Fossilization- First language transfer

一（试题九）31、Synchronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language at one particular point of time, e.g. the study ofthe kind of English used during Shakespeare's time.32、displacementOne of the major defining features of human language. Human language is notrestricted by the "here" and "now" as animal communication is; we can virtually talk about anything we want, including what happened in the past, what is going to happen in the future, what is not existent in the immediate surroundings and even what we imagine.33、a minimal pairA pair of sound combinations which are identical in every way except one sound e.g. /pit/and /bit/.34、derivative affixesAffixes added to an existing form to create a new word, e.g.in-, -er 35, Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, and it consists of a set of rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.35、SyntaxThe study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentence is called syntax.36, Language transferLanguage transfer is a phenomenon that L2 learners subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in their learning process.37, HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more specific word and a more general, more inclusive word, The former is included in the latter. For example, a cat is a hyponym of animal.38, Sentence meaningSentence meaning refers to the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and decontextualized. For example, semantic analysis of the sentence meaning of "The bag is heavy" results in the one-place predication BAG（BEING HEAVY）39, lingual francaLingual franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people of diverse linguistic backgrounds. For this reason, a lingual franca must be an agree-upon"common tongue"used by people thrown into social contact for various purposes, such as for social or commercial purposes.40, Cerebral cortexCerebral cortex is the outside surface of the brain, the decision-making organ of the body,receiving messages from all sensory organs and initiating all voluntary actions. Many of the cognitive abilities that distinguish humans from other mammals, such as sophisticated reasoning, linguistic skills, and musical ability, are believed to reside in the cortex.二（试题一）31、dualityOne of the major defining features of human language, Human language consists of two levels. At the lower level, there are a limited number of sounds which are meaningless while at the higher level there are an unlimited number of combinations of these sounds. It is also known as double articulation.32 、diachoronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language over a period Di time, also known as historical linguistics, e.g. the study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present.33, broad transcriptionA way to transcribe speech sounds. The basic principle is to use one letter to indicate one sound. It is generally used in dictionaries and language teaching textbooks.34, morphological rulesThe rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word, e.g. -ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.35, phrase structure rulea rewrite rule that allows for the possible combinations of words to form phrases and sentences.36 relational oppositesRelational opposites, a kind of antonyms, refer to pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items, For example, "husband" and "wife", "father" and "son" etc.37、componential analysisComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example, the word "man" is analyzed as composing of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.38 ContextContext is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer, For example, the knowledge of the knowledge used and the knowledge of the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39,euphemismA euphemism is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid more direct wording that might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive, e.g." pass" away for "die".40,brain lateralizationBrain lateralization refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain. For example, the right hemisphere processes stimuli more holistically and the left hemisphere more analytically. In most people, the left hemisphere has primary responsibility for language, while the right hemisphere controls visual and spatial skills.试题七1、ReferenceReference means what a linguistic from refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2、perlocutionary actA perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something ; it is the consequence of, the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.3、Linguistic tabooA linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use, such as obscene, profane and swear words etc.试题六1. assimilation ruleA phonological rule that makes one sound similar to a neighboring one by copying one of it phonetic features. For example, the /i: /sound in/: /to some extent nasalized because it is assimilated by the nasal sound /n/that follows it immediately.2.rootA root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself though it bears clear,definite meaning: it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word, e.g. liter-in literal, and literature.3. bound morphemesThe morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently4. surface structureA level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.5. grammaticalityGrammaticality refers to the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence. It is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. A grammatically well-formed sentence may not be semantically meaningful, For example, Green clouds are sleeping furiously6. elaborationElaboration is a kind of language change. it occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.7. bilingualismBilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.8. creoleCreole refers to a language that is originally a pidgin, which comes to be adopted by a community as its native tongue, and children lean it as their first language9. the Sapir-whorf hypothesisThe hypothesis refers to the theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought. Whorf illustrated his view based in part on a number of differences that he observed among languages. For example, there are different words for snow in the Eskimo language. Proponents of the hypothesis believe that the English and Eskimo speakers perceive snow in different ways10. fossilizationFossilization is a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features such as an accent or a grammatical pattern become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.试题二1.general linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.2.suprasegmental festuresThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments3.root and stemThe base form of a word; the existing form to whiich a derivational affixcan be added.4.hierarchical structureThe sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NPand VP5.naming theory and conceptualist viewThe words of a language are labels of the objects they stand for, alinguistic form is linkedthrough concepts to what it refers to6.maxims of quality and mannerDo not say what you believe to be false or without adequate evident,Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity, be brief and orderly.7.blendingA process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words8.sociolectA variety of languages used by a social class9.subvocal speechThought when it is close to language10.contrastive analysisA comparative procedure to establish linguistic differences betweenteaching purposes试题八1.cultural transmission (as a defining feature of human language)One of the major defining features of human language. Humans are born with the ability to acquire a language, but different from animals, the actual use of human language is not genetically transmitted, rather it is culturally transmitted, i.e. it has to be taught and learnt.2.phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds that are used in human language communication,i.e. the speech sounds3.voicingVoicing is a phonetic feature of some sounds. lt is caused by the vibration of thevocal cords4.Inflectional morphemesInflectional morphemes are morphemes that are used to indicate the grammatical relations and categories, such as-ed, (e)s, est in Englishaaaaa5. ReferenceReference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality. For example, if we say, " The dog is barking,we must be talking about a certain dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in the situation. The actual dog the word"dog"refers to in this particular situation is the reference of the word"dog6. Locutionary actrefers to the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the actof conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. For example, bysaying " You have left the door wide open", the locutionary act performedthat by the speakeristhat he has uttered all the words and expressed what the words literally mean7. protolanguageA protolanguage is the original formof a language family that has ceased toexist. The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages8. ethnic dialectAn ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. It is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation9. RegistersRegisters are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For this reason, registers are also known as situational dialects10. AcculturationAcculturation refers to a process of adapting to the culture and value system of thesecond language community11.stylistic synonymsstylistic synonyms are synonyms that differ in style, or in "the degree of formality. Some words tend to be more formal, others informal or casual. and still others neutral in style. For example, English has various ways to express the termination of life: die, pass away, decease, pop off, kick the bu cket, to mention a few. Of all these, " die is neutral in style; "pass away"and "decease "are more for, gop off "is casual; and the idiom "kick the bucker12.learner languagelearner language is normally, what a foreign/second language learner pro-duces. It is -also called interlanguage". Learner language contains an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language(or L2) who has not become fully proficient yet but is, approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language (or Ll), or overgeneralizing target language rules in speaking or writing the target language and-creating innovationsprehensible inputComprehensible input is the language input that can be understood by second or foreign language learners. According to Krashen's Comprehensible Input Hypothesis, the right level of input for language leaming is i +1, while i represents learners' current proficiency level, I means one level above that, this kind of input helps them acquire language naturally, rather than leam it consciously14.Intercultural communication.Intercultural communication,a form of global communication, is used to describe the wide range of communication problems that naturally app- ear within an organization made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic,and educational backgrounds. Intercultural communication is sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural communication. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate and Perceive the world around them. As a separate notion, it studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact15.AphasiaAphasia refers to language loss or disorders due to the lesions in the brain areas Specialized for language, which can be caused by a stroke, tumor, or other brain inuny.The loss may be total or partial, and may affect spoken and/or written language ability。

