19th Century Ideas

Topic questions：1.Why is the 18th century called the Age of Enlightenment？The 18th century England is known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason.（1) The Enlightenment Movement was a progressive intellectual movement which flourished in France and swept through the whole Western Europe。

The movement was a furtherance of the Renaissance in the 15th ＆ 16th centuries。

(2） Its purpose was to enlighten the whole world with the light of modem philosophical and artistic ideas。

（3）English enlighteners believed in the power of reason. They considered that social problems could be solved by human intelligence.（4) The Enlighteners criticized different aspects of contemporary England， discussed social life according to a more reasonable principle。

(5）T he Enlightener celebrated reason or ration, equality, science and human beings’ ability to perfect themselves and their society. They called for a reference to order, reason and advocated universal education.（6) Famous among the great enlighteners in England were those great writers like John Dryden，Alexander pope and so on.ment on Alexander Pope and his contributions to English poetry。

A Comparative Analysis of Different Kinds of Humanism in The Adventures of Huckelberry Finn and The Catcher in theRye1. Introduction (1)1.1 Mark Twain and Huck (2)1.2 Salinger and Holden (2)1.3 Classification of humanism (3)1.3.1 Classical humanism (3)1.3.2 Philosophical humanism (4)2. Human relations (4)2.1 Huck and Jim (4)2.2 Huck and Tom (7)2.3 Holden and the two nuns (8)2.4 Holden and Jane Gallagher (9)3. Lying and phoniness (11)3.1 Lies in The Adventures of Huckelberry Finn (11)3.2 Phoniness in The catcher in the Rye (12)4. Moral values (dilemmas) and worldview (13)4.1 Huck‟s choices (13)4.2 Holden‟s dilemmas (15)5. Conclusion (17)References (19)1. IntroductionKnown as the bildungsroman (novel of formative education, class of novel in German literature that deals with the formative years of an individual, (see Robert McHenry, V olume 2, 1768:212.)), The Adventures of Huckelberry Finn and The Catcher in the Rye are very popular with the young people, although this two novels were written in different period with different theme and background. These two novels are also the book of Humanism. Humanism is a system of thought that considers that solving human problems with the help of reason is more important thatreligious beliefs. It emphasizes the fact that the basic nature of human being is good. (see Sally Wehmeier, 1970:862.) In this dissertation I am going to compare Humanism in two books and find out the different emphasizing aspects on Humanism. It also can reflect the different humanistic ideas in 19th century and 20th century.1.1 Mark Twain and HuckThe name of Mark Twain is much better known than Samuel Clemens. In the history of American literature, Twain is a great realist and satirist in late 19th century. His major works were written in the period from 1870-1910 when America was transformed from free trade capitalism to monopolistic stage with a high speed. Most of his works reflect the American social life and have great significance. In 1884, Mark Twain wrote one of the most controversial and remembered novels in the world of literature, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Twain made Huckleberry Finn represent him fictionally in this book. Huck did the same typical boy things as Twain. Twain based this book on things that were happening during this time in his life. In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain reveals the American social life and concern about the humanity and conscience‟s development and perfection.1.2 Salinger and HoldenComparing the past life experience of Salinger with the Holden who is the protagonist in his masterpiece The Catcher in the Rye, it is clear that there are so many similarities in them. No wonder Salinger can reveal the younger boy‟s mentalactivity profoundly and strike a sympathetic chord among the young people.“The Catcher in the Rye is like an autobiography. He had Holden raised in a similar setting as himself, and all of Holden's outstanding characteristics like his reclusive nature, discontent, and anger towards the movie industry are all from Salinger's personal life”(Net.1). Salinger created Holden for criticizing the coldness, phony, superficialness and lack of the humanistic care in the world.1.3 Classification of humanismWhat is humanism? Nobody can easily answer this question because the definitions of humanism are very different in different period of the time. The development of Humanism has been passed through a long time and its emphasizing aspects are various. Although they share many fundamental principles, there is a great deal of variety among them - not simply in their conclusions about specific issues, but also in their more philosophic attitudes. So, this dissertation will summarize two kinds of Humanism, Classical Humanism and Philosophical Humanism.1.3.1 Classical humanism“Classical humanism hold the belief that individual worth came from the individual‟s capacity to reason, which could shape character and life according to rarional standards.” (Net.2)Lewis Loflin regards Classical Humanism as a philosophy of reason and science in the pursuit of knowledge. Therefore, when it comes to the question of the mostvalid means for acquiring knowledge of the world, Humanists reject arbitrary faith, authority, revelation, and altered states of consciousness.1.3.2 Philosophical humanism“Humanism as a philosophy today can be as little as an perspective on life or as much as an entire way of life; the common feature is that it is always focused primarily on human needs and interests. Philosophic Humanism can be distinguished form other forms of humanism precisely by the fact that it constitutes some sort of philosophy, whether minimalist or far-reaching, that helps define how a person lives and how a person interacts with other humans.”