The Grammar-Translation Method1.Background(l)The history of the Grammar-Translation Method is not fully and carefully documented・However, there is evidence that grammar analysis and translation began to be the basic procedures in foreign language teaching from the 16th century.(2)The second impetus for the procedures of grammar analysis and translation in teaching Latin came from the social needs of European countries.(3)Some people believed that the mind of human beings could be trained by logical analysis of the classic language, extensive memorization of complicated rules and paradigms and translation between languages・(4)In the 19th century, more experts of foreign language teaching adopted the strategy of combining grammar rules with translation and the Grammar-Translation Method became the principal method of teaching modern languages in schools.2.Theoretical Basis(1)Theoiy of languageThe theory of language underlying the Grammar-Translation Method was derived from Comparative Historical Linguistics.(2)Theory of learningThe theory of learning underlying the Grammar-Translation Method was Faculty Psychology ・3.Basis Principle(1)Main features•Grammar is the core of language, and language materials are arranged according to the grammar system.•The main teaching activities are analysis, explanation and translation.•The major practice is translating from and into the target language・•The teaching focus is reading writing・•First language is the main medium of instruction.•The sentence is the basic unit of language teaching and learning.•Language accuracy is emphasized.(2)Objectives•The objectives of learning a foreign language in a Grammar-Translation Method classroom are to enable the learners:•(l)to read and translate its literature; (2)to understand the target language;(3)to help develop their minds;(心to gain a better understanding of the first language・(3)Techniques•(l)Reading(2)Trans!ation(3)Deductive teaching of grammar(4)Analysis and comparison(5) Memorization(6)Reading comprehension questions(7)Written work(4)Exemplification•(l)Phase OneA.The teacher reads and explain the new words and expressions in the first language・B.The teacher teaches the new grammar with deductive method・•(2)Phase TwoA. Students are asked to read a few sentences out aloud and translated them into the first language ・B. The teacher analyses some difficult sentence and translates them into their native language・C- Students read the studied part of the passage silently and ask the teacher questions they can not answer by themselves.•(3)Phase ThreeA. Students are asked to write the answers to the questions about the reading passage.B .Students are asked to do other written work that is meant to reinforce the new grammar items and vocabulary・4.Summary and Comments(1)Main Advantages•(DIt makes use of the first language・ In Grammar-Translation Method, the first language is maintained as the reference system in the learning of the second language・•(2)It helps students develop reading comprehension and production of written language・•(3)It is easy for teacher to use. The Grammar-Translation Method makes few demands on teacher although it often creates frustration for students. It is relatively easy to apply. (2)Disadvantages(l)O veremphasis on translation, dependence on first language. Overemphasis on translation can never emancipate the learners from dependenee on the first language.(2)Too much emphasis on reading and writing, neglect of listening and speaking. It put too much emphasis on reading and writing and neglects listening and speaking.(3)Not meeting the communicative and practical needs of the students・ Knowing a largenumber of grammatical rules can not ensure that students can use them appropriately in real communicative situation. The texts are mostly taken from literary works. The language learned often doesn' t meet the practical needs of the learners・(4)Rote-learning Memorizing grammar rules and bilingual word lists does not motivatestudents to actively communicate in the target language・The Direct MethodLBackground•Use the natural way to communicate, like a baby learning its mother tongue・•In the late 19th century in Europe, for economic development, the communication among nations became more frequent.•Foreign languages learning was highly demanded・•Oral communication became the main goal of foreign language teaching・•Revolution to Grammar Translation Method・One of the revolutionists was Francois Gouin.•First introduced in France and Germany.•Berlitz (Maximilian D. Berlitz,! 852-1921) used extensively in Rhode Island, USA, and opened the first language school2.Theoretical BasisThe theory of language mainly derives from the following views proposed by the innovators and reformers of the 19th century:Every language has its own structure and cannot be forced into the straitjacket of Latin gDimmar.Speech patterns rather than grammar should be the fundamental elements of language・•Training in phonetics will enable teachers and students to pronounce the language accurately.•The sentence is a more useful unit of language instruction. The verb no less important than the noun to which language pedagogy had previously paid much more attention.3.Basic Principles(1)> Main featuresThis method aims at developing the students J ability to communicate in the target language. The first language and translation exercises are completely avoided・ The syllabus used in the Direct Method is arranged semantically according to situations to topics-(2). ObjectivesThe objectives are to foster the students * ability to communicate in the target language・(3). TechniquesIn order to realize the goal of teaching, a Direct Method teacher is usually found using the following techniques:Direct association Question and answer exercises Conversation practiceError correction Dictation(4). Inductive teaching of grammarGrammar is by no means taken for granted by most practitioners of the Direct Method.•l)Listening comprehension takes 2) Graded composition4.ExemplificationClassroom procedures in the Direct Method can be roughly divided into three phase:(1). Presentation by direct association (2). Oral practice in the target language(3)・ Consolidation with written work5.Summary and Comments(1)> Advantages•It is necessary in efficient real communication.•It is important in achieving automaticity of using the target language・•Special attention paid to pronunciation and intonation is desirable in teaching spoken language.•It is strategic in fostering the four skill.•It makes foreign language learning more natural and efficient for students to understand.(2). Dissatisfactory•It results in the exclusive tongue occasionally troubles the Direct Method in teaching the meaning of abstract concepts.