Training University Students’ English Comprehensive Abilities inSecond Language T eaching/post.15092.htmlPrefaceSince 1970s, China has developed and strengthened her communication of English teaching with Britain, America, Canada, Australia as well as New Zealand through researches and the brought-in of the teaching materials and teaching methodologies. What is more important, we deplore deeper into foreign educating theories and practice, and it does more contribution to the development of the project of English teaching in China.In 1970s, we brought in the situational textbooks and Alexander‘s New Concept of English and applied audiovisual approach in English teaching, on which we adopted its methodology and made some amendments.By the end of that decade, communicative approach had taken the dominant place. After Follow Me was broadcasted, communicative approach gained more attention and led our emphasis on English teaching from pure language skills and the ABC of English to the formation of communicative skills.Up to now, English teaching has so many variations in China, for different universities adopt different teaching methodologies. As Li Lanqing pointed out, English teaching is more waste-of-time than harvest in teaching proficiency, which should be cared of. For example, nine out of ten of sophomores have spent twelve years learning English. However, they lack fluency and comprehensive skills in reading original English publications. What is worse, they encounter difficulties listening to as well as speaking out the foreign language. It is out of the question for them to contact native speakers. The above phenomena reflect the unsatisfactory implementation of the English teaching methodologies adopted from abroad.In this research paper, I try to analyze from a university student‘s point of view the causes of the phenomenon and work out some possible solutions to those problems. The research paper covers threes aspects: the basis, the content and the methodologies in second language teaching and learning, and extends the topics into language accuracy and fluency, then draws a conclusion on how to implement the English teaching approaches to cater for the needs of both teachers and students.Then, let us start from the basis of second language teaching and learning to pierce into current situation in the field of university English teaching and learning.1. Basis of Second language Learning and Teaching—Learning Process1.1 LanguageBefore we start the topic, it is fairly necessary to make one thing clear, that is the distinction between second language learning and second language acquisition. As most of the researchers put it, second langua ge learning refers to one‘s learning a second or third language other than one‘s native language in native environment while second language acquisition talks about learning the target language in a naturalistic environment e.g. a Chinese learning English in China. Therefore, for most(ninety percent or more) of the university students, their activities on learning English or other foreign languages are labeled second language learning.From this perspective, we can make a comparison between Universal Grammar (UG) and Second Language Learning (L2 Learning). People use UG to explain how the first language (native language) is acquired. According to Norm Chomsky, UG is a biological device inside the human brain. It is an endowment that all children are born with and the initial state from which children proceed to acquire their first language. Though sharing some similarities with UG, L2 Learning differs from L1 Acquisition in some important ways:L2 Learning generally lacks success, reaches a stage where progress ceases (a phenomenon called Fossilization), and involves first language transfer, more matured cognitive abilities and different motivations for learning a second language (Bley-Vroman: 1989).As that is the case, when Chinese university students learn English, they do not have access to UG and will use longer time to master the fundamental knowledge of English, which impinges a tougher difficulty on them to train their logical thinking in a foreign language.That is also the reason why those students need a period of time to think about some ideas in Chinese and then translate them into English; afterwards, they output it, spending more time on checking their use of English.For L2 learning, most of the teachers may complain about the students‘ poor abilities of finding out rules of the second language by themselves. In linguistics we can al that the students connecticism abilities are low- which is really a problem at present for the students cannot self-study well.The above are the problems caused by language.1.2 Learner1.2.1 Learner‘s Motivation and InterestUp to now, we have talked about one objective point- language. In fact, learners, or we say, university students here play the major role in their English learning process. Since students can be divided into active and passive two groups, they also have various personalities and characteristics. Then, we should talk about their motivations and interests first.Students‘ motivatio ns and interests are their desires to let them pay attention to English and study hard. If they show little or no interest in English, their motivations are not aroused correctly. Penny Ur develops her ideas about this into nine points (Ur 1996: 281):Clear goals; varied topics and tasks; visuals; tension and challenge: games; entertainment; play-acting; information gap; personalization; open-ended cues.As the above, on learning English, students should bear clear goals in mind. They sh ould also have interesting topics that are selected carefully as well as eye-catching visuals relevant to the task. More useful, they need to entertain themselves in English learning via game-like activities, which adds their motivation. While in campus life and classes, they are unlikely to get access to those well-designed and carefully selected English learning activities and therefore lose their interests to some extent. As a result, the goals are not as clear as it should be. Maybe this time, getting a grade in tests is regarded as the most beneficial aim. Without motivation, students will never have interests in English and learn it by heart.1.2.2 Learner‘s Age Group- Adult LearnersBy the way, university students are over eighteen years old and can be called adults. According to Critical Period Hypothesis, adults feel that they are not learning properly in play-like situations and prefer a conventional formal style of learning, which is the main teaching methodology in university. But in essence, if they can join in the seemingly childish activities whole-heartedly, they will learn better than children, who learn English through role-play and simulation, which are in conflict with their adolescent anxieties. Age is by no means crucial to L2 learning itself. Spolsky(1989) describes three for L2 learning related to age:1. Formal classroom learning requires skills of abstraction and analysis. That is to say, if the teaching method entails sophisticated understanding and reasoning by the student, as for instance a traditional grammar-translation method, then it is better for the student to be older.2. The child is more open to L2 learning in informal situations. Hence children are easier to teach through an informal approach.3. The natural L2 acquisition may favor children. The teaching of adults requires the creation of language situations in the classroom that in some ways compensate for this lack. An important characteristic of language spoken to small children is that it is concerned with the here and now rather than with the absent objects or the abstract topics that are talked about in adult conversation-adults do not even talk about the weather much to a two-year-old child! That is to say, ordinary speech spoken by adults is too sophisticated for L2 learning. Restricting the language spoken to the beginning L2 learner to make it reflect the here-and-now could be of benefit. This is reminiscent of the audiovisual and situational teaching methods, which stress the provision of concrete visual information through physical objects or pictures in the early stages of L2 learning.But as always with published materials they have to aim at an average student.Many teenagers may scorn soap operas; many adults have no interest in discussing holidays yet again. For this adult-learner group, the current difficulty is how to provide them with useful techniques and materials.Conventionally, linguists break language down into three main components: the phonology, the lexis and the structure. We define this in university English teaching conveniently as pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. A language course may be based on the previous three items or on the more communicative categories of topic, situation and function. Probably, however, t he most effective teaching and learning result from a combination of them all. Topics and situations provide a context for the teaching of new words, and the structures are learned in order to express notions or functions. In the following topic, we will start to talk about the content to teaching with an aim relevant to students‘ weakness.2. Content of Second Language Teaching2.1 PronunciationGenerally speaking, pronunciation includes phonology, or the sounds of the language, stress and rhythm, and intonation three aspects. And the most obvious and clearly defined is the sound of language. But a learner may pronounce perfectly and still sound foreign because of unacceptable stress and intonation. In Chinese, intonation often makes a difference to meaning.English speech rhythm is characterized by tone-units. The sentence: ―Jim, come here please.‖ For example, would divide into two sound units ―Jim‖ and ―come here please.‖ with the two main stresses on the first syllable of ―Jim‖, and the word ―here‖.The rhythm of English is mainly a function of its stress patterns; these may also affect such aspects as speed of delivery, volume and the use of pause.Intonation is an important aspect of the pronunciation of English, often making a difference to meaning or implication. Stress, for example, is most commonly indicated not by increased volume but by a slight rise in intonation (Brazil, Coulthard and Johns, 1980). A native speaker usually has little difficulty is hearing intonation changes in his or her own languages; others, however, may not find it easily. Besides hearing, non-native speakers also make pronunciation errors. That‘s because: a) a particular sound may not exist in the mother tongue, so that the learner is not used to forming it and therefore is more likely to find the nearest equivalent the learner knows to substitute it. (The substitution of /d/ and /z/ for the English pronunciation of th as in the word that) b) a sound does exist in the mother tongue, but not as a separate phoneme: that is to say, the learner does not perceive it as a distinct sound that makes a difference to meaning. On the whole, this is more difficult. A totally new sound is often easily perceived as alien, and once you hear a sound you are well on the way to being able to pronounce it, and the problem of perception needs to be overcome before any progress can be made. c) Learners have the actual sounds right, but have not learnt the stress patterns of the word group of words, or they are using an intonation from their mother tongue that is inappropriate to the target language. The result is a foreign-sounding accent, and possibly misunderstanding (like Americans pronounce nou rou –beef in Chinese)For teachers, the first priority is to check that the learner can hear and identify the sound they teach. It is the same with intonation, rhythm and stress. For sound formation it may help to use a sketch of the mouth and to describe the pronunciation of a sound in terms of lips, tongue, teeth, etc. But for other aspects of pronunciation a brief explanation is enough, followed by presentation and imitation as well as practice.2.2 V ocabularyV ocabulary is defined as the words we teach in the foreign language. It includes not only items, but also words that express a single idea and multi-word idioms. In all, six aspects of vocabulary need to be thought: form (pronunciation and spelling); grammar; collocation; two aspects of meaning (a. denotation, connotation, appropriateness; b. meaning relationships) and word formation. We can use various ways to present new words: concise definition, detailed description, examples, illustration, demonstration, context, synonyms, antonyms, translation and the associated ideas, or collocations.But among students, their abilities of remembering vocabulary are different, even the same student performs differently on various occasions. Let us have a look at the word-learning experiment proposed by Penny Ur (1996:65)A BWHODOTASHLARSEXOCTFORAWEIONCANOWNDIGOBIHUTTHE ARMLEGPEGPIGTONFOXDOGCATMANBOYSONMUMDADBADSADWORD-LEARNING EXPERIMENT© Cambridge University Press 1996Table 2.2 Word-list for word-learning experimentAs observed and practiced, List B produces nearly perfect scores while List A noticeably less when students are divided into two groups to remember each of the lists for a while and write the words they remember as many as possible. This is because; List B is labeled fairly low level of difficulty while List A belongs to the very mixed level. And the fact that List B is grouped according to meaning-or sound-association, while List A is not. The results indicates not only that we learn words better when we can easily assign meaning to them, but also that it is much easier to learn words in groups, where one can be in harmony with another.From the conclusion above, we may teach vocabulary as follows:1. Students can have better results if the words we teach have clear, easily understandable meanings.2. The good result can also be obtained if the words they remember can be associated with each other. Some of them are already learned before.3. Do not teach vocabulary with compact intervals. It is better separate it and scatter it into spaced sessions.In other words, if we really want to teach vocabulary well, the perfect match is to teach vocabulary briefly at the beginning of a lesson and review that later(in one session) and again in the next than if the same total amount of time is used for learning the words all at once. This requires careful lesson planning, but deserves the effort.2.3 GrammarOn talking about grammar, all of English teachers have encountered the occasions that they correct students‘ grammar mistakes. Usually, they perceive a mistake i ntuitively, say: something sounds or looks wrong. It may actually interfere with successful communication, or simply produce a slight feeling of discomfort in the reader or hearer. But, more often than not, what does not accord with some grammar book prescriptions is quite acceptable to competent or native speakers of the language.In general, if we explain certain grammar points properly and provide the students with plenty of varied practice in using them, we may hope that university students will make fewer mistakes. But some mistakes or errors still appear inevitably.Mistakes may be seen as integral and natural component of learning, it is also a symptom of the students‘ progress through this media towards a closer and closer approximati on to the target language-English. Some may think that it is not necessary to correct at all: as the students advance mistakes will disappear on their own. Even if you think that grammar mistakes need to be corrected, it is important to relate to them as a means to advance teaching and learning instead of a sign of inadequacy.Therefore, on grammar practice activities, teachers should help students make a leap from current form-focused accuracy work to fluent, but acceptable production via providing a variety of activities that familiarize them with the structures in context, giving practice both in structure (or organization) and communicative meaning.With this guideline, when designing practice activities, we may follow some types. For exa mple, after students have been introduced to a language structure, we can provide students with excerpts or extracts from newspaper articles or magazine stories to ask students to find and underline all the examples of the grammar point that they can find. Or, we can also design controlled or meaningful drills to get responses from the students. Example:Choose someone you are quite familiar with, organize sentences as follows:Jack drinks tea but he doesn‘t drink coffee.a) Like: ice cream/ cakesb) Speak: English/ Chinesec) Enjoy: playing tennis/ playing golfOther useful types include: structure-based free sentence composition (ask students to tell others what everyone is doing according to the picture offered), discourse composition (here it means given-topic writing or group discussion, or we can find anyone when talking freely.)2.4 Mutual directions in teaching language chunks: from text to task and from task to textAs the base of this, we should talk about learning by heart first.As is against by teachers and educationalists, learning by heart is related to mindless rote learning of previous generations of schoolchildren. It is also associated with discouragement of one‘ one‘s creati ve or original thinking and stress on the memorization of data such as dates in history and passages from literature. At that time, methodologists were against the unthinking habit-forming learning methodology.However, more recently, people both within language teaching and in other areas of education begin t realize that learning by heart has value, and that it is quite accordant with creativity. Just as an automatic knowledge of the multiplication tables enables the young mathematician to progress faster into interesting problem solving, so memorized chunks of language or formulaic utterances associated with particular communicative contexts furnish the learner with a rich and reliable vocabulary of ready-made expressions which contribute significantly to his or her overall mastery of the language (Widdowson 1989).Thus if we present our learners with samples of functions incorporated into situational dialogues, it makes sense to ask them to learn some of these by heart, provided that we cons istently maintain their awareness of the meaning and purpose of what they are saying.Learning texts by heart and then delivering them according to different interpretations is one way of engaging with samples of written or spoken language functions or situations. Another possibility is to take the basic text and elaborate on it(Ur 1996). The class may be invited to vary and extend them, leading to further exploration of the language being learned. They might create a new text on a similar topic; or suggest other ways the characters could have expressed the same notions or functions, or the meeting might have developed, and how the characters might have expressed themselves; besides, they may represent the original text in a different way.As a reversed direction, teaching topics, situations, notions and functions through tasks and learner initiated language rather than through ready-made texts is another possible strategy. Prabhu (1987) and Willis (1990) have described this methodology. In such a methodology, the teacher has a syllabus of topics, but may or may not have ready-made texts or lists of actual language samples that are to be taught. The main initiatives come from students. In a person-description course, the teacher lets them student s‘ work in pairs to describe several pictures of persons. If they need new bots of language, they may ask others or the teacher, in the end, the teacher summarizes the new knowledge and elaborates on them. The advantage of doing this is that the minds of t he teacher and students are from the outset firmly focused on the central language topic, whereas the use o a text as starting point can lead to neglect of meaning and purpose in favor of analysis of grammar and vocabulary item. While for some ones who prefer the appointed topic teaching methodology, this may not be advantageous.Anyway, the teaching of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar will tend to be accuracy-oriented. In these, we are mainly interested in getting students pronounce correctly, use words appropriately and organize sentences properly. In teaching English four skills- listening, speaking, reading and writing-however, the emphasis will shift from accuracy in the former to fluency in the latter.3. Methodologies in Second Language Teaching3.1 Teaching ListeningOn teaching listening, the aim is to help students familiar with real-life listening. However, they always face problems in finding the right answers in tests, or when they use their listening abilities in real life communication, for most of them, they have trouble with sounds i.e. they can only perceive standard accent in a given situation. But real-life communication offers more inaccurate accent. The second problem is that they try to understand every word in the listening material to master the content of conversations or monologues, learning to find the key words is always the disaster. Even if in English classes, they ask teachers to speak slowly, in order to listen clearly and capture the points, which takes them away from natural native speech. Then, when they do listening exercises, they wish or need to hear things more than once and find it difficult to keep up. The result of the above phenomena is clear: they get tired easily and lose motivations and interests to improve themselves.On order to solve their problems, when designing listening activities, it is necessary to make four types of activities to let students improve gradually.The first type includes stories, songs, and films, theatre, video entertainments. In these activities, students do not need to do anything in response to the listening, however, their facial expressions and body language can tell if they are following or not. If the story (joke, anecdotes, retelling of a famous story) is well selected, students are likely to be motivated to attend and understand in order to enjoy it; singing songs or listening to tape recordings may simply lead them to relaxation, requiring certain responses from the students can be more task-oriented; as with stories, if the content is really entertaining, learners will be motivated to make an effort to understand without and further task.The next one is short responses. We can train students with listening passages with several statements. Then we do true or false questions. We can also do cloze, a passage with several gaps, which is the abstract of the listening material. The task is to ask students to take notes and fill in banks. This kind of exercises is comprehensive. It makes the students use their listening abilities and their use of language, which is regarded as a comparatively advanced means of training students.The third one is large responses. It is a deeper level that appears in the form of paraphrasing and translating, or summarizing and long gap-filling tasks.The last one is extended responses. Here, the listening is only a jump-off point for extended reading, writing or speaking. In other words, these are multi-skill activities. For example, a problem is described orally, and then listeners discuss and write down possible solutions. An alternative is to take an extract from a dialogue or monologue, which has some key words. Listeners guess from the words the topic of the dialogue or monologue and reflect that in written or oral forms.Ever so often, listening comes into fashion in the 1960s. It became fashionable again in the 1980s, when Krashen‘s ideas about comprehensible input gained prominence. In fact, it is the Cinderella skill in second language learning. Without competent listening abilities, one cannot get enrolled in English learning smoothly.3.2 SpeakingStudents are most worried about their speaking. They are worried about making mistakes, fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention that their speech attracts. Even if they are not inhibited, they often complain that they cannot think of anything to say. They have no motive to say other than the feeling that they should be speaking. At English corners, we can also find that in groups, each student has little chance to speak. They listen to the dominant speaker andkeep on nodding their heads to show that they understand the speech, even if they get the chance, more often than not, their mother tongue controls the layout of speech. In a word, it is really hard for learners to talk a lot, to gain high motivation to express themselves in relevant utterances. This seems Utopian.However, through teachers‘ certain effort, it is p romising to help to solve some of the problems. The top one is to use group work. This will lower the inhibitions of learners who are unwilling to speak in public and also increase the amount of learner talk going on in a limited period of time. Unavoidably, the teacher cannot monitor all learner speeches, and learners may randomly slip into their native language. Nevertheless, even taking into consideration those occasional mistakes and mother-tongue use, the amount of time remaining for positive, useful oral practice is still likely to be far more than in the full-class set-up.Next way should be lowering the language in discussion. Only if the activities are easy-language-based, can the language be easily recalled and produced by the participants, so that they can speak fluently with the least hesitation. It is recommended that teachers teach pr review essential vocabulary before the activity starts.The third one is that, we should make careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest, and give some instruction or training on discussion skills. In task-centered activity, there is more talk, more even participation, more motivation and enjoyment. Participants know where they are going; there are some purposes in speaking. It is a challenge as well, participants watch time running out and they need to get a result. While for topic-oriented discussion, participants can go into things more deeply without the pressure of having to reach a decision. So in a balanced program, occasional topic centered discussions and task-centered activities must be concluded.The last but not the least, we should keep students speaking the target language-English. Although there are no penalties, it is beneficial to make students aware that they are using English as the official language to communicate with others and express their ideas. In the meantime, teachers are suggested to be there, modeling the language use and make the discussion go on.Besides, it is suggested that interaction talk, activities that help students to practice speaking in long turns (telling stories, telling jokes, morning report) and visual situations, feelings, relationships based on role-play techniques are traditional but Chinese culture related useful strategies to improve students‘ English abilities.Moreover, although we do not have such big sales and satisfactory conditions, oral tests worth investment. Just like final exams are set to check students‘ acquisition of the subject, oral tests can make students aware their actual position of using oratorical skills and help them improve. The point is that we should work out ways to ensure appropriate training for large number of testers. Up to now, what we really hav done is only requiring testers to grade according to very explicit criteria in the form of tables or diagrams. For example:Accuracy Mark1 Fluency Mark2Little or no language produced 1 Little or no communication 1Poor vocabulary, mistakes in basic grammar, may have very strong foreign accent 2 V ery hesitant and brief utterances, sometimes difficult to understand 2Adequate but not rich vocabulary, makes obvious grammar mistakes, slight foreign accent 3 Gets ideas across, but hesitantly and briefly 3Good range of vocabulary, occasional grammar slips, slight foreign accent 4 Effective communication in short turns 4。