(Net.3)Austin Cline regards Philosophical Humansim as a code of thinking and living. It teaches people the way of thinking and how to find the perfect solution of the problem and pursue the happiness and harmony in society.This dissertation will reveal the Classical Humanism and the Philosophical Humanism embodied in The Adventures of Huckelberry Finn and The Catcher in the Rye separately.2. Human relations2.1 Huck and JimIn The Adventures of Huckelberry Finn, the friendship between Huck who is a boy from the lowest rung of the white social ladder and Jim who is a black slave is themain clue that link up the whole novel. According to convention of that time, it was impossible for a white boy to establish the friendship with a black slave due to the racial discrimination in that period, but Huck did. Huck made friend with Jim and it is caused by his Family background. Huck is only a 13-years old boy who comes from the loweat levels of white society. His father is a drunk and a ruffian who disappears for months. Huck himself is dirty and frequently homeless. Under such environment it is impossible for him to accept the regular education and religious training. So he has not been indoctrinated with the main social values at that period. However, he still is a white boy, and there are some conventions in white ingrained in his mind. So in the course of the friendship‟s establishment, he must struggle with some of the preconceptions about the blacks that society had ingrained in him. I would like to choose two episodes to illustrate my point.“It was fifteen minutes before I could work myself up to go and humble myself to a nigger; but I done it, and I warn‟t ever sorry for it afterward, neither. I didn‟t do him no more mean tricks, and I wouldn‟t done that one if I‟d …a‟knowed it would make him feel that way.” (Mark Twain, 1876:86.)Huck plays the trick on Jim in the fog. Jim gets mad at Huck for making a fool of him after he had worried about him so much. Jim calls Huck “trash”. In the white society it is very ridiculous for a white man to apologize to a black slave and it is not necessary at all, but Huck does and does not regret it. He feels bad about hurting Jim. As Huck spends more time with Jim in the course of adventure, he is forced to question the facts that white society has taught him and that he has taken for granted.Huck starts to aware that the black should also receive the same respect as the white. Huck starts to do things out of his conscience instead of the morals and precepts of the society.“When I waked up just at daybreak he was sitting there with his head down betwixt his knees, moaning and mourning to himself. I didn‟t take notice nor let let on.I knowed what is was about. He was thinking about his wife and his children, away up yonder, and he was low and homesick; because he hadn‟t ever been away from home before in his life; and I do believe he cared just as much for his people as white folks does for their‟n. It don‟t seem natural, but I reckon it‟s so. He was often moaning and mourning that way nights, when he judged I was asleep, and saying, “po‟little Lizabeth! Po little Johnny! Its might hard; I spec‟ I ain‟t ever gwyne to see you no mo, no mo! ” He was a mighty good nigger, Jim was.”(Mark Twain, 1876:155.) Jim‟s sensitivity in longing for his family contrasts him with the debased white character of the surrounding chapters. As usual, Huck qualifies his observations a bit. Noting that it doesn‟t seem “natural” for Jim to be so attach to his family. According to the rules in the white society, the black may be uncivilized, ruthless and care for nobody except himself, but Jim shows his true sentiments. So Huck realizes that Jim is the same with the white. Jim and himself share a similar human nature-compassion love for family. In this aspect the black and the white share the same code. The white and the black are the same and black should also obtain the right to live together with their own family.2.2 Huck and TomHuck‟s friendship with Tom is totally different with Jim. Jim is a real and sincere friend of Huck, as well as a surrogate father. Jim takes care of Huck without being intrusive or smothering. He cooks for the boy and shelters him from some of the worst horrors that they encounter, including the sight of Pap‟s corpse, even the news of his father‟s passing. So in the course of adventure Huck gradually feels Jim‟s sincerity so Huck requite the same feeling. As to Tom, he is the protagonist in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. In The Adventures of Huckkelberry Finn he becomes a foil to Huck. As a playmate of Huck, he does have something attractive to make Huck play with him at the beginning. However, Huck slowly realizes that Tom‟s behavior is incredible stupidity and startling cruelty. So he slowly alienates from Tom.“Tom told me what his plan was, and I see in a minute it was worth fifteen of mine for style, and would make Jim just as free a man as mine would, and maybe get us all killed besides.”