英语语言学笔记第八章

英语笔记第八单元以下是英语笔记第八单元的示例，包括重点词汇、短语、句型和语法知识。

重点词汇：1. vocabulary 词汇2. homophone 同音异义词3. antonym 反义词4. mnemonic 记忆法5. synonym 同义词6. prefix 前缀7. suffix 后缀8. morphology 形态学9. etymology 词源学10. cognate 同源词短语：1. a collection of words 词汇集合2. have a large vocabulary 词汇量大3. learn new words 学习新单词4. use mnemonics to remember words 使用记忆法记忆单词5. distinguish between homophones and synonyms 区分同音异义词和同义词6. study prefixes and suffixes 学习前缀和后缀7. understand the meaning of words 理解单词的意思8. trace the etymology of words 追溯单词的词源9. identify cognate words 识别同源词句型：1. I have a large vocabulary. 我词汇量大。

2. He is learning new words every day. 他每天都在学习新单词。

3. She uses mnemonics to remember words easily. 她使用记忆法轻松地记住单词。

4. They distinguish between homophones and synonyms in their vocabulary. 他们将同音异义词和同义词区分开来。

5. We study prefixes and suffixes to expand our vocabulary. 我们学习前缀和后缀以扩大词汇量。

Chapter 8 Language and societySociolinguistics ---- aν sub-field of linguists that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.The relatedness between language and society----There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships.ν (e.g. greeting)The use of language is in part determined by the user’sν social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both theν physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)Asνa social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).Speech community and speech varietySpeechνcommunity---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.Speech variety orνlanguage variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.Two approaches to sociolinguistic studiesMacro sociolinguistics, i.e. aνbird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;Micro sociolinguistics,νi.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.Varieties of languageDialectal varietiesνRegisterνDegree of formalityνDialectal varietiesRegional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region(e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.). Sociolect is a linguisticν variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation) Language and gender (e.g. intonation, lexicon)νν Language and age (Lexical difference: icebox---- fridge, wireless----boombox)Idiolect---- a personal dialect of an individualν speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations(e.g. Hemingway, Luxun).Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of aν language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).RegisterRegister, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety ofνlanguage related to one’s occupation.In a broader sense, according toνHalliday, “languag e varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three socialνvariables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.Three social variablesField of discourse: whatν is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)Tenor of discourse: the role ofνrelationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)Mode of discourse: theν means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)Degree of formality----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos)Intimate: Up you go, chaps!νCasual: Time youν all went upstairs now.Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs rightν away, please?Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs atν once.Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor byν way of the staircase.----Note: Different styles of the same language can be characterized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonological(P121).Standard dialectThe standard variety is aν superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Pidgin and CreoleA pidginνis a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speechν community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.Bilingualism and DiglossiaIn some speech communities, two languages are used side by sideν with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.According to Ferguson (1959), diglossia refers to a sociolinguisticν situation similar to bilingualism. But in stead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two varieties of a lan guage exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.Chapter 9 Language and cultureWhat is culture?Inν a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the lifeof the human community.In a narrow sense,ν culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.νThe relationship between language and cultureThe same word may stir upν different associations in people under different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’sνattitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.The culture both emancipates andν constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.Culture alsoνaffects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.On the one hand, language as anν integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.Sapir-Whorf hypothesisEdward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structureν of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’sνperception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.Strong version & weak versionStrong version believes that the language patternsν determine people’s thinking and behavior;Weak version holds that theν former influence the latter.----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:There is nowadays a recognition thatν language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize howνimportant context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Linguistic evidence of cultural differencesDenotativeν meaning ---- a meaning that can be found in a dictionary.Connotativeν meaning ---- a meaning or idea suggested by a word or thing in addition to the formal meaning or nature of the word or thing.Iconic meaning ---- theν image or icon invoked in mind by a word.For exam ple, “rose”.νSome cultural differences in language useGrThanks and complimentsColor wordsPrivacy and taboosRounding off numbersWords and cultural-specific connotationsCultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphorThe significance of cultural teaching and learningLearning a foreign language is inseparable from learning its culture.We need to learn enough about the language’s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well.Cultural overlapCultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings. For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such as“Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”Cultural diffusionThrough communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as cultural diffusion.One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and accepting concepts from other cultures.The attitude towards cultural diffusion (esp. cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)Intercultural communicationIntercultural or cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures (their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.)In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special attention to the significant differences regarding social relations and concept of universe from different perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.。