Factors Contributing to Fossilization IntroductionIn the past decades, many researchers and scholars in linguistic circle and the interrelated fields have done a lot of studies of fossilization from different perspectives to discover the causes of fossilization, and a number of different theories have been proposed, among which Selinker’s five psycholinguistic processes, and three models (the biological, interactional and acculturation model), one principle (the multiple effects principle) and Krashen’s in put hypothesis are worth mentioning. To be specific, these theories include:1. Selinker’s five central processesSelinker’s(1972)early explanation of the causes of fossilization consists of five central processes:Language transfer: Learners’IL systems are greatly influenced by their first language, and they cannot produce correct L2 output. Selinker regarded language transfer as the most decisive factor in leading to fossilization.Transfer of training: L2 learners may have done excessive training on certain IL structures that they cannot successfully continue to develop new structures. For instance, if a learner has too much training on the structure containing the verb “be”, he may form the habit of using “be”when it is not necessary.Inappropriate learning strategies: Learners may use inappropriate strategies in their learning progress and thus cause the fossilization in IL, such as translating L1 sentences into L2 sentences directly, etc. Inappropriate communication strategies: When learners are communicating in L2, they may apply some inappropriate strategies so as not to influence the fluency or effect of communication, such as avoidance, simplification, reduction of lexicon.Overgeneralization: This type of fossilization consists mainly of the overgeneralization of some target language rules, like “goed”“teached”.2. The biological causesOne of the most remarkable representatives is Lenneberg. Lenneberg advanced Critical Period Hypothesis in his monumental, The Function of Language, in 1967, believing that there was a neurologically based critical period, ending around the onset of puberty, beyond which complex mastery of a language, first or second, was not possible. Besides Lenneberg, many scholars, including Scovel(1988), Long(1990), Patkowski(1994)are supportive of the biological theory.Lamendella used “sensitive period”to explain the acquisition of second language. Lamendella(1977)also proposed another concept of infrasystem. He holds that while L1 acquisition calls for an infrasystem, L2 acquisition also requires its corresponding infrasystem. If a learner has not developed the infrasystem for acquiring a second language or if thisinfrasystem is underdeveloped, then he or she has to turn to the already-developed infrasystem for mother tongue to acquire the second language. However, the infrasystem for mother tongue is not appropriate for acquiring the second language, after the close of the critical period for primary language acquisition, the L2 learner stands a greater chance of fossilizing far from target-language norms.The Critical Period Hypothesis mostly explains the fossilization of L2 pronunciation, as the available evidence suggests that children do better than adult L2 learners in pronunciation and speaking tests, while adolescent and adult L2 learners are similar to or better than children in the acquisition of grammar and morphemes.3. Social and cultural causesL2 learner’s lack of desire to acculturate is also the reason for fossilization. Schumman(1981)proposed the Acculturation Hypothesis to interpret fossilization from a social-psychological perspective.According to Schumman, acculturation means the social and psychological integration of the learner with the target language group. In Schumman’s Acculturation Hypothesis,acculturation is seen as the determining variable in the sense that it controls the level of linguistic success achieved by second language learners. Stauble(1980)also affirmed the essential roles of social and psychological distance in second language acquisition.4. Vigil&Oller’s interactional modelVigil&Oller presented an early model of fossilization which focused on the role of extrinsic feedback. They expounded their opinions in the following:(1)When the language learners communicate with their teachers and classmates, some incorrect language output sometimes plays the role of input which leads to the learners’ language fossilization.(2)The information transmitted in interpersonal communication includes two kinds of information: one is cognitive information and another is affective information. The former contains facts, assumptions, and beliefs which are expressed in language. The latter is expressed in the form of facial expressions, intonation and gestures etc.Vigil&Oller argued that the interactive feedback received by a learner has a controlling influence on fossilization. Certain types of feedback were said to prompt learners to modify their knowledge of the L2, while other types encouraged learners to stand pat. They suggested that there were cognitive and affective dimensions to feedback. In this scheme, a combination of positive cognitive feedback and negative affective feedback was most likely to promote fossilization, while negative cognitive and positive affective feedback combined to cause learners to modify their linguistic knowledge.According to Han, one problem found in the interactional models isthat there is no way to determine what percentage of cognitive feedback needs to be positive in order to trigger fossilization. Another problematic aspect is the question of whether negative cognitive feedback destabilizes all the rules used to assemble the utterance.5. Krashen’s input hypothesisKrashen believes that most adult second-language learners “fossilize”. He concluded 5 possible causes of fossilization:(1)Insufficient quantity of inputKrashen claims that insufficient input is the most obvious cause of fossilization. Some second-language performers may cease progress simply because they have stopped getting comprehensible input.(2)Inappropriate quality of inputInappropriate quality of input, which means input of the wrong sort, or input filled with routines and patterns, a limited range of vocabulary, and little new syntax, is more subtle than insufficient quantity of input.(3)The affective filterComprehensible input is not sufficient for full language acquisition. To acquire the entire language, including late-acquired elements that do not contribute much to communication, a low affective filter may be necessary. The affective filter is a block that prevents input from reaching the Language Acquisition Device (LAD),and affects acquisition, preventing full acquisition from taking place.(4)The output filterThe output filter is a device that sometimes restrains second-language users from performing their competence (Krashen, 1985).(5)The acquisition of deviant formsThis may occur in two different kinds of situation, both of which are characterized by beginners being exposed nearly exclusively to imperfect versions of the second language. The first situation can be called the “extreme foreign-language” situations. The second situation is that of the performer in the informal environment, where he has communication demands that exceed his second-language competence, and is faced witha great deal of incomprehensible input.6. Multiple effects principleIn a later study, Selinker and Lakshmanan (1992 emphasize the importance of the role of language transfer in fossilization. They raise the question of why “certain linguistic structures become fossilized while others do not” They suggest that the multiple effects principle (MEP) may help explain this. The MEP states that two or more SLA factors, working in tandem, tend to promote stabilization of interlanguage forms leading to possible fossilization. Among various possible SLA factors that have fossiling effects language transfer has been singled out as the principal one.In their paper,Han and Selinker(1997)described a longitudinal case study they made to prove the MEP prediction. We may take what they said in the conclusion par as a summary of the main points of the MEP: What is showed in the case study “brings direct corronoration to the MEP in that language transfer functions as a co-factor in setting multiple effects, and that when it conspires with other SLA processes, there is a greater chance of stabilization of the interlanguage structure”. ConclusionIn summary, factors contributing to language fossilization have been illustrated, whether in terms of empirical studies of not, by different researchers from amount of perspectives This paper has listed a number of reasons from the following six views: Selinker’s five central processes (1972), biologica causes, social and cultural causes, Vigil&Oller’s interactiona model, Krashen’s inpu t hypothesis and Multiple Effects principle.There is no doubt that causes of “cessation” of learners’ might owe to other elements, however, knowing the above six ones, at their least value, inspires some solutions in overcoming the phenomenon of fossilization.References:[1]Selinker.L. Interlanguage[J].International Review of Applied Linguistics,1972.[2]Selinker. L.Fossilization: What we think we know [J].Internet, 1996[3]Lemendella,J.T.General principles of neurofunctional organization and their manifestations in primary and non-primary language acquisition[J]. Language Learning, 1977, (27), 155-196.[4]Vigil,N.&Oller,J. Rule fossilization: A tentative model[J].Language Learning,1976.[5]Ellis，R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.[6]Rod Ellis.Underastanding Second Language Acquisition[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.[7]Krashen,S. The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implication[M].London:Longman,1985.[8]李炯英：中介语石化现象研究30年综观[J]，Foreign Language Teaching Abroad, 2003[9]陈慧媛：关于语言僵化现象起因的理论探讨[J]，外语教育与研究,1999.（3）：21-24[10]牛强：过渡语的石化现象及其教学启示[J]，外语与外语教学,2000（4）：28-31。

Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition:It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language:A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language:A foreign language is a language which is taught asa school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.9. positive transfer:It refers to the transfer that occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)10. negative transfer:the mistaken transfer of features of one’s native language into a second language.11. error analysis: the study and analysis of errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors or common difficulties in language learning.12. interlingual error:errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.13. intralingual error:Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.14. overgeneralization:The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.17. mistake:mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis:A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second languageknowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.23. comprehensible input:Input language which contains linguistic itemsthat are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence.(06F)24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, notincluding intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes andaffective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreignlanguage for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering acareer etc. (06C)27. integrative motivation:the drive that people learn a foreign languagebecause of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a secondlanguage for external purposes. (06F)29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the secondlanguage for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.30. learning strategies:learning strategies are learners’ consciousgoal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learningefficiency.31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis,and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies:the techniques in planning, monitoring andev aluating one’s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the wayslearners interact or communicate with other speakers, native ornon-native.Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain andlanguage. It includes research into how the structure of the braininfluences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.4. dichotic listening:A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cognitive function.5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.8. non-fluent aphasia:Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called non-fluent aphasia.9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.11. phonological dyslexia:it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.13. spoonerism:a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called frequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whethera string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.17. the priming experiment:An experiment that let subjects judge whethera string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.18. priming effect:Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect. (06F)19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of information which is already present in the data.20. top-down processing:an approach that makes use of previous knowledge and experience of the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received.21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumesa particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.22. slip of the tongue:mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases.。

Positive Transferpronunciation:/m/, /n/, /f/, /w/, /ei/, etc.word order: declarative sentence昨天我父亲给我一辆自行车这件事让我很烦恼strategiesone country, two systemNegative Transfera. pronunciation:［i:］［i］、［u:］［u］;［θ］，［e］，［v］，［w］,etc.［θ］→“s”，［i］→“i”，“feel”→“fill”，“thing” →“sing” ,etc.intonationCorder(1978a): restructuring processGeneral learningBehaviorist learning theory(1960s)stimuli→responses (haphazard or predicted)Habit ↗observable↘automaticWatsonSkinnerErrorInterferenceProactive inhibitionProactive inhibition negative transfer errorspositive transferContrastive AnalysisGeneral Introduction⏹Theoretical Contrastive Analysis (Europe) p23,para. 3⏹Applied Contrastive Analysis (United states) p23,para. 3Theoretical principle⏹Psychological principle (Transfer) p23,para. 5⏹Wardhaugh (1970): Strong formWeak formOller &Ziahosseiny (1970): Eclectic form⏹Linguistic principle p25⏹Bloomfield, Lado: structural approachChomsky: Transformational Generative GrammarStrong form p23, Para. 51.…All L2 errors can be predicted by identifying the differences between the target languageand the first language.‟2．…The prime cause or the sole cause, of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learner’s native language‟⏹Opponent: cannot perfectly explain learner’s errors; cannot completely predict all learner’s errors; native language is not the prime or the sole cause of errors.⏹Supporter: needs to improve the hypothesis by analyze non-linguistic variables. Setting, learner’s stage of development, psychological variable, physiological variable, social variable, emotive variable, etc.Weak form p24, Para. 1⏹To stress the analysis after those errors had taken place in order to find out the cause of errors, then diagnose, correct the error.structural approach p25, Para. 6⏹Bloomfield, Lado⏹Language is static system, stress the similarities and differences of the surface language form.Transformational Generative Grammar p25, Para. 6⏹Chomsky⏹Although different races have different languages, they share the same deep structure which is the universality of language.⏹English-native speaker use English rules to transform the same deep structure to be the English surface structure; Chinese-native speaker use Chinese rules to transform the same deep structure to be the Chinese surface⏹When Chinese-native speaker use Chinese rules to transform the deep structure to be the English surface structure, interference occurred.Degrees of similarity and difference (Ellis 1985; Huang Bing 2004),p26Degree 1: no difference between the two languages on one specific language itemDegree 2: convergence phenomenon (同化现象) one or many items in L1 combine to be one in L2Degree 3: the item in L1 does not exist in L2Degree 4: the item which is the same in both L1 and L2 has different distribution in both two languagesDegree 5: no similarity between the two languagesDegree 6: divergence phenomenon(分化现象) one item in L1 has two or more correspondences in L2How to do CA p25, Para. 71. DescriptionTo clearly, accurately describe both L1 and L2 on the basis of grammar system2. SelectionTo choose some specific language items, rules or structures to compare.3. ContrastTo compare the similarities and differences of the items, rules or structures that are selected4. PredictionDegrees of similarity and difference (Ellis 1985; Huang Bing 2004)Learning StrategiesDefinitions⏹Stern (1983): the general trend and features of the learner‟s approaches of languagelearning.⏹Rubin (1987): a useful language developmental strategy to develop self-construction,which directly influence the language development.⏹Oxford (1990): the actions that the learner adopted to learn language in a more successful,motivated, and delightful way.⏹Ellis (1994):1.Strategies can be used to refer to both general learning methods and the specifictechniques of second language learning.2.The purpose of using strategies is to solve the problems during language learning.3.Learners, generally speaking, can realize their strategies.4.Strategies refer to verbal and non-verbal activities.5.Strategies can be used by native language or non-native language.6.Some strategies can be observable but some not.7.Some strategies have indirect influence on learning, some have direct influence onlearning, such as memorizing strategies.8.Strategies are various according to individual differences.Classification⏹Textbook: production and reception strategies; communication strategies⏹Bialystok: formal practice; functional practice; monitoring; inferencing (p175)⏹Oxford: direct strategies; indirect strategies⏹O‟Malley & Chamot: metacognitive strategies; cognitive strategies; socio-affectivestrategiesStrategies mentioned in the textbook⏹Simplification⏹Inferencingintralingual inferencingextralingual inferencing⏹Production strategiessemantic simplificationLinguistic simplification⏹Correcting strategies: monitoring⏹Communication strategiesFossilizationHow to understand ‘fossilizationIt is extremely rare for the learner of an L2 to achieve full native-like competence : Selinker coined the term 'Fossilization'to refer to this phenomenon - non-target forms become fixed in the interlanguage.Many examples can be found - Mukkatesh, looking at the written production of 80 students at a Chinese university, found that after 11 years instruction in learning English, they continued making errors such as the use of simple past instead of simple present- no amount of grammatical explanation or of error correction had any effect.Fossilization may simply affect certain structures. Thus Selinker says that : Fossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules and subsystems which speakers of a particular NL will tend to keep in their IL relative to a particular TL, no matter what the age of the learner or amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the TL.Views on physiology of fossilizationCritical period hypothesis (关键期假设)，临界期假设Lenneberg(1967)language and brain,10-12 yearstwo predictions:a. one must be got involved in the foreign language acquisiation before the linguistic function has fully developed during brain lateralization, esp. the spoken Englishb. the language acquisition would be slowed down after the brain lateralizationPsychological Views on fossilizationSelinker (1972,1978):SL/TL/FL has totally different psychological foundation/construction with FL/NL.Fossilization is a latent, inactivated psychological construction. Thus, most SLLs cannot activate the latent psychological construction with the replacement of general cognitive structure (NL), which lead to fossilization.Affective Factors of fossilizationKrashen: Five factors which may lead to fossilizationa. amount of TL inputb. Quality of TL inputc. emotion filterd. TL output filtere. Acquisition of TL variationKrashen: Input should includes the following factors----comprehensible inputprehensibleb.Interestingc.not bear hard upon the grammarCultural Factors of fossilizationSchumann: acculturation (文化适应) is the main cause of fossilizationAlbertoa 33-year-old Costa Ricanhad lived in Massachusetts for four monthsAlong with five other Spanish-speaking immigrants, (two five-year-old children, two adolescents and one other adult), his speech was monitored over a period of 10 months, by a variety of means, including free expression in natural settings to pencil and paper tests in the classroom.While the other five all made progress, Alberto quickly fossilized.Schumann believes that what happened with Alberto was that he went through a process similar to 'pidginization' - that is, he constructed a basic lingua franca for the limited social purposes that brought him into contact with English speakers.social psychological factorsIndividual Learner DifferencesObjectives•to understand the individual differnces in the SLA•to use the theory in English learning and AcquisitionContent•the understanding of some linguistic terms: language aptitude; motivation;age;affective factors; cognitive style;attitudes; personality; learning strategies•the understanding of some linguistic theoriesAge•Critical period hypothesis (关键期假设)，临界期假设Penfield and Roberts(1959)Lenneberg(1967)•language and brain,10-12 years•two predictions:a. one must be got involved in the foreign language acquisiation before the linguistic function has fully developed during brain lateralization, esp. the spoken English• b. the language acquisition would be slowed down after the brain lateralizationAge bracket•children before adolescence (3-10 old)dominated advantages in learning natureal phonological sounds; languge habits;language capacity lack of long-term memory; logical thinking•teenagers (11-17)highly developed cognitive abilities; abilities of imitation and long-term memory; communicative strategies; moniterspend more time, devour more evergy;lack of self-motivation•Adultswell-developed brain; easier to deal with the complexed sentence structure; dominated advantages in reading and writinglack of adequate time of learning; focus; hard to form a standard phonologic systemAffective factors•Initial excitement and euphoria•Culture shock•Culture stress•assimilationIntelligence and language aptitude•The definition of intelligence in SLA•CALP•BICSLanguage aptitude•Carroll (1959, 1973)•Phonetic coding ability•Grammatical sensitivity•Inductive ability•Associative memoryCognitive style•Witkin•Field dependence——Field independenceMotivation•P116-117•Gardner and Lambert: integrative motivation; instrumental motivationAttitude•P118•Most researchers agree that the attitude has great influence on SLA records.•Lambert et al. (1963) beginners of Adults positive correlationLambert et al. (1963) advanced level of Adults negative correlationM. Miller (1970) Grade 10-11 positive correlationJ. Imhoof (1974) beginners of Adults positive correlationO. Hudson and Liu (1977) advanced level of Adults negative correlation Interlanguage☐The term was first used by Selinker (1972)☐L1 learning accomplished by a “latent language structure”☐Similar to “latent psychological structure” proposed by Lenneberg (1967) Interlangauge consists of:☐First language transfer☐Transfer of training☐Strategies of L2 learning, e.g. simplification☐Strategies of L2 communication, e.g. don‟t think about grammar while talking☐Overgeneralizations of the target language patternsResearch into SLA should focus on:☐Interlangauge(IL) productions in meaningful situations☐Native Language (NL) productions by the learner☐Target Language (TL) productions heard by the learnerFossilization⏹L2 learners will keep certain forms in their IL that differ from the TL regardlessof further study and exposure to the TL⏹Due to the different “structures” used for L1 vs. L2 learning⏹The “5%” who do not fossilize are using the same structure used in first languageacquisition。

