that “Manpropose , Heavendisposes “, or’’ManDropose, Goddisposes”. Their difference is that the “days” of different tra nslation of the word. “days” in China’s traditional culture, Buddhism and Taoism with a strong color, and “God” is a Christian was the color. which of course translations change of naturalization benefit the understanding and acceptance of Western readers, but not conducive to the “days” of the unique Chinese characteristics, the spread of cultural content. English by the religious implications, mainly in Some idioms, such as ItsinGodshands (resigned) and so on. Translation grasp of religious knowledge is very necessary. to Chinese,“cramming” the idiom, for example, if simply translated into “toembraceBuddha’Sfeetinone’S hourofneed” will let Western readers wonder why, if necessary, to hold the Lord Buddha’s feet? what to do with it? little deal with the ca se if we, the Western reader to understand them is another matter “toembraceBuddha’sfeetinone’shourofneed - seek help atthelastmoment “. (Bao Hui Nam, 2003:20).2.2 Cultural Psychology Because the language used in different nations is not the same, and their history and culture is also varied. So each nation in its long process of development, in the distinctive historical conditions of its own national characteristics. This is the formation of a nation has a huge psychological impact. historical and cultural differences, mainly in historical allusion, and many taboos and preferences to be reflected on the differences. the number “9” for example. the number of meanings in ancient China in particular because it represents a supreme significance: the Jiujiuguiyi, dominating the world of meaning. and “4” and Chinese as the number of “dead” the pronunciation is similar to so many people still do not like the numbers, especially phone number. quite a lot of people do not want tobe a “4” for the tail number of the number. As for the “8” figure and fortune as the “fat” and by the homonym favorable for some people. And in the Western consciousness, 4,8 and 9 only a very common symbol of natural numbers, does not have such special significance. we all know, in the eyes of Westerners, “‘is not a lucky number, which means bad luck. So there is no seat in the West 13, building did not l3 layer and so on. But in China, this figure does not have that special meaning. For those expressed by non-language culture, the translator only in-depth understanding of the history and culture of all ethnic groups can accurately grasp before. ( Bao Hui Nam, 2003:9).As long as the talk about Chinese culture, people always automatically think of “Dragon” character. Because in the beginning will be in the feudal, ancient Chinese emperors always describe themselves as the embodiment of Jackie Chan, self-styled “true sons of the dragon” in order to achieve slavery ideas, tame people, and consolidate political power, bringing peace to the purpose of governing the country. And people put the dragon as their own gods to be worshiped, saying he is descendants of the dragon, the beast pray that God bless. Thus the “Dragon” became the Chinese nationtotem is a symbol of the spirit and cohesion of the mark. So there are a lot of the Chinese “dragon” character composed of words that a good image. If Succeed, flamboyant, Dragon and Phoenix, Longtenghuyue, Long Xiang tiger step, the finishing touch, the Dragon Long Sun and other bright image. Because of this, Chinese culture and will have a “Dragon Culture” in the world. but in the Western view, the “dragon” is another kind of image that “alargeiferce fabulousanimalwith wings and a long tail, a crested head andenoYITIOUSclaws, thatcanbreath eoutifre. “(a large size, having two wings, the top of a pattern, a huge monster feet). So the” hopeful “translated into” expectone’S childtobecomeadragon “, Western met with not only surprised, and certainly will not let their children become dragon. Therefore, in order to avoid misunderstanding, we can put this phrase translated longtoseeone’schildsucceedinlife.2.3 way of thinking Different geographical, physical, psychological and cultural differences to form a different way of thinking, in particular, cultural differences to a large extent determine the differences in the way of thinking. Translators during the translation between English and Chinese, to climaxover barriers between Eastern and Western cultures and accurate grasp of the difference between the two modes of thinking.Good thinking is the image of the characteristics of the Chinese way of thinking, as they are accustomed to things is an organic whole, but longer than the logic of Western thinking, their way of thinking is linear, to things as different from each -part, which part of the deal out of what part of the problem. the difference between Chinese medicine and Western medicine on a good illustration of this point. TCM Differential Treatment of emphasis on the whole, while Western medicine is stop-gap measure feet. (Jia new ,1997:98-100).First, from the statement of the convergence approach, the English form of multi-purpose legal (hypotaxis), which used to link words in the syntactic form of the sentence (or clause) to link the Chinese multi-purpose legal (Darataxis), by the sense that convergence rather than relying on conjunctions.English grammar quite closely, pay attention to shape together, form strict. Each sentence, paragraph or paragraphs of the general by a number of function words and certain phrases, clauses to connect. These functions can be expressed in different words and phrases features or ideas, such as cause and effect, comparison, concessions, conditions, turn and so on. In Subordinate sentence, every clause structured by the main clause must be to guide from the conjunctions. And the new man, the juxtaposition of clauses