The Use of English8.1 Pragmatic Approach to Language8.1.1Pragmatics（语用学）It is the study of meaning in use. meaning in context. speaker meaning. contextual meaning.Pragmatics studies communication (utterance production and comprehension) from a functional (i.e. social, cultural, cognitive) perspective.8.1.2 Semantics(语义学) V.S PragmaticsSemanticism: semantics includes pragmaticsPragmaticism: pragmatics includes semanticsComplementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.8.2 Deictic Expressions （指示语）8.2.1DeixisDeixis: (from Greek) anchoring, pointing (toward the context) phenomenon.The linguistic means used in this function are known as deictics, indexicals ( or indexical / deictic expressions).Examples: pronouns, demonstratives, time and place adverbs, and some grammatical categories such as tense.8.2.2 Characteristics in useThe egocentricity of deixisDeictic expressions are anchored to specific points in the communicative event. The unmarked points, called the deictic center, are typically assumed to be as follows (S. Levinson: Pragmatics): I love this game!1) the central person is the speaker2) the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance3) the central place is the speaker’s location at utterance time4) the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance5) the social center is the speaker’s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative.8.2.3 Deictic VS. Non-deicticDeictic: gestural/symbolicYou, you, but not you, are dismissed. (gestural)What did you say? (Symbolic)Non-deictic: anaphoric /non-anaphoricJack is a student. He comes from Britain.You can never tell what sex they are nowadays.There you go again./There we go.I did this and that.8.2.4 Classification of deicticPerson deixisPlace deixisTime deixisSocial deixisDiscourse deixis8.3 Speech Act TheorySaying is acting. (John Austin, How to Do Things with Words, 1962)“Speech acts” refer to actions performed via utterances.Speech acts are “the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”.8.3.1 Constatives (表述句）and performatives （施为句）a. There is a book on the desk.b. I promise I’ll be there ten sharp tomorrow.hereby-test: first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, performative verbs (with exceptions, though)8.3.3 Collapse of Performative Hypothesisa. Not all performative utterances require a performative verb;b. An utterance with a performative verb may not be the type of act suggested by the verb;8.3.4 felicity conditions （适切条件）a. Essential condition （基本条件）b. Preparatory condition (预备条件）c. Propositional content condition （命题内容条件）d. Sincerity condition （真诚条件）Felicity conditions for a promise:1) The speaker can do what is promised; (基本）2）The promised act has not taken place yet; (预备）3）The utterance is about a future act; The promised act is to the benefit of the hearer; The promised act will be fulfilled by the speaker;（命题内容）4) The speaker means what he says. （真诚）etc.Searle’s classification of illocutionary actsRepresentatives/assertives（阐述类）describe, inform, deny, state, claim, assert, remind, etc.Directives （指令类）:request, ask, urge, tell, demand, order, advise, command, beseech, etc.Commissives （承诺类）:commit, promise, threaten, pledge, consent, refuse, offer, guarantee, etc.Expressives （表达类）:apologize, boast, thank, deplore, welcome, congratulate, greet, etc.Declarations （宣告类）:declare, resign, appoint, nominate, bless, christen, name, etc.8.4 Presupposition8.4.1Presupposition and entailment8.4.2Presupposition triggers: linguistics device that make inference possible.9.1 Cooperation in using English9.1.1Cooperative PrincipleMake your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation, 19759.1.2Maxims of the principleQuality: Be truthful.a. Do not say what you believe to be false.b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Quantity: Be informative.a. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange)b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Relation: Be relevant.Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.Manner: Be perspicuous (明晰).a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)d. Be orderly.9.1.3 ImplicatureIt is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance. When any of the maxims is blatantly(公然地) violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated, a particular conversational implicature arises.9.1.4 Some properties of conversational implicatureA. It can be cancelled, either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or, implicitly, by the co-text and context.(cancellability可取消性)B. It can be inferred (calculability可推导性)Ways to calculate an implicature:a.The conventional meaning of the words used, and the references of referring expressions;b.the cooperative principle and its maxims;c.the co-text and context;d.background knowledge;e.the supposition that all participants suppose that all relevant items falling under(1)-(4) are available to them all.1 Since I have good reason to believe that she has information about X’s writing skills, the speaker has deliberately failed to observe (flouted) the maxim “Be informative”2 But I have no reason to believe that she has really opted out of the cooperativeprinciple. So, she is only being apparently uninformative.3 If I draw the inference that X hasn’t got very good writing skills, then the speaker is being cooperative. She knows that I am capable of working this out.4 Therefore, she has implied (or “implicated”to use Grice’s term) that the student’s writing skills are not very good.C.It may be indeterminate:in many cases,the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is open.