Second Language ResearchDOI: 10.1191/0267658302sr207oa2002; 18; 193 Second Language Research Jan Hulstijn acquisition of second language knowledge Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and /cgi/content/abstract/18/3/193The online version of this article can be found at: Published by:can be found at:Second Language Research Additional services and information for/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:/subscriptions Subscriptions:/journalsReprints.nav Reprints:/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions:/cgi/content/refs/18/3/193SAGE Journals Online and HighWire Press platforms): (this article cites 29 articles hosted on the Citationsdistribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded fromTowards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledgeJan Hulstijn University of AmsterdamThis article argues for the need to reconcile symbolist and connectionist accounts of (second) language learning by propounding nine claims,aimed at integrating accounts of the representation,processing and acquisition of second language (L2) knowledge.Knowledge representation is claimed to be possible both in the form of symbols and rules and in the form of networks with layers of hidden units representing knowledge in a distributed,subsymbolic way.Implicit learning is the construction of knowledge in the form of such networks.The strength of association between the network nodes changes in the beginning stages of learning with accumulating exposure,following a power law (automatization).Network parts may attain the status equivalent to ‘symbols’.Explicit learning is the deliberate construction of verbalizable knowledge in the form of symbols (concepts) and rules.The article argues for a nonnativist,emergentist view of first language learning and adopts its own version of what could be called a non-interface position in L2 learning:although explicit knowledge cannot turn into implicit knowledge through practice,it is argued that explicit learning and practice often form efficient ways of mastering an L2 by creating opportunities for implicit learning.I IntroductionThe notion of information processing,the topic of this issue of Second Language Research ,has been common currency in both linguistics and psychology for more than four decades (e.g.,Miller et al .,1960;Miller and Chomsky,1963).Theories of language,language use,and language acquisition regard language,in one way or another,implicitly or explicitly,as information that is perceived,encoded,stored and retrieved.The study of second language acquisition (SLA) has so far mainly been conducted by linguists rather than by psychologists.As almost all linguists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries approached language in terms of symbols and rules,it comes as no surprise that SLA researchers © Arnold 200210.1191/0267658302sr207oa Address for correspondence:Jan Hulstijn,University of Amsterdam,Faculty of Humanities,Spuistraat 134,1012 VB,Amsterdam;email:hulstijn@hum.uva.nlSecond Language Research 18,3 (2002);pp.193–223distribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded from194Representation,processing and acquisition of L2 knowledge adopted a similar view on their explenanda,such as acquisition orders,first language (L1) transfer,fossilization,and mechanisms of knowledge processing and acquisition (e.g.,Larsen-Freeman and Long,1991;chapters 3–4;Cook,1993;R.Ellis,1994,chapters 2–5;Sharwood Smith,1994;Towell and Hawkins,1994;Gregg,1996;van Patten,1996;Klein and Perdue,1997;Pienemann,1998a;1998b;Carroll,1999;2000;Harrington,2001).Thus,what almost all SLA theories,past and present,have in common,is a symbolist approach to second language (L2) development.The L2 learner is seen as progressing through a number of developmental stages or interlanguages,each represented by a grammar,consisting of symbols and rules,supplemented with a lexicon.Because of their linguistic roots,SLA theories tackle the issue of L2 development by distinguishing the ‘what’ from the ‘how’ of information processing,i.e.,by distinguishing the representation of linguistic knowledge in terms of a property theory from the processing,acquisition and development of linguistic knowledge in terms of a transition theory.And they do so by giving priority to the former rather than the latter (Gregg,1984;1996),focusing on the description of interlanguage grammars (IL grammars).With IL grammars in focus,most SLA theories either neglect the mechanisms and processes that cause IL grammars to develop altogether,or they formulate such mechanisms in terms of linguistic (symbolic) constructs (for example,the well-known SVO Canonical Order Strategy proposed by Clahsen (1984),for the acquisition of German by speakers of Romance languages).Language pedagogy has always tried to reconcile the what and the how of language learning,trying to foster language as knowledge as well as language as skill,albeit with different degrees of emphasis on either dimension depending on the views on knowledge and learning underlying the adopted teaching and learning method (e.g.,Stern,1992;Lightbown and Spada,1999;Brown,2001;Larsen-Freeman,2001;Richards and Rodgers,2001).The more recent literature focusing on form (Doughty and Williams,1998) and tasks (Skehan,1998;R.Ellis,2000a;Robinson,2001;Skehan and Foster,2001) reflects and illustrates how difficult it is to integrate the knowledge and skill perspectives in L2 teaching and syllabus design harmoniously.This article consists of three sections.In this section,the symbolist and connectionist accounts of the representation and processing/acquisition of knowledge are pitched against each other.Section II presents a speculative view on both the representation and processing/acquisition aspects of SLA in the form of nine claims and their clarifications.Section III discusses this view in thedistribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded fromJan Hulstijn 195light of the Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt,1994a;1994b;2001) and rounds the article off with some final remarks.1Overview of the theoretical landscapeThis section lays out the theoretical landscape in which theories of SLA can be placed.This landscape sets the stage for a more in-depth treatment of key concepts below.Phenomena of language acquisition,language use and language deficiencies can be,and have been,described at three levels:the levels of behaviour,cognition and the brain (Simon,1992;Green et al .,1996:5–7).Empirical studies collect either behavioural data (language production,language comprehension,judgements of grammaticality,lexical decisions,etc.) or they collect online or offline data concerning brain activity (Brown and Hagoort,1999;Gazzaniga,2000).The platform of cognition has become the privileged area of theory construction,especially since what is often referred to as the ‘cognitive revolution’,marked by the publication of Miller et al .’s seminal book ‘Plans and the structure of behavior’(1960).The term ‘cognition’ refers to the representation of knowledge (information) in the mind/brain and to the processing and acquisition of information.Theories of language acquisition and use must answer three main questions.First,how can knowledge of language be represented (representation)? Secondly,how is language knowledge processed,e.g.,during activities of listening,reading,speaking and writing (processing).And,thirdly,how is language knowledge brought into existence (acquisition/learning/appropriation)? It is acknowledged,however,that eventually cognition should be conceived as a much broader construct,encompassing not only information or knowledge,but also emotion and motivation (Pinker,1997:24–25;Schumann,1998;Gray,1999:22;Mandler,1999) and that cognition develops and exists in a social and cultural environment (Kramsch,1998;Lantolf,2000).This article is concerned mainly with representation and learning,and to a lesser extent with online processing.Most linguistic theories aim to give a parsimonious account of the tacit linguistic knowledge of the ideal adult native speaker of a language (competence) by devising a formal architecture (grammar).Linguistic theories generally do not give an account of the day-to-day development of grammars during L1 acquisition,although they explicitly submit themselves to the requirement that a grammar must be learnable,i.e.,can be induced from a finite set of well-formed sentences.Whereas the grammars of linguists usually only deal with the representation of knowledge,distribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded from196Representation,processing and acquisition of L2 knowledge psycholinguistic models usually focus on the processing or acquisition of knowledge.Currently,these models are often classified as either of the symbolist or of the connectionist (neural network) type,as described in the next section.In contrast to accounts in the form of formal architectures,verbal,less formal,accounts of language learning can be given at the micro-level of learning mechanisms and at the macro-level of development.At the level of learning mechanisms or learning processes,two mechanisms are commonly distinguished:implicit and explicit learning (N.Ellis,1994;Reber et al .,1999).Implicit learning is a natural,nonconscious,and automatic process of gathering information,surface-level information as well as abstraction of underlying structure.1Explicit learning takes place consciously,either in the form of a search for underlying structure,or in the form of rule assimilation following explicit instruction.Much of the literature on L1 development has centred around questions of modularity and nativism.Theories of L2 development have mainly been concerned with issues of L1 transfer,fossilization,acquisition orders,ultimate attainment and multi-competence (see,for example,Towell and Hawkins,1994;Cook,1997).2Symbolism and connectionismArchitectures that aim to account for the representation and processing/acquisition of knowledge can be categorized in two broad categories.In one type of architectures,knowledge is represented by means of symbols and operators or rules that specify the relationships between symbols.A symbol is a unit that can be given a context-independent interpretation (e.g., a letter,a phoneme).In another type of architecture,knowledge is represented not only by means of symbols but also in a distributed way,as a pattern of activation in a neural network containing hidden units.These hidden units contain,as it were,bits and pieces 1Implicit learning must be distinguished from implicit memory .The literature makes a task-related distinction between these two constructs.According to this distinction,implicit learning refers to acquisition of the regularities underlying events or objects.Examples are the learning of regularities in finite state grammars (e.g.,the classical study of Reber,1967),implicit sequence learning involving the reaction to event sequences following a certain non-obvious pattern (e.g.,Nissen and Bullemer,1987) and skill acquisition in solving complex problems resulting in automatic aggregation of event contingencies (e.g.,the seminal study of Berry and Broadbent,1984).The notion of implicit memory refers to the effects of past experiences with single events or objects,such as the priming effects of words encountered previously on reaction times in a lexical decision task (Jacoby,1983;Schacter,1987).Buchner and Wippich (1998) provide a review and discussion of the literatures on implicit learning and implicit memory;they point out that,unfortunately ,the implicit memory literature says little about the representation and acquisition of implicit memory.The notion of implicit memory is left aside in this article.distribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded fromJan Hulstijn 197of combinations of symbols;they are subsymbolic in the sense that they cannot be given a context-independent interpretation (e.g.,the letter combination st anywhere in a word).The schools of thought associated to these two types of architectures are often called symbolism and connectionism respectively.There are two reasons,however,why one could argue that connectionism is not an entirely appropriate term for the class of Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) models,which represent knowledge in a distributed way .The first reason is that connectionist models of the so-called localist type operate solely on symbols (they do not contain hidden units with distributed representations).Thus,strictly speaking,connectionism is too broad a term to refer only to PDP architectures (Grainger and Jacobs,1998).The second reason is that many symbolic models could be said to be connectionist in that they too represent knowledge in the form of a network through which activation spreads and allow parallel information processing (Dijkstra and de Smedt,1996).For example,Levelt’s well-known speaking model (Levelt,1989;Levelt et al .,1999) may be said to fall into the category of symbolic architectures,but it uses procedures of parallel information processing (utterances are planned,formulated and pronounced incrementally) and activation spreading in the mental lexicon.Symbolic models may aim to account for the representation of knowledge,the processing of knowledge,or both.Most linguists limit themselves to devising (formal) grammars for the representation of knowledge (called competence in generative linguistics).Such grammars belong to the class of declarative architectures (Daelemans and de Smedt,1996).Procedural architectures (also called performance models) aim to model the manipulation of knowledge,thereby linking a start state and an end state of knowledge representation.Many psycholinguistic models of language comprehension and