•It is difficult for students to safeguard against mistakes and self-correct them with the guidance of the rules of the target language・•It requires teachers who have native-speaker-like fluency in the target language・The Audio-Lingual Method1.Background•The Audio-Lingual Method is in origin mainly America. It was developed in the U.S. during the Second World War.•In 1914 the first English Language Institute in the U.S. was established in the University of Michigan・•It provided the methodological foundation that formed the basis of such widely used series as the Lcido English Series. English 900 and Success With English.2.Theoretical BasisTheoretical BasisThe theory of language underlying Audio linguafs was derived from a view proposed by American linguists in the 1930s and the 1940s. The view then came to be known as structural linguistics which views language as a system of structurally related elements for the expression of meaning. Theory of learningFive slogans:l)Language is speech, not writing 2) Languages are different3)A language is what its native speakers say, not what some one thinks they ought to say4)A language is a set of habit 5)Teach the language, not about the language3.Basic PrinciplesThere are five features of the Audio-Lingual Method:•Separation of language skills into listening, speaking，reading and writing, with emphasis on the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing・•Use of dialogues as the chief means of presenting the language・•Emphasis on certain practice techniques: mimicry, memorization, and pattern drills.•Discourage the use of the mother tongue in the classroom•Use of language laboratory4Objectives•The general objective of the Audio-Lingual Method is to enable the students to use the target language communicatively・•The objectives of the Audio-Lingual Method are the development of mastery in all four language skills, begins with listening and speaking, and using these as basis for the teaching and writing・5Techniques•Dialogues and drills form the basis of audio lingual classroom practice・•Repetition drill•Simple substitution drill•Progressive drill•Transformation drill•Question-and-answer drill•Expansion drill•Clause combination drill•Backward build■叩drill•Chain drill•Mini-dialogue (A： Completion B: Use of Minimal Pair)6ExemplificationIn a typical audio-lingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:Recognition Imitation and Repetition Patter Drills Follow-up Activities7Summary and CommentsCharacters of the Audio-Lingual Method:•New material is presented in dialogue fomi•There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning•Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time•Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills•There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation.•Vocabulaiy is strictly limited and learned in contex匸•There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.•Great important is attached to pronunciation.•Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.•Successful responses are immediately reinforced.•There is great effort to get students to produce effort-free utterances・•There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.contributions•It，s among the first theories to recommend the development of a language teaching theory on declared linguistic and psychological principles.•It attempts to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners.•The Audio Lingual Method stresses syntactic progression and use pattern drills to help the students gain control over grammatical structures.•It leads to the development of simple techniques of varied, graded, and intensive practice of specific features of language, and more scientifically selected and systematically arranged materials and structural patterns to go with.•It develops the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device・The Cognitive ApproachL BackgroundThe Cognitive Approach is an approach to foreign language teaching which is based on the belief that language learning is a process which involves active mental process and not simply the forming of habits・The decade of the 1960s saw a revolution in linguistic theory・In linguistics, the structural school gave away to the generative school with its beginning in the early 1960s.2・ Theoretical Basis•Theory of languageRejecting structural linguistics and behaviorism, the Cognitive Approach seeks in transformation-generative grammar and cognitive psychology a basis for second language teaching ・In 1959,Chomsky launched a strong attack upon Skinner" s Verbal Behavior which had become rightly famous ・•Chomsky maintained that language is not a form of behavior. On the contrary, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this language competence that a child gradually acquires, and it is this language competence that allows to be creative as a language use匚•Theory of learningThe Cognitive Approach lays emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception and learning.In Cognitive Approach, the teacher is seen as an active participate in the learning process, using various mental strategies in order to sort out the system of the language to be taught.3Basic Principles1)Main featuresThe Cognitive Approach concentrates on the learner? s process of knowing rather than on mechanistic procedures imposed upon him by the teache匚Teachers were warned not to teach grammar , they were required to tell the learner about the language・The Cognitive Approach believes that learners play a decisive role in foreign language2)ObjectivesThe goal of the Cognitive Approach is to develop in the students the same type abilities possessed by native speakers, and to develop the students' ability to the point at which they have a minimum control over the rules that allows native speakers to create the language necessary to communicatio n.3)TechniquesThe Cognitive Approach emphasizes the conscious teaching of grammar or of language rules・ It seeks the intellectual understanding by the learner of the language as a system.4Exemplification1)Introduction of new materialsThe first step in the classroom is to present all new sounds, vocabulary, and structures in a manner meaningful to each student.The purpose of this introduction part is to develop students' comprehension of the language and prepare the students for the next two procedures.2)ExerciseExercises are designed to consolidate the understanding of the new material, to help the students learn to manipulate and to remember these forms, and building up language competence・3)Application activitiesThe teachers assign reading or listening comprehension passages for the students to study. Then the teacher can guide the students to engage in producing their own thoughts in the target language・5Summary and CommentsCognitive theory is principally a critique of audiolingualism in the light of theoretical and practical weakness of the psycholinguistic.Another characteristic of the Cognitive approach is : it utilizes all four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing from the beginning of the course.The Communicative Approach1> Background•The communicative approach is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence.•Towards the end of the 1960s language learners were required to master grammatical forms and this mastery of language structured the main measures of competence.•By the late 1960s, these changes attracted the attention of Council of Europe. A number of experts proposed to set up a scheme to teach the languages of Europe.2Theoretical basis1.Theory of languageThree factors:1)The field of discourse 2) The tenor of discourse 3) The mode of discourse2.Four dimensions of competenceThey are grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence,Discourse competence and strategic competence・3.Theory of learningMost contributors share the view that language is used for communication and are more concerned with structure. They argue that language is best learned through use in social contex匸3• Basic principle1.Main features•An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language;•The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation;•The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but on the learning process itself;•An enhancement of the learner J s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning;•An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.2.TechniquesThe communicative approach advocates the integration of skill.©listening and note-taking ②oral presentation ③role play/ simulation4ObjectivesThe general aim of the communicative approach is to develop the students? communicative competence ・•Knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language;•Knowledge of rule of speaking;•Knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts, such as request, apologies, thanks, and invitation;•Knowing how to use language appropriate!y・5Summary and comments•In the last decades the scope of CLT has expanded considerably.•The communicative approach is now accepted by many applied linguists and classroom teachers as the most effective approach・•The most obvious risk is the fossilization of learners? errors・•There is much in the communicative approach that is still open to debate since the 1970s ・Task-based Language TeachingL Background•Task-based language teaching came from the communicative language approach theory.“task” refers to the practice in the language teaching. Till n ow, there are still manyscholars who mention the “task" and "teaching technique^ in the same breath.•In the 1970s,the discussion about u language communication is a synthetic processing ”made the language teachi ng syllabus designers put forward the sequent, independentlanguage item・•Task-based learning initiators designed the course and tried to develop and approve it.L Theoretical Basis•The effective language learning is experiential instead of instructional ・The learning activity is as important as language content. Task-based teaching enables the students to experience the learning processing.•At least parts of tasks in the teaching method are similar to some tasks in real life.•The accuracy of language is one of the dimensions of tasks.•The task makes the information-processing model in learners' minds become parallel processing model instead of serial processing model.•The process features of tasks and the activity quantity of participators contribute to forming of learners' language automaticity・•The training of language dynamics ability and group dynamics ability is another obvious feature of task-based learning.•The schema expansion in meaningful learning .The theory considered language not only asa regular sign system , but also as dynamic information resources・L Definitions and Components of Tasks•Definitions of taskThe “ task n in task-based learning or teaching is not the inside or outside class teaching or learning activity, which is general, isolated or united arbitrarily; instead, it is an organic part of the whole system (or course).•Five parts of task designing1)The task goals 2) The in put materials used to constitute the task content3)Activities designed on the basis of these materials4)Teacher/Student role 5) The settings of carrying out the task1. Features and Problems•Features1) It puts the task in the central position ,but not considers the practicing less meaningful language form as its aim.2)When designing and implementing tasks, the teacher should pay attention to the accomplishment of tasks that is to solve the communicative problems.•Advantages1)In task-based teaching ,the teacher designs the teaching activities on the basis of students' learning.2)Because the meaningful task activities are close to students' life , learning experienee and social reality, they can arouse students' sympathetic response and stimulate students' desire to take an active part in them.3)Working in pairs provides students a great number of practicing opportunities4)Students are more likely to feel ownership over their language learning, resulting in greater self-confidence and intrinsic motivation to learn English.•Problems1)It takes amount of time to finish a large learning task.2)It is hard to master the difficulty of the task.3)In task-based language teaching ,students are accustomed to the group discussion.4)Teachers found it difficult to achieve a balance carrying out communicative tasks and maintaining good behavio匚5)The next one is the use of mother tongue by students during tasks.L Task-based Language Teaching Design Principles and Application •Design principles1) The authentic language and situation principle 2) The form-function principle3)The task-dependency and the task-chain principle 4) learning by doing•Willis' task-based language modelWillis put forward five principles for carrying out it1) offer valuable and authentic language materials 2) apply the language 3) choose the tasks which can arouse students to use language 4) pay attention to certain language form properly5)sometimes should focus on the language form.•Willis' task-based teaching applied to writing course.1) Pre-task 2) Drafting 3) Analyzing and solving problemsL Conclusion•The modem education puts students in the center and does eveiything for the development of the students・ The strategy of the whole processing of education must be made on the basis of information coming from students' “ need analysis ” and “ needassessment ” •。