(indeterminacy不确定性)D.Non-detachability [given the same proposition]9.2 Politeness in using English9.2.1Leech’s Politeness PrincipleMinimize (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs andMaximize (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs.9.2.2The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPTact MaximMinimize cost to otherMaximize benefit to otherGenerosity MaximMinimize benefit to selfMaximize cost to selfApprobation MaximMinimize dispraise of otherMaximize praise of otherMaxim of modestyMinimize praise of selfMaximize dispraise of selfAgreement MaximMinimize disagreement between self and otherMaximize agreement between self and otherSympathy MaximMinimize antipathy between self and otherMaximize sympathy between self and other9.2.3Politeness scale:DirectnessCost - benefit9.3 Face considerations in using EnglishFace, the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself, consisting in two related aspects:Negative face and positive faceAccording to Brown and Levinson (1978/1987)Negative face: the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distractioni.e. to the freedom of action and freedom from imposition.Positive face: the positive consistent self-image or ‘personality’(crucially includingthe desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants.9.4 Developing pragmatic competenceThe Varieties of English10.1 Interrelation between language and societyIndications of interralation/relatedness between language and societyAn obvious indication of the inter-relationship between language and society is the fact that language is not always used to exchange information as is generally assumed, but rather it is sometimes used to fulfil an important social function--- to maintain social relationship between people.Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in partdetermined by his social background. When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about our origin and our background.Chomsky (cognitive approach, ideal speaker) vs. Saussure (social semiotic approach)Any use of language is socially marked/stamped.As society changes, language will change. Language reflects society, as shown by the lexicon of "snow", "camel".Whereas English, for example, has only one word for snow ( or two if we include sleet), Eskimo has several. The reasons for this are obvious. It is essential for Eskimos to be able to distinguish efficiently between different types of snow.English, of course, is quite able to make the same distinctions: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on, but in Eskimos this sort of distinction is lexicalized---made by means of individual words.10.1.2 Approaches to the study of the interrelationMacro-sociolinguistics: a bird's-eye view: how language functions in society and how language reflects the social differentiations. [sociology of language] Micro-sociolinguistics: a worm's-eye view: how language functions in the communication between members of the society. [sociolinguistics]It is an obvious fact that people who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner. For example all the English –speaking people do not speak the same type of English. And the language used by the same individual varies as circumstances vary.10.2 Regional dialects of English10.2.1 Language and dialectLanguage: writing system; may include several dialects; often politically defined Dialect: [traditionally only variation with space, but now with the space, the temporal factor and social factors] usu. spoken; often part of a language; not distinct enough from other dialects of the same language to be treated as an independent language; often marked by geographical or social barriers; restricted purposesChinese vs. CantoneseRegional dialect often coincides with geographical barriers, like mountains, rivers, etc. [accent]Transition from one dialect to another is gradual rather than abrupt. Two neighboring dialects are often intelligible.10.2.2 Temporal dialectLanguage is also determined by the time we live in. [temporal distance] Old English; Middle English; Modern English [diachronic/historical linguistics vs.synchronic linguistics]10.3 Social dialects of English10.3.1Social dialect (also social-class dialect, sociolect, class dialect) [social distance] arises from the separation brought about different social conditions. It refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.10.3.2 Social factorsSocial factors that are believed to influence our language behavior: class, gender, age, ethnic identity, education background, occupation, and religious belief.10.4 Register theory10.4.1Field of discourse: related to what is going on, the purpose and the subject matter of communication; answers the questions of why and about what communication takes place.Technical: linguistic lectures, specialist communication [vocabulary]Non-technical: shopping, chatting10.4.2Tenor of discourse: answers the question of to whom the speaker is communicating, determines the level of formality of language use.10.4.3Mode of discourse: answers the question of how communication takes place ; spoken or written; spontaneous or non-spontaneous.11.1 Speech communitySpeech Community is a concept in sociolinguistics, it is a group of speakers who share the same regularities of language use, and have the same language attitude toward communitiy language variation.Virtual SC, migrant worker SC, urban SC, rural SC, international student SC, etc. Five elements of a SC: population, region, public facilities, interaction, identity.11.2 Pidgin and CreolePidgins(洋泾浜) are mixed or blended languages used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.Chinese-English pidgin: limited vocabulary and reduced grammar.1)Phonetics: [l]→[r] room-loom right-light2) the word side was widely used to signify space, top-side=above, bottom-side=below, farside=beyond, allo-side=around, what-tim=when nother tim=again3) basic words origin from English: chin-chindie-lo, buy-lo, pay-lo, wailo, numpa one,plopa=proper, you belong to plopa? = Are you well?When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their mother tongue, it is said to be a Creole(混合语).The original pidgin is expanded in terms of its grammar and vocabulary. English-based Creole of Jamaica and the French-based Creole of Haiti.11.3 Bilingualism and DiglossiaBilingualism（双语）: two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; language switching/code switching occurs when the situation changes. It is often a result of immigration.Diglossia（双言）: two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. [Ferguson in 1959]11.4 Code Mixing and Code SwitchingCode switching: Weinreich (1953)Intersentence code-switchingIntrasentential code-switchingTag code-switchingCS has its social values and communicative aims.日期： 6 月30 日（星期四）我喜爱的书是：《假如给我三天光明》喜爱的原因：海伦·凯勒那坚强不屈的意志深深地感染了我。

胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免"支持"版：）《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章??语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章? ?? ?语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章? ?? ?语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章? ???音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章? ? 词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章? ? 词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章??句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章? ?语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章? ?语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章??语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。

nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。

第八章语言的使用在语义那一章里，我们谈到"意义"一词可以有不同的意义，并对其中的几种作了讨论。

但是还有一种重要的意义我们没有涉及到。

假定有人对你说"You're a fool（你是个傻子）"，你一般都会反问："What do you mean?（你什么意思）"。

这并不是因为你不知道句子中各词的意思，也不是因为句子的结构太复杂，让你难以理解。

你清楚地知道you指谁，fool是什么涵义，也知道句子的结构。

你不知道的是说话人说这句话究竟是什么意思，有什么意图。

或者，你知道说话人的意图，却想用"What do you mean（你什么意思）？"来反驳对方的说法。

你这里用的并不是句子的概念意义。

这种意义有时称为"说话者意义"、"语句意义"或者"语境意义"。

这种意义与我们在语义学中研究的意义不同，对它的解释更多地依赖于说话人是谁，听话人是谁，什么时候在什么地方说这句话。

总之就是取决于语境。

研究这种意义的学科叫语用学。

因为这种意义部分来自语言的使用环境，语用学也可以被定义为研究语言使用的学科。

现在如果我们把意义分成两大类：一类与所用的词密切相关，较稳定，是固有意义（语义学研究的意义）；另一类与语境密切相关，不太确定，是附加意义（语用学研究的意义），那么我们就可以说pragmatics=meaning - semantics（语用学意义= 意义- 语义学意义）。

8.1 言语行为理论这个理论是牛津哲学家奥斯汀（J. L. Austin）提出的，是研究语言使用的第一个重要理论。

奥斯汀从1952年开始讲授他的理论。

1955年，他去美国哈佛大学做威廉·詹姆斯（William James）讲座时，修订了自己的讲稿，把题目从《言与行》（Words and Deeds）改成了《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）。

Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。

格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称作合作原则。

2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。

②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。

①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。

Chapter EightPragmatics⏹Definition⏹Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, andspecifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.⏹In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced theword “Pragmatics” into literature.⏹莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：⏹句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。

⏹Teaching Focus⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 2. Speech act theory⏹ 3. The theory of conversational implicature⏹ 4. Post-Gricean Developments⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹ 1.3 Context⏹ 1.4 Sentence and utterance⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹Various definitions:⏹The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.⏹The study of language in use.⏹The study of meaning in context.⏹The study o f speakers’ meaning,utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of language.⏹没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究⏹语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义⏹语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究⏹语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究⏹语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realizationWhat essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.⏹If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditionalsemantics (decontextualized);⏹If it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics. (contextualized)⏹Semantics & Pragmatics⏹Peter bought a car.⏹It was Peter who bought a car.⏹It was a car that Peter bought.⏹What peter bought was a car.⏹句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果⏹语义学：这些句子都是同义的。