production are of the procedural type.Some symbolic architectures aim to model the process of skill acquisition (automatization);they contain a component of declarative and a component of procedural organization.Anderson’s successive ACT architectures (Anderson and Lebiere,1998) fall into this category.In connectionist architectures,there is no principled distinction between representation,on the one hand,and processing or acquisition of information,on the other,since the static and dynamic aspects of cognition are tackled jointly.Learning takes place implicitly via an autonomous process of adjusting connection weights between nodes and adjustment of their activation levels.In connectionist models of the PDP type,knowledge is represented indistribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded from198Representation,processing and acquisition of L2 knowledge the activation pattern over many parallel-computing nodes in the hidden layer(s) of a neural network.Input nodes are connected to output nodes through a complex pattern of connections involving one or more layers of hidden units.The input and output nodes may consist of symbols,e.g.,letters as input and words as output (in a model of the recognition of written words).Each node in the hidden layer(s) has an associated activation value that is computed from the values of its input.The interconnections have numerical weights to indicate the strength and polarity (positive or negative)of the relation between the connected nodes.Activation and association levels are expressed numerically;the values can increase and decrease to reflect changes in the system.Symbolic and PDP models have their advantages and disadvantages.Symbolic systems achieve high levels of abstractions (e.g.,the Merge procedure and the Determiner Phrase in generative grammar) and symbolic structures can account for the notion of productivity,that is,they represent an infinite number of actual structures through recursive rules (Fodor and Pylyshyn,1988;Grainger and Jacobs,1998).However,symbolic systems are complex and rigid,they are vulnerable when the properties of a single symbol change.Each exception to a rule requires additional rules and more processing (Daelemans and de Smedt,1996:43–44).In PDP models,disturbances in the input and connections leads to a gradual,rather than an abrupt deterioration of performance,the so-called graceful degradation.Neural networks are eminently suited for finding solutions to problems with a large number of irregular and often competing or even conflicting constraints (Murre and Goebel,1996:60).On the down side,however,neural networks have,thus far,not proved to be very good at symbol manipulation (Pinker,1997).Most connectionist models of the 1980s linked input nodes directly with output nodes.For instance,Sokolik and Smith (1992)modelled the assignment of grammatical gender (masculine/feminine) of French nouns on the basis of 224 input nodes (26letters ´8 letter positions).This model was too simplistic to be valid (as was pointed out by Carroll,1995),notwithstanding its remarkable ter connectionist models,of the so-called Recurrent Network type,contain (1) at least one level of hidden units,(2) a level of contextual units to account for memory of previous inputs and (3) an activation pattern known as backpropagation to allow for an interactive process of adjustment of activation weights.Connectionists such as Plunkett and his associates,although at first unwilling to accept a compromise with symbolists,now appear to allow some sort of symbolic knowledgedistribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded fromJan Hulstijn 199to be represented in their networks.In their ‘Introduction to connectionist modeling of cognitive processes’,McLeod et al .(1998:276) state that networks with recurrent connections can form ‘basins of attraction’ so that inputs within a given range will eventually settle on an identical output:To the extent that attraction basins are insensitive to small variations in input,they could be considered to have a symbolic quality...Perhaps the connectionist equivalent of a symbol is a stable point of attraction in a recurrent network.Rule-governed behavior might be the trajectory through a series of attractor basins which a network passes through in performing a task such as processing a sentence.Thus,in some so-called hybrid models,the subsymbolic nodes are bound together so that they act as a symbol.In other hybrid models,the symbolic elements have activation levels associated with them,and productions can take actions by manipulating activation levels.2In a discussion of symbolic and connectionist models,Carpenter and Just (1999:258) claim that ‘the two architectures are completely compatible abstractions,which suggests that a wise scientific strategy is to figure out their interrelation,rather than to choose between them.’ In a similar vein,Smolensky (1999) pleads for the integration of the two approaches with the help of some notions of Optimality Theory,namely parallel optimization and soft constraints,replacing the sequential rule application and hard constraints of generative linguistics.Such an integration is demonstrated by Sun et al .(2001) in their CLARION learning model,which interactively links a subsymbolic with a symbolic network,allowing for bottom-up and top-down learning to take place simultaneously.The model appears to be able to simulate human learning in a complex cognitive task (vessel navigation) in conditions that vary in the amount of top-down processing in combination with bottom-up learning.Thus,although the jury is still out at present,there appears to be room for some optimism in that new developments in connectionism might soon make neural networks compatible with 2This is the case in 3CAPS,Just and Carpenter’s ‘capacity-constrained concurrent activation-based production system’ (Just and Carpenter,1992).The procedural knowledge in 3CAPS consists of a set of modules called productions,each of which is a condition–action contingency that specifies what symbolic manipulation should be made when a given pattern of information arises in working memory.Following the principle of immediacy,various levels of productions (e.g.,from word encoding to text-level representation during reading) are cascaded and nested.‘At the lowest levels of reading,the 3CAPS reading model resembles a connectionist model of word recognition;however,this level is embedded within increasingly higher levels that represent syntactic,semantic,text-level,and schematic processes’ (Carpenter and Just,1999:264).distribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded from200Representation,processing and acquisition of L2 knowledge symbolic systems in their capacity to model complex forms of knowledge and processing/learning.With respect to nativism,there are differences between some scholars in the symbolist school and most scholars in the connectionist school.Some symbolists claim that linguistic knowledge is encapsulated in its own module,relatively independent from other forms of cognition,such as visual perception and general cognition (the modularity claim;Fodor,1983;Carston,1996).Moreover,some symbolists claim that some of this linguistic knowledge,in the form of abstract principles of Universal Grammar,is already in place when children are born (nativism).Chomsky is the scholar who most typically represents this kind of symbolism (Chomsky,1986).Connectionists usually do not commit themselves to nativism of a domain-specific type.In the connectionist view it is not necessary to postulate that children are endowed with language-specific knowledge at birth.For learning and induction to take place,it suffices to postulate that children are born with the non-domain-specific capability to perceive stimuli as being similar and store them as such in memory.That is,the brain of the newborn is wired in such a way as to be able to encode and store stimulus information in its most rudimentary form.Connectionism shares this rejection of domain-specific nativism with child development theories such as dynamic system theory (Thelen and Smith,1994),constructivism (Piaget,1955;Karmiloff-Smith,1994) and,more recently,emergentism (Elman,1999;MacWhinney ,1999).3According to these schools of thought,higher forms of cognition and functioning grow out of lower forms through the interaction of subsystems such as visual perception,body control and language (Elman et al .,1996).II A new,speculative view on cognitive aspects of SLAThe literature in various linguistic,psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic domains does not converge on an integrated,coherent view on L2 learning (and L1 learning).Here,an attempt is made to reconcile most aspects of the relevant literatures.(The following publications have had a substantial impact on this attempt:N.Ellis,1994;1998;2001;to appear;Schmidt,1994a;1994b;2001;Segalowitz,2000a;2000b.) The result is,it must be emphasized 3Thelen and Smith (1994:41–43) criticize connectionism for focusing on states rather than on changes in development.Emergentism (which includes connectionism),however,explicitly aims to account for change of states (development).Thus,in retrospect,Thelen and Smith’s dynamic systems theory may not be at variance with connectionism (as part of emergentism),despite the authors’ own verdict.distribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded fromJan Hulstijn 201from the outset,a speculative conceptualization,which will remain sheer speculation until empirical support has been found.The two key dimensions in this conceptualization are representation and processing/acquisition.The notion of automatization is only briefly mentioned (see,however,Segalowitz and Hulstijn,in preparation).The conceptualization is formulated in terms of the following nine arguments or claims.1Representation of knowledgeThe first claim is that,in principle,knowledge can be represented in hybrid architectures consisting of modules,some of which use a subsymbolic,distributed representation while other modules are of a symbolic kind.In distributed modules,concepts are represented as activation patterns over several network nodes simultaneously.Stable constellations may achieve the status of symbols (i.e.,context-independent units),which may function in other,symbolic modules which model higher levels of cognition.Content words (permanent form–meaning pairs) are examples of symbol-like nodes,but grammatical constructions can also attain symbol status (see point 6 below).An additional claim is that some linguistic knowledge is encoded and stored in a distributed network form,some in the form of rules,and some in both forms,as is illustrated below.2 High vs.low linguistic domainsLanguage phenomena can be mapped on a scale ranging from high to low.The highest phenomena reside in the areas of pragmatics and discourse.Examples are the conventions for structuring verbal information in oral and written discourse.Such conventions can best be expressed in terms of rules,using ‘symbols’ (i.e.,verbal labels for concepts) such as older ,younger ,male ,female ,superior ,subordinate ,formal ,informal ,etc.An example of such a rule-like convention is:‘When you address an elderly woman whom you don’t know,say madam ’ and ‘When you write a formal letter to an organization but you don’t know anyone there by name,begin your letter with Dear Madam/Sir .’ Although many language users have an explicit,declarative knowledge of such conventions,I speculate that,in principle,it is possible to acquire the correct use of such expressions implicitly and encode and store the information in a distributed network form,without rules.Small children learn forms of addressing people in their social environment without being given,nor deliberately searching for,the rules with which the distribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on February 5, 2008 Downloaded fromregularities can be expressed.Their knowledge might be represented in an associative form,without rules,and – initially at least – perhaps even without higher-order concepts.In later stages of cognitive development,children may learn higher-order concepts such as younger–older ,formal–informal ,and begin to ‘analyse’ their hitherto implicit knowledge so that it becomes additionally represented in a more analysed,metalinguistic (and hence symbolic) form,as proposed by Bialystok and Bouchard Ryan (1985).The lowest linguistic phenomena consist of the most elementary features of acoustic and visual signals.Human beings have no explicit knowledge of these features.Cognitive scientists have developed models (i.e.,architectures of the symbolic or subsymbolic type,mentioned in Section I) to account for phenomena of acoustic and visual perception.As language users and learners we are not aware of these representations.Nor are we aware of the way in which information is processed within these systems.Neither can we manipulate our own hearing and reading behaviour at this most elementary level.Whereas we are capable of consciously controlling high-level knowledge,we are incapable of controlling knowledge at the lowest end of the continuum.Not even phoneticians and speech therapists are capable of doing so.Our brains cannot instruct our ears to disregard tones of a certain frequency,nor can they instruct the eyes not to process instances of words beginning with the letter B in running text during normal reading.Between these two extremes of high and low linguistic knowledge there are intervening domains.All linguistic schools recognize,in one way or another,domains of phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,lexis,semantics and discourse,although the accounts of these domains and the definitions of their boundaries vary from one school to the other.Almost all linguistic theories so far have couched their accounts in the form of symbolic architectures.The number of alternative accounts,in terms of connectionist networks of the distributed kind,are growing,however,especially in the domains of phonology and morphology.It is an open question which type of model will turn out to be capable of giving the best account for which linguistic domain.My speculation is that symbolic representations will turn out to outperform subsymbolic representations in the highest domains,whereas subsymbolic representations will turn out to provide the best accounts in the lower domains.202Representation,processing and acquisition of L2 knowledgedistribution.