(Mark Twain, 1876:233.)In the beginning of the book, Tom is again used as a foil to Huck. Brash, unconcerned with others, and dependent on the “authorities”of romantic adventure novels, Tom hatchs a wild plan to free Jim. Huck recognizes the foolishness and potential danger of Tom‟s plan and says it could get the three of them killed. Huck‟s moral development is sharply contrasted to the character of Tom. Through his own deep introspection, he comes to his own conclusions, unaffected by the accepted, and often-hypocritical precepts of Southern culture. Huck bases these decisions on his experience, his own sense of logic, and what his conscience tells him. However, Tomis self-concern with dominion over all. A bizarre mix of adventure novels and Sunday-school teachings influences him. Tom believes in sticking strictly to “rules”, most of which have more to do with style than with morality or anyone‟s welfare. He use these things to justify his outrageous and potentially harmful escapades.From Huck‟s attitude towards friendship between Jim and Tom, it is clear that Huck is able to judge the people around him. He knows what the true friend is and how to treat them. He gains these human insights without the affection of the social precepts. It is his own observation, conscience and deep thought that make him become a true man gradually. It shows that the external environment is not very important for a person to be a true man. It is the internal factors-conscience and personal introspection that play a vital role in the shape of human insight.2.3 Holden and the two nunsHolden‟s contact with the two nuns maybe the only time that he succeeded in communicating with strangers.“I said I‟d enjoyed talking to them a lot, too. I‟d have enjoyed it even more though, I think, if I hadn‟t been sort of afraid, the whole time I was talking to them, that they‟d all of a sudden try to find out I was a Catholic.”(J. D. 塞林格, 1951:335.) It is clear that Holden really enjoys talking with the two nuns whom he meets at the little sandwich bar. They share the same topic although they get different ideas. The two nuns are very kind-hearted, generous, sincere and polite who is sharply different from the people Holden has met before. So Holden likes to get in touch withthem and really feels happy to have conversation with them.“When they got up to go, the two nuns, I did something very stupid and embarrassing. I was smoking a cigarette, and when I stood up to say good-bye to them, by mistake I blew some smoke in their face. I did not mean to, but I did it. I apologized like a madman, and they were very polite and nice about it, but it was very embarrassing anyway.”(J. D. 塞林格, 1951:337.)From the above episode, we can see clearly the differences between the two nuns and the other people Holden has met. Taking the Taxi driver for example, when Holden asks him where the dark is in winter, the driver gets mad at him and looks him as a mad. Actually Holden asks this question is out of younger‟s curiosity and concern. The adult should be more patient and provide more comprehension to the young and to know what they really need. The two nuns are very nice to Holden. They know how to communicate with him and how to lead the conversation to the area that Holden is interested in. Although when they part with Holden, Holden does something really rude to them. They have tolerance for Holden and still be nice to him. It is the two nuns‟tolerance and understanding that makes communication succeed. The interaction between people cannot exist without mature understanding and generous heart.2.4 Holden and Jane GallagherHolden spents a lot of time one summer with Jane when their families stayed in neighboring summerhouse in Maine. Jane never actually appears in The Catcher inthe Rye, but she is extremely important to Holden. Because she is one of the few girls whom he both respects and finds attractive.“I really got to know her quite intimately. I don‟t mean it was anything phusical or anything –it wasn‟t-but we saw each other all the time. You don‟t always have to get too sexy to get to know a girl.”(J. D. 塞林格, 1951:298.)Through his nostalgic memories of Jane, we gain insight into the type of companionship Holden wants. He mentions that he knew he was happy when he was with Jane-this is the feeling that he is lacking at the present moment. His memories of Jane are especially touching because he describes a very deep emotional connection. Additionally, their moments of intimacy were subtle and extremely personal, free of any sort of posturing or phoniness. Holden desperately continues searching for new relationship and wants to find the same deep, compassionate connection he once experienced with Jane but failed. So it makes him fall into deep loneliness, pain and desperation. Actually Jane does not exist in this novel and it means that in the days of wondering in New York she does not accompany with Holden. She exists in the Holden‟s vision. From his description it is clear that Holden‟s insight of love relationship, which is pure and sincere. Jane knows what Holden really needs so she can make him happy and establish a intimate, warm and touching interaction with Holden.It shows that love relationship is based on the mutual understanding and respects not just the sex behavior. Only the full communication and consideration and mutual respect and make relationship last forever and make people happy.3. Lying and phoniness3.1 Lies in The Adventures of Huckelberry FinnIn The Adventures of Huckelberry Finn there are a lot of lies and scams. Many of them comes from the Duck and Dauphin. It is clear that these lies are bad: they hurt innocent people. Their scams are all out of their greed and selfish desire. In order to achieve their personal unlawful goals they do everything regardless of other people‟s interest. It is the behavior that Mark Twain critizes greatly. Finally they are made to pay for what they have done-they are tarred and feathered in the Phelps‟s town. Yet Huck tells a number of lies himself, and cons a few people. But his point of consideration is totally different from the Duck and Dauphin. Huck is out of his kind-hearted and what he tells is the “white lies”.