are usually connected by some punctuation. we all know, Chinese is the heavy Parataxis , a lot of sentences or clauses, regardless of primary and secondary relationship between, for only through the sense of convergence, conjunction with very little. Compare the following sentences:It is SO COO1thatwe decide to go outfor awalk. The weather is cool, we decided to go for a walk. Links to free paper download As water can lfoata ship, SO can it swallowtheship. W ater can carry a boat, can also overturn it.W herethereisawill, there isaway. Opportunities do. (Shen Suping other ,2007:27-28).Second, the overall thinking and individual thinking differences. Chinese culture emphasizes the whole mode of thinking, since ancient times attached great importance to harmony and unity. “Precious” and is well represented this idea.Therefore, in Chinese as the subject of actors, usually omitted, which is often said that non-main clause. But Western culture is quite different, it emphasizes the opposition of subject and object. Is reflected in language The so-called predicate two. In addition to other imperative, every English sentence must have a subject, otherwise the sentence is incomplete. Therefore, when in Translation, many Chinese sentences depending on the context we need them Add a subject. For example, seeing going to rain and no umbrella, are related worry, I really do not know where to go.Itisraining, wedonothavenoumbrellawithUS. Weareallworried aboutit, becausewedonotknow wheretogoatthe moment.We can see a description of the original sentence is not a word that can be done subject, but here, according to the context of the context and the specific environment, when translated into English, respectively, and we added it as the subject of different clauses , so that the mentality of those involved and environment at the time a good blend, fully meet the “Heaven” realm. After the subject was added to meet the English sentence must have a subject of the requirements, but also, to comply with European and American culture, the so-called separation of subjective and objective mode of thinking. The whole structure of the target language appears to complete structured.2.4 Geographical Environment Around the geographical environment has a great influence on the climate, while the language used by local people and the meaning of the words also have very significant impact. For example, Chinese “wind” and the English word in the “eastwind” word While literally is the corresponding, but their meaning is completely different. China is characterized by terrain: mountain west, the east is the ocean, in the consciousness of the Chinese people, the “wind” metaphor refers to the “spring “, a symbol of” warm. “But in England,” East Wind “is blowing from thenorth of the continent of Europe, in the British mind, was” co ld “sign. The” West Wind “but never the Atlantic winds, and China “Dongfeng” have the same symbolic meaning. Therefore, the British even more love “west.” famous English poet Shelley that the first widespread Odetothe West Wind (<<West Wind Song “>) to last through the ages in the famous expression the meaning of the good west wind: “O, wind, if Winter comes, canSpringbefarbehind?” (ah, the west wind, if winter comes, can spring be far behind?) certainly do not make comments, the Chinese readers will not understand, or even misleading.As another example, the image of mice in Chinese is not too good, like “Shuoshu” Metaphor well known, more “mice on the streets of the said people cry.” But in the West actually has many film and television works cute mouse image, for example <<Tom and Jerry> “Lane’s Jen-y1_: 2 and” The <Stuart Little> “Lane’s Stuard, etc., by the people love. Rats in the foreign culture has in common. For example, and Chinese “timid”, and Western culture “astimidasahare” rule is the same expression. (hare is a rabbit, that rabbit timid Westerners). (Li Park, 2008).2.5 Customs Different people say hello, title, thanks, compliments, apology, farewell, it is customary to call, etc. with the corresponding characteristics of the nation. If greeting the Chinese people so often say: “Where are you going?”, “Do What is it? “or” eat it? “and so on. In Chinese culture, the meaning of these words is not only a courtesy, a way of greeting. However, this type of problem is the West sensitive. because these are purely private matter, in their view, others could not be inquisitive. greeting meeting like this, depending on the circumstances in the West should do the corresponding cultural transformation in favor of English idioms, such as “Hi! “,” Good morning “or” How areyou? “In the title, different languages ​​on a concept and scope of the allegations are not the same. This is the United States from different cultural backgrounds, such as the decision. Because the Chinese concept of family-oriented, very decent family, so called to distinguish between the more developed the relationship between different family members. like my sister and her sister, brother and brother very clear distinction between the boundaries. And in the Westerncountries due to focus on the so-called nuclear family, so family members of small, underdeveloped title also Vocabulary. English The sister and brother can be used to represent each sister and brother and sister and brother. so many Chinese people are very understanding of this title. In many cases, the translation of this text when you need filling in order to avoid misunderstanding. Cousins ​​also said that kinship is not the same word in English, are required in the time line that we should be careful when foreign communication, so that communication can be extended to. (including benefits Southern ,2003:103-105).3. Conclusion All in all, a language is the culture of that particular product. In