© 2002 SAGE Publications. 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interlanguage:语际语the approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language. fossilization: a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent or a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language. holophrase: a single word that appears in children’s early speech and functions as a complex idea or sentence. Holophrastic sentences: They are children’s one-word utterances. They are called holophrastic sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech. telegraphic speech:the early speech of children, so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegrams.input:the language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn. caretaker speech: simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, etc. when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language. behaviorist learning theory: a theory of psychology which, when applied to first language acquisition, suggests that the learner’s ver bal behavior is conditioned or reinforced through association between stimulus and response. language transfer:the effect of the first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.interference: the use of one’s first language rule which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language, because the L1 pattern is different from the counterpart of the target language.contrastive analysis: a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce theaffects of interference.linguistic determinism: atheory put forward by theAmerican anthropologicallinguists Sapir and Whorf, whichstates that the way people viewthe world is determined by thestructure of their native language.linguistic relativism: Whorfbelieved that speakers ofdifferent languages perceive andexperience the world differently,that is relative to their linguisticbackground, hence the notion oflinguistic relativism .overt thought: A term used torefer to speech when languageand thought are identical orclosely parallel to each other, wemay regard speech as “overtthought.”subvocal speech: a term used torefer to thought when thoughtand language are identical orclosely parallel to each other.linguistic lateralization:hemispheric specialization ordominance for language.dichotic listening: a researchtechnique which has been used tostudy how the brain controlshearing and language. Thesubjects wear earphones andsimultaneously receive differentsounds in the right and left ear,and are then asked to repeat whatthey hear.lingua franca: a variety oflanguage that serves as acommon speech for socialcontact among groups of peoplewho speak different nativelanguages or dialects.pidgin: a marginal contactlanguage with a limitedvocabulary and reducedgrammatical structures, used bynative speakers of otherlanguages as a means of businesscommunication.creole: A creole language isoriginally a pidgin that hasbecome established as a nativelanguage in some speechcommunity. When a pidgincomes to be adopted by apopulation as its primarylanguage, and children learn it astheir first language, then thepidgin language is called acreole.diglossia: a sociolinguisticsituation in which two verydifferent varieties of languageco-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular socialfunction and used for a particularsituationbilingualism: refers to alinguistic situation in which twostandard languages are usedeither by an individual or by agroup of speakers, such as theinhabitants of a particular regionor a nation.ethnic dialect:An ethniclanguage variety is a socialdialect of a language, oftencutting across regionaldifferences. An ethnic dialect isspoken mainly by a lessprivileged population that hasexperienced some form of socialisolation, such as racialdiscrimination or segregation.slang: Slang is a casual use oflanguage that consists ofexpressive but non-standardvocabulary, typically of arbitrary,flashy and often ephemeralcoinages and figures of speechcharacterized by spontaneityand sometimes by raciness.linguistic taboo: an obsceneprofane, or swear word orexpression that is prohibitedfrom general use by the educatedand “polite” society.euphemism: a word orexpression that is thought to bemild, indirect, or less offensiveand used as a polite substitute forthe supposedly harsh andunpleasant word or expression.idiolect: An idiolect is a personaldialect of an individual speakerthat combines aspects of all theelements regarding regional,social, and stylistic variation, inone form or another.register:a functional speech orlanguage variety that involvesdegrees of formality dependingon the speech situationconcerned.protolanguage:the original (orancestral) form of a languagefamily which has ceased to exist.Haplology: It refers to thephenomenon of the loss of one oftwo phonetically similar syllablesin sequence.cognate: a word in one languagewhich is similar in form andmeaning to a word in anotherlanguage because both languageshave descended from a commonsource.Acronym: An acronym is a wordcreated by combining the initialsof a number of words.apocope:the deletion of aword-final vowel segment.epenthesis:the insertion of theconsonant or vowel sound to themiddle of a word.Metathesis: Sound change as aresult of sound movement isknown as metathesis. It involvesa reversal in position of twoneighbouring sound segments.error analysis: an approach tothe study and analysis of theerrors made by second languagelearners which suggests thatmany leaner errors are not due tothe learner’s mother tongueinterference but reflect universallearning strategies such asovergeneralization andsimplification of rules.diacritics: is a set of symbolswhich can be added to theletter-symbols to make finerdistinctions than the letters alonemake possible.Voiceless清音: when the vocalcords are drawn wide apart,letting air go through withoutcausing vibration, the soundsproduced in such a condition arecalled voiceless sounds.Voicing浊音: Sounds producedwhile the vocal cords arevibrating are called voicedsounds.Vowel:the sounds in productionof which no articulators comevery close together and the airstream passes through the vocaltract without obstruction arecalled vowels. Consonants:the sounds in the production ofwhich there is an obstruction ofthe air stream at some point ofthe vocal tract are calledconsonants.phone:Phones can be simplydefined as the speech sounds weuse when speaking a language. Aphone is a phonetic unit orsegment. It does not necessarilydistinguish meaning.phoneme: a collection ofabstract phonetic features, it is abasic unit in phonology. It isrepresented or realized as acertain phone by a certainphonetic context.allophone:The different phoneswhich can represent a phonemein different phoneticenvironments are called theallophones of that phoneme. Forexample [l] and [l]phonemic contrast:Phonemiccontrast refers to the relationbetween two phonemes. If twophonemes can occur in the sameenvironment and distinguishmeaning, they are in phonemic contrast.Complementary distribution: refers to the relation between two similar phones which are allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur in different environments.minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. For example: bin and pin. Affix:morphemes manifesting various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. Inflection（屈折）: the manifestation of various grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.finite clause（定式子句）: a clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. (A simple sentence satisfies the structural requirements of a finite clause.)hierarchical structure（层次结构）: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.grammatical relations:The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations.X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.Move a: a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.Universal Grammar: a systemof linguistic knowledge whichconsists of some generalprinciples and parameters aboutnatural languages.Hyponymy（下义关系）:Hyponymy refers to the senserelation between a more general,more inclusive word and a morespecific word. The word which ismore general is called asuperordinate（上坐标词）, andthe more specific words arecalled its hyponyms.Antonymy:Antonymy refers tothe relation of oppositeness ofmeaning (on differentdimensions).argument is a logical participantin a prediction, largely identicalwith the nominal element(s) in asentence.The grammatical meaning: Thegrammatical meaning of asentence refers to itsgrammaticality, i.e., itsgrammatical well-formedness.The grammaticality of a sentenceis governed by the grammaticalrules of the language.Two-place predication: Atwo-place predication is onewhich contains two arguments.The predication is theabstraction of the meaning of asentence.Constative:Constatives werestatements that either state ordescribe, and were verifiable;Performative: performatives, onthe other hand, were sentencesthat did not state a fact ordescribe a state, and were notverifiable. Their function is toperform a particular speech act.Locutionary act:A locutionaryact is the act of uttering words,phrases, clauses. It is the act ofconveying literal meaning bymeans of syntax, lexicon andphonology.Illocutionary act: Anillocutionary act is the act ofexpressing the speaker’sintention; it is the act performedin saying something.Perlocutionary act:is the actperformed by or resulting fromsaying something; it is theconsequence of, or the changebrought about by the utterance; itis the act performed by sayingsomething.Conversational implicature:Most of the violations of thecooperative principles give riseto what Paul Grice calls“conversational implicatures.”When we violate any of thesemaxims, our language becomesindirect and implies an extrameaning.clipping: clipping is a kind ofabbreviation of otherwise longerwords or phrases.tone: Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differingrates of vibration of the vocalcords.intonation: When pitch, stressand sound length are tied to thesentence rather than the word inisolation, they are collectivelyknown as intonation.Root: A root is often seen as partof a word; it can never stand byitself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must becombined with another root or anaffix to form a word.Prefix: Prefixes occur at thebeginning of a word. Prefixesmodify the meaning of the stem,but they usually do not changethe part of speech of the originalword.Suffix: Suffixes are added to theend of the stems; they modify themeaning of the original word andin many cases change its part ofspeech.sentence: A sentence is astructurally independent unit thatusually comprises a number ofwords to form a completestatement, question or command.The incorporated, orsubordinate, clause is normallycalled an embedded clause, andthe clause into which it isembedded is called a matrixclause.syntactic category: Apart fromsentences and clauses, a syntacticcategory usually refers to a word(called a lexical category) or aphrase (called a phrasal category)that performs a particulargrammatical function,Speech variety refers to anydistinguishable form of speechused by a speaker or group ofspeakers. A speech variety maybe lexical, phonological,morphological, syntactic, or acombination of linguisticfeatures.系列规则The rules that governthe combination of sounds in aparticular language are calledsequential rules.同化规则The assimilation ruleassimilates one sound to anotherby “copying” a feature of asequential phoneme, thus makingthe two phones similar.The description of a language atsome point in time isa synchronic study;thedescription of a language as itchanges through time isa diachronic study.Langue refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by allthe members of a speechcommunity, and parole refers tothe realization of langue in actualuse.competence as the ideal user’sknowledge of the rules of hislanguage, and performance theactual realization of thisknowledge in linguisticcommunication.格条件：As is required by thecase conditon principle, a nounphrase must have case and caseis assigned by V(verb) orP(preposition) to the objectposition, or by AUX(auxiliary) tothe subject position.Adjacency condition[毗邻条件]on case assignment, which statesthat a case assignor and a caserecipient should stay adjacent toeach other.Great Vowel Shift: It is a seriesof systematic sound change at theend of the Middle English periodapproximately between 1400 and1600 in the history of Englishthat involved seven long vowelsand consequently led to one ofthe major discrepancies betweenEnglish pronunciation and itsspelling system.Sound assimilation: Soundassimilation refers to thephysiological effect of one soundon another. In an assimilativeprocess, successive sounds aremade identical, or more similar,to one another in terms of placeor manner of articulation, or ofhaplology.Domain使用域:Domain refersto the phenomenon that mostbilingual communities have onething in common, that is, fairlyclear functional differentiation ofthe two languages in respect ofspeech situations. For example:the Home Domain, EmploymentDomain etc.。