“Well,then, says I, what‟s the use you learning to do right when it‟s troublesome to do right and ain‟t no to do wrong, and the wages is just the same? I was stuck. I couldn‟t answer that. So I reckoned I wouldn‟t bother no more about it, but after this always do whichever come handiest at the time.”(Mark Twain, 1876:91.) In the course of drifting, Huck comes upon some men in a boat who want to search his raft for escaped slaves. In order to protect Jim, he makes up a story about a smallpox outbreak. As Huck realizes, it seems that telling a lie can actually be good thing, depending on its purpose. This insight is part of Huck‟s learning process, as hefinds that some of the things that he‟s been taught contradict what seems to be “right”.It shows that humanist choice can be sometimes determined by a good intention. Only the good purpose can justify the decision is right or not. So in the society, when we make choice is not necessary for us to consider others‟ opinion or some prevalent rules. We are independent natural man and have supreme right to make choice by ourselves.3.2 Phoniness in The catcher in the RyeIn The catcher in the Rye, Salinger stresses Holden's feelings about phony people. The importance of not being phony and being honest is the theme that Salinger presents in this story. Holden is disgusted at all the phony people in the world. Holden had a tough time fitting in at his schools because he thought of almost everyone as phonies."`It's full of phonies, and all you do is study so that you can learn enough to be smart enough to be able to buy a goddam Cadillac some day, and you have to keep making believe you give a damn if the football team loses, and all you do is talk about girls and liquor and sex all day, and everybody sticks together in these dirty little goddam cliques' " (J. D. 塞林格, 1951:356.)He seems to have a history of expulsions and failures at various schools because of his lack of ability to cope with others. Holden thinks that everyone around him is phony. He cannot stand them. Holden comes to question almost everyone's integrity and trustworthiness. There is all too much insincerity and Holden is honestlyuninterested in engaging in such a superficial, alienating society. He is dream of living a more rustic, sure way of life. So he alienates himself from the society.Obviously it is very difficult for us to establish relations with others without sincerity and the sense of trust. If we are suspicious of each other in the course of communicating the interaction means nothing.4. Moral values (dilemmas) and worldview 4.1 Huck’s choicesIn this time the Duke and Dauphin are going to swindle the money out of the Wilks daughters. The oldest of the daughters is only nineteen. This time it is the cruelest scam pulled off by the Duke and Dauphin. It should come, as no surprise that it sickens Huck-he has grown increasingly tired of their immoral nature.“I says to myself, I reckon a body that ups and tells the truth when he is in a tight place is taking considerable many resks,though I ain‟t had no experience, and can‟t say for certain; but it looks so to me, anyway; and yet here‟s a case where I‟m blest if it don‟t look to me like the truth is better and actually safer than a lie. I must lay it by in my mind, and think it over some time or other; it‟s so kind of stranger and unregular. I never see nothing like it. Well, I says to myself at last, I‟m a-going to chance it; I‟ll up and tell the truth this time, though it does seem most like setting down on a kag of powder and touching it off just to see there you‟ll go to.”(MarkTwain, 1876:175.)Huck struggles to make a decision that whether he should tell the truth to Mary Jane or not. Huck starts to question absurd and hypocritical aspects of society. The Duke and the Dauphin flout society‟s rules for personal profit. Huck makes a wry observation about human nature. At last he decide to tell Mary Jane the truth. His decision to tell Mary Jane the truth is an important step in his maturation.Huck‟s moral climax is presented in the following passage:“I t was a close palce. I took…up (the letter I‟d written to Miss Watson), and held it in my hand. I was a –trembling, because I‟d got to decide, forever, betwixt two things, and I knowed it. I stidied a monute, sort of holding my breath, and then says to myself: “All rightthen, I‟ll go to hell”-and tore it up. It was awful thoughts and awful words, but they was said. And I let them stay said; and never thought no more about reforming.”