Chapter One----Introduction1.1----What is linguistics?1.1.1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Collect and observe language facts----àformulate hypotheses-----àcheck the hypotheses repeatedly to fully prove their validity-----àproveNo Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general.Linguists‟ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.Interest of linguists is “what is said”1.1.2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguisticsSpecific linguistics----the study of a specific language----Chinese linguisticsPhonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words. Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formationSemantics-----the study of meaning.Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.1.1.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptivePrescriptive----the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from grammar in that the latter is based on “high”(religious/literary) wr itten language.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writingTwo major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing: (1)from the point of wiew of the liguistic evolution , speech is prior to writing.(2)in daily communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: single.outone aspect of language for serious study.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics-- the publicat ion of Saussure‟s “Course in General Linguistics” in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar; (1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‟t force languages into a Latin-based framework.1.2----What is language?1.2.1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.Vocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.1.2.2 Design features----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12)Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaningThe significance of Duality: because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heared before. In other words, language is productive because of its own duality.(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doesn‟t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.2.3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the “content” of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those “Phatic language”, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‟t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‟s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‟s babbles and chanter‟s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of l anguage. For example, we may use “book” to refer to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use “the word book” to stand by the concept “book” as embodied in language.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1: Introductionmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.3.2. Open class and closed classopen class words: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class words: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.Content words /function words lexical words/grammatical words variable words/invariable words 3.3: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or functionword: the smallest free form found in language.bound morpheme: morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be attached to another one. It includes derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme.free morpheme: a morpheme that can be a word by itself.allomorphs: the variant forms of a porpheme are called its allomorphs.3.4 Analyzing word structureroots: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major commonent of its meaning.(A root is not always a free morpheme.)affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.3.5: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme:派生语素Bound morphemes which change the category or grammatic class of words.(改变词性)inflectional morpheme：曲折语素Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concept as tense,number,case and so on.(表时态/语态等) E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes.inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.3.6: Morphological rules of word formation构词的词素音位规则morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.productive morphological rules: morphological rules that can be used quite freely to new words. 3.7 Derivationderivation: an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.3.8 Compoundscompounds: or compound words , words formed by strinking words together.the noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‘take (v),in’action (n), up’lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‘redcoat, ‘greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2: Categories4.2.1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, VMinor lexical categories: Det. Deg. Qua. Aux. Con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word’s category?1Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The proper ty or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‟s categ ory can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with th e same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word‟s category, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as shoul d stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion:Thus, a word‟s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify is syntactic category.4.2.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P <---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head:中心语The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier:标识语The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement:补足语The words on the right side of the heads are complements.4.3 Phrase Structure Rule(PS-rule)段语结构规划phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP---- > (Det) N (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) V (NP)….（动宾）AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)…...（介宾）4.3.1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.:The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule :In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.4.3.2. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X---→ X *Con X4.4: Phrase elements4.4.1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, the y typically make a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.4.4.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English. subcategorization:the information about a word‟s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.The XP rule (revised): XP ---→ (Specifier) X (Complements*)“*” means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.“that” ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.“she will win” ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.“that she will win” ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.“Miss Hebert believes” ---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.4.4.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier. The expanded XP rule: XP----→ (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, amodifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.“修饰语” 相对于“中心语”的位置总结为：“形”在前，“介”在后，“副词”前后都可以。

Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between thespeaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs anact, such as Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either trueor force. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and therelevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts,feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions asspecified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication.In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particularwords and structures which the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty,the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’sphysical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants theutterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as request forsomething to drink. A speech act is a sentence or utterance which hasboth propositional meaning and illocutionary force.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known asan indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above.Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performingcertain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory ofspeech acts between three different types of acts involved in orcaused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the sayingof something which is meaningful and can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to performa function.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects thatare produced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are fourconversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than isrequired.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that istrue.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims toimply meaning during conversation is called conversationalimplicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ -icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people aretalking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly andsuccessfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have toassume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense ofcooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are notnormally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevantinformation from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intentionimplied in the words is called conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accuratetime, but through saying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving arough time. The answer B gives is related to the literal meaning of thewords, but is not merely that. That is often the case in communication.The theory of conversational implicature is for the purpose of explaininghow listeners infer the speakers’ intention through the words.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people areobserving a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as tocommunicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rulesthe cooperative principle (CP) elaborated in four sub-principles(maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. Thecooperative principle given by Grice is an idealized case ofcommunication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fully adhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker isobserving the principles “in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP andthink about the relationship between A’s question and the “yellow car” inB’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car, he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can onlybe caused by violating one or more maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maximssecretly. In this way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionallytrying to mislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will bemisled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation,there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want to go onwith the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as isrequired), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim ofquality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enoughinformation about where C lives. But he has not declared that he willnot observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he givesmore information, he will violate the principle “do not say that forwhich you lack adequate evidence”. In other words, he has fa lleninto a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he doesnot know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversationalimplicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other words, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversationhas made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims.We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet”and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes the word spelledout. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of manner, making theimplicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to thequestion just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer,hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5],implicating that what A has said is too rude and he should change atopic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They arguethat all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to asingle principle of relevance, which is defined as: Every act of ostensivecommunication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principlethe relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than theGricean maxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2,Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial PragmaticReduction of Binding and Control Phenomena. The contents of theseprinciples are:Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and <S, W> form a Horn scale, such that A (S) || (A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the stronger statement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentence Q, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, then one can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。