Contents Abstract (i)摘要 (ii)1. Introduction (1)2. The overview of family moral education (1)2.1 The basic concepts of family moral education (1)2.2 The features of family moral education (1)3. The comparison of family moral education between China and the West (2)3.1 The comparison of concept of family moral education (2)3.1.1 The main concept in China (2)3.1.2 The main concept in the West (2)3.2 The comparison of content of family moral education (3)3.2.1 The main content in China (3)3.2.2 The main content in the West (4)3.3 The comparison of method of family moral education (4)3.3.1 The method in China (4)3.3.2 The method in the West (4)3.4 The comparison of effect of family moral education (5)3.4.1 The effect in China (5)3.4.2 The effect in the West (5)4. Analysis of family moral education in China and the West (5)4.1 Merits in China and the West (5)4.2 Weakness in China and the West (6)5. Strategies to optimize family moral education in China (6)5.1 Strategies from the family (6)5.2 The combination of family moral education and school education (6)6. Conclusion (6)References (8)A Study of Interlanguage Fossilization in Chinese College English Learners摘要中介语是由著名语言学家Larry Selinker于1972年提出的。

第一语言习得和第二语言习得的比较浙江省湖州市湖州师范学院外国语学院周元辉摘要：第一语言习得和第二语言习得是当前外语教学理论与实践的焦点问题。

它们之间存在着密切的关系，既有不同点，又有相同点。

不同点主要表现在对两种习得的理论研究不同、习得的年龄不同、习得的动机不同、习得的方式不同和习得的环境不同等方面；而相同点主要表现在两种习得都必须具有一定的语言环境、掌握一定的语言知识以及都必须经过一定的语言习得阶段等方面。

本文探讨的两种习得之间的差异正是第二语言教学中应该引起注意的方面，因此若采取适应的措施和方法，能进一步提高第二语言习得的效果。

同时，本文探讨的两种习得之间的相同点反映出语言习得的普遍规律，有助于更好地理解第一语言的习得。

关键词：第一语言习得；第二语言习得；不同点；相同点第一语言习得通常指人们在幼年时期对自己母语的习得，而第二语言的习得通常要晚于第一语言的习得，本文谈到的第二语言习得是从广义上来说的，指人们对外语和第二语言的习得。

要探讨两种语言习得的性质或特点，最好的办法是将第一语言习得跟第二语言习得作比较，有比较才能鉴别出二者的异同。

一、第一语言习得和第二语言习得的不同点1、语言习得的理论研究不同1.1 第一语言习得的理论研究研究第一语言习得的理论产生于18 世纪，始于德国的哲学家DietrichTiedemann 对他的孩子婴儿时期心理和语言发展过程的研究。

但由于受到研究方法的限制，在此之后的半个世纪内对儿童语言习得的研究发展较慢。

直到20 世纪 60 、70 年代，随着 Chomsky 的生成语法的发展，这方面的研究才开始日趋系统化和科学化。

而且在近几十年内，对第一语言习得的研究也得到了迅速地发展。

由于看问题的角度和研究的方法不同，出现了很多不同的理论：a.行为主义理论（Behavioristic Theory ）行为主义心理学理论盛行于20 世纪 40 年代 50 年代，对第一语言习得的研究产生过深刻的影响。

第一部分语音知识1、元音vowel：单元音monophthong、双元音diphthong(1)按舌高部位的位置分：前元音front vowel、中元音central vowel、后元音back vowel(2)按发音的长短分：长元音long vowel、短元音short vowel；(3)按唇的园展分：圆唇元音rounded vowel、非圆唇元音unrounded vowel；(4)按舌抬起的高度分：高元音high vowel、中元音mid vowel、低元音low vowel；(5)按口型大小分：闭元音closed vowel、半闭元音semi-closed vowel、半开元音semi-open vowel、开元音open vowel2、辅音consonant：(1)按发音方式manner of articulation：塞音stop、擦音fricative、塞擦音affricate、鼻音nasal、边音lateral、近音approximant；(2)按发音部位place of 8巾3匕七。

门：双唇音bilabial、唇齿音labiodental、齿音dental、齿音后音post-alveolar、硬颚音palatal、软腭音velar、声门音glottal；(3)按声带振动vocal cord vibration：清辅音voiceless、浊辅音voiced(备注：两个或以上辅音连在一起的现象称为‘辅音连缀constant cluster’，如/tr//dz/)3、音节syllable 的类型：单音节monosyllable、双音节disyllable、m音节three-syllable>^ 音节multisyllable、成音节syllabication(一个辅音加上一个/l/或/m/或/n/)、重读音节stressed syllable4、语音现象phonetic phenomena：连读、重读accent、语调intonation、爆破、同化assimilation、省音elision第五章语言学知识1、语言是言语交际(verbal communication)的一种方式，是人类用于交流的一种任意的声音符号系统(a system of arbitrary vocal symbols)o2、语言的定义特征design features(1)任意性arbitrariness：是指语言符号的形式与其所表示的意义没有天然的联系。

中介语理论中介语理论（InterlanguageKTheory）是由Selinker等人最先提出来的。

所谓中介语是指第二语言学习者建构起来的介于母语和目的语之间的过渡性语言，它处于不断的发展变化过程中，并逐渐向目的语靠近。

Selinker的中介语理论重点强调了第二语言学习中三个方面的问题，①什么样的认知过程负责中介语的建构？②中介语知识系统的性质如何？③为什么多数第二语言学习者不能完全获得目的语的语言能力？KKSelinker认为，负责中介语建构的认知过程有五种，它们是：语言的迁移（language transfer）；训练的迁移(transfer of training)；第二语言学习的策略；第二语言交际的策略；目的语材料的过度泛化（overgeneralzation）。

Selinker认为，学习者形成的中介语知识系统实际上是一系列心理语法，学习者利用这些语法来解释和产生言语。

这些心理语法是动态的、易于变化的，随着学习的不断深入，中介语知识系统包含了越来越复杂的心理语法。

Selinker认为，在第二语言学习过程存在着语言僵化(fossilization)现象。

它是指某些非目的语的语法、语音等长期存在于中介语中，并且不易改变的现象。

由于存在着语言僵化现象，使得多数学习者不能完全获得目的语的语言能力。

KK中介语理论后来有所的发展，但讨论的问题主要集中在中介语的三个特征方面：①中介语具有可渗透性，即组成中介语的规则并不是固定不变的，它可以受到来自学习者母语和目的语的规则或形式的渗透。

②中介语具有可变性，即中介语是不断变化的，这种变化不是从一个阶段突然跳到下一阶段，而是不断的借助“假设－检验”手段，缓慢地修改已有的规则以适应目的语新规则的过程。

③中介语具有系统性，即中介语是相对独立的语言系统，它具有一套独特的语音、语法和词汇规则体系。

KK中介语理论是较早用认知观点解释第二语言学习的理论模型，其重要意义首先在于它把第二语言学习看作是一种心理过程，并提供了一个理论框架来解释这种心理过程，而且这种理论为后来人们采用实验的方法研究第二语言的学习提供了理论基础。

Chapter 11 Second language acquisition第二语言习得知识点：1.*Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage2.Connections between first and second language acquisition3.Contrastive analysis4.*Error analysis5.Characteristics of interlanguage6.*Krashen’s Input Hypothesis7.Individual Differences in second language acquisition: language aptitude; motivation;#learning strategies考核目标：识记：Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage领会：Connections between first and second language acquisition; Contrastive analysis; Error analysis; Characteristics of interlanguage; Individual Differences in second language acquisition简单应用：Krashen’s Input Hypothesis一、定义1. Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得：refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. 指一个人在习得其母语之后是如何习得一门第二语言系统的研究。

一、中介语理论的起源20世纪60年代以前，欧美行为主义心理学和结构主义语言学在心理学和语言学领域占主要地位，在这种理论背景下，语言研究领域兴起了对比分析理论，对整个外语教学领域有重要的影响。

这种理论认为，外语学习是母语习惯向外语习惯逐步转移的过程。

因此，很多学者和外语教师认为，只要对目的语和母语进行对比，了解母语和目的语的异同，就可预测出在目的语的学习中会出现什么偏误，而且还可以对出现的偏误进行分析和解释。

50年代末，行为主义心理学受到巨大冲击，乔姆斯基对语言心理学的研究是人们对外语习得过程中产生的偏误有了新的认识。

人们发现，外语学习中的偏误并不能完全、准确地用对比分析的方法预测、解释和分析。

后来的许多统计资料也证明了这种猜疑。

这样，以结构主义语言学为基础的语言对比分析受到了人们的怀疑。

60年代末，一种新的外语学习偏误分析理论产生了，这就是中介语理论。

“中介语”一词是英国语言学家Selinker于1969年在其论文“语言迁移”(Language Transfer) 中首先使用。

1972年，他又发表的“中介语”(Interlanguage) 的论文，对“中介语”这一概念进行了阐述，确立了它在第二语言习得研究中的地位。

其他研究者们对这一概念的描述有许多不同的术语，如W. Nemser (W. Nemser, 1972 ) 称之为“近似语言系统”（approximative systems），科德（1967）将它称为“学习者固有的内在的掌握语言的课程大纲”（learner’s built-in syllabus）、“学习者独有语言”（idiosyncratic dialects）、“中继能力”（transitional competence）等。

然而广为人知、影响最大的还是“中介语”这一说法。

二、中介语理论的内容中介语（interlanguage）理论是在认知心理学的基础发展起来的，它是指由于学习外语的人在学习过程中对于目的语规律所做出的不正确的归纳和推论而产生的一个语言系统。

Chapter 10 Language Acquisition一、定义1.语言习得Language acquisitionLanguage acquisition refers to the development of the Child’s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.2.输入InputIt refers to the language which a learner bears or receives and from which he or she can learn.3.行为主义学习理论Behaviourist learning theoryIt’s a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner’s verbal behaviour is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition.源自心理学的理论—行为主义,它认为儿童的语言行为是与他们所受刺激和随之的反应成相互条件的。

4.独词句One word holophrase / holophraseIt refers to a single word that appears in children’s early speech and functions asa complex idea or sentence.5.电报式言语Telegraphic speech 属于early multiword 阶段It refers to the early speech of children. it’s so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegrams(such as non-substantive words and inflectional morphemes).也可以说成缺少inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories.6.转移Language transferIt refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative.7.对比分析Contrastive AnalysisIt refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference.补充establish linguistic differences between native and target language systems.8.错误分析Error AnalysisAn approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by the second language learners which suggest s that many learner errors are not due to the learner’ s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as over-generalization and simplification of rules.一种研究和分析第二语言学习者所犯错误的方法.它指出语言学习者所犯的许多错误不是母语干扰所致而是体现了一些普遍的学习策略.如概括过度和规则简化。