cross-cultural communication, “cultural conflict” (cuhureshock) phenomenon is inevitable. However, in a short time in order to overcome these conflicts can be difficult. Because in order to a language, meaning all the ingredients to the symbolic meaning from the surface through an interpreter, accurately express all of it is almost impossible. translatability of by many factors, such as differences in people’s thinking, there are regions of different cultural practices cultural differences and so on. So, intranslation, how to deal with cultural factors become very important task of the translator. As a responsible translator, the translator should be able to accurately grasp the cultural meaning of the original text, if necessary, to cultural background of the original text contained in the translation to be an appropriate comment, in the alien culture is easy to misunderstand the concept of the reader to make necessary clarifications, which will help the reader cross-cultural divide, at their best understanding. Links download the free paper。

中国文化和西方文化的关系英语作文The Relationship between Chinese Culture and Western CultureIntroductionAs the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the interactions between different cultures have become more frequent and significant. One of the most interesting and complex relationships is that between Chinese culture and Western culture. Both cultures have a long history and rich traditions, but they also have many differences that have led to misunderstandings and conflicts. In this essay, we will explore the relationship between Chinese culture and Western culture, focusing on their similarities, differences, and how they influence each other.Similarities between Chinese Culture and Western CultureDespite their differences, Chinese culture and Western culture also have many similarities. For example, both cultures place great importance on family values and traditions. In China, filial piety is a key value that emphasizes respect for one's elders and ancestors. Similarly, in Western culture, family is alsoconsidered a cornerstone of society, with strong emphasis on the nuclear family unit.Another similarity between Chinese culture and Western culture is the emphasis on education. In both cultures, education is highly valued and seen as a pathway to success. Both Chinese and Western parents prioritize their children's education and often make great sacrifices to ensure their children receive a good education.Additionally, both Chinese culture and Western culture have a rich literary and artistic heritage. Chinese literature and art, such as poetry, calligraphy, and painting, have a long history and have influenced Western culture in many ways. Similarly, Western literature and art, from Shakespeare to Da Vinci, have also had a profound impact on Chinese culture.Differences between Chinese Culture and Western CultureDespite their similarities, Chinese culture and Western culture also have many differences. One of the most obvious differences is in their languages. Chinese is a tonal language with complex characters, while Western languages like English are alphabetic and have fewer characters. This linguistic difference has led to challenges in communication and understanding between the two cultures.Another major difference between Chinese culture and Western culture is their religious beliefs. While China has a long history of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, Western culture is largely influenced by Christianity. These different religious beliefs have shaped the values and traditions of each culture and have sometimes led to conflicts and misunderstandings.In terms of social norms and customs, Chinese culture and Western culture also have many differences. For example, concepts of individualism and collectivism differ between the two cultures. Western culture values individual rights and freedoms, while Chinese culture places greater emphasis on harmony and collective well-being.Influence of Chinese Culture on Western CultureDespite their differences, Chinese culture has had a significant impact on Western culture in many ways. One of the most obvious examples is in the adoption of Chinese cuisine in the West. Chinese food, with its bold flavors and diverse ingredients, has become hugely popular in Western countries, leading to the proliferation of Chinese restaurants around the world.Chinese philosophy, such as Confucianism and Taoism, has also influenced Western thought and culture. The concept of yinand yang, for example, has been adopted in Western psychology and philosophy as a symbol of balance and harmony. Similarly, the teachings of Confucius on ethics and morality have found resonance in Western society.Influence of Western Culture on Chinese CultureOn the other hand, Western culture has also had a profound impact on Chinese culture. One of the most obvious examples is in the adoption of Western technology and lifestyle in China. The rise of globalization has led to the spread of Western products, such as smartphones and fast food, in China, influencing the way Chinese people live and work.Western ideas of democracy and individual rights have also influenced Chinese politics and society. The concepts of freedom of speech and human rights, for example, have gained traction in China, leading to greater demands for political reform and social change.ConclusionIn conclusion, the relationship between Chinese culture and Western culture is complex and multifaceted. While both cultures have many differences, they also share similarities and have influenced each other in significant ways. By learning fromand appreciating each other's cultures, both Chinese and Western societies can foster greater understanding and cooperation in an increasingly globalized world.。