(Mark Twain, 1876:214.)Jim has been sold by the Duke and Dauphin, and is being held by the Phelpses pending his return to his rightful owner. Huck composes a letter to Miss Watson, telling her where Jim is. However, he cares too much about Jim to deny Jim‟s existence and humanity. Huck‟s thoughs of his friendship with Jim leads him to listen to his own conscience. He resolves to act justly by helping Jim and “go to hell”if necessary.Human needs and interests always have priority over everything. When we make choices the prima things we should consider is how to satisfy people‟s needs and interests. Maybe sometimes it appears to be in conflict with the social rules andpersonal interests and we still have to do so. That is the essence and preciousness of human values. It is this kind of virtue that distinguish human beings from animal. 4.2 Holden’s dilemmasIn The Catcher in the Rye, J.D. Salinger portrays Holden Caulfield as a teenager with definite moral values. Holden firmly believes in having respect for women, protecting the innocence of children, and being an honest and unpretentious person. For example, in the hotel the elevator offers to send him a prostitute for five dollars, and Holden depressed and flustered accepts. But at last he refuses.“Look,” I said, “ I don‟t feel very much like myself tonight. I‟ve had a rough night. Honest to God. I‟ll pay you and all, but do you mind very much if we don‟t do it? I felt more depressed than sexy, if you want to know the truth. She was depressing. Her green dress hanging in the closet and all. And besides, I don‟t think I could ever do it with somebody that sits in a stupid movie all day long. I really don‟t think I could.”(J. D. 塞林格,1951:319)From Holden‟s own experience with a former girlfriend, from observing Stradlater‟s mating habits, Holden notices that sexual attraction can be separate from respect and intimacy, and that sex can be casual or kinky. Such idea makes him disappointed with the adult word desperately. In fact Salinger criticizes the casual sex acts bitterly. It shows that sexual activity is sacred. People should only have sex if they care deeply for one another. The casual sex behavior seems disrespectful.We can see how great the desperation, the pressure and the trauma Holdenendures during this difficult time in his life and the worse is that he cannot turn to anybody. During his psychological battle, life continues on around Holden and nobody cares about Holden‟s odd behavior until it begins to disorder their well defined social codes. We should start to think about society's attitude towards the human conditions. The society have deliberate ignorance of the emptiness that can characterize human existence.Error makes a man. People should have more tolerance towards the weaks. What they need desperately is the full understanding and warm care which can help them get rid of the predicament so they can join in the majority quickly and lead a normal and happy life.Throughout the book, Salinger emphasizes how much Holden wants to protect the innocence of children. One occurrence of this is when Holden went to Phoebe's school and found "fuck you" written on the wall. He was infuriated because he knew all the children would see it. He said, " Somebody'd written 'Fuck you' on the wall. It damn near drove me crazy”. (J. D. 塞林格, 1951.431.) Holden wiped it off because he wanted to protect the children from seeing it. In fact, the title of the book deals with Holden wanting to protect kids.“…I‟m standing on the edge of some crazy cliff. What I have to do, I have to catch everybody if they start to go over the cliff-I mean if they‟re running and they don‟t look where they‟re going I have to come out from somewhere and catcher them. That‟s all I‟d do all day. I‟d just be the catcher in the rye and all.”(J. D. 塞林格, 1951:409.)This, the passage in which Holden reveals the source of the book‟s title, is the most famous in the book. Standing on the precipice that separates the rye field of childhood from the cliff of adulthood, Holden wants to protest childhood innocence from the fall into disillusionment Holden wants to be a “catcher in the rye”, a savior of the innocence missing in the real world around him. His catcher in the rye fantasy reflects his innocence, his belief in pure, uncorrupted youth, and his desire to protect that spirit.From Holden‟s will we know that what the real world lacks is just existing in his mind so he wants to protect. Holden does not realize that he is also among the people who need help and people‟s warm care. In modern society which is overflowed with the material and human desires it becomes more and more difficult for normal people to establish relations with each other. The life and job pressure makes people more and more insensitive. People slowly used to show indifference and apathy towards each other. The same is to the sufferings of others. Holden‟s human value is what we should obtain; otherwise maybe more and more people will suffer the same pain as Holden‟s. That is not what Salinger wants to see and it is contrast with the purpose of his writing this novel.5. ConclusionFrom the above analysis clearly Humanism is embodied both in The Adventures of Huckelberry Finn and The Catcher in the Rye, but they emphasize the differentaspects of Humanism. Huck always makes choices in real life. He realizes his human values through his own observation. He often faces mental dilemmas. It is known to us The Adventures of Huckelberry Finn is a Bildungsroman. In the process of Huck‟s growing up, we can see how Huck arrives to regulate his world and gains humanist insight, how Huck makes the best decision for himself and obeys the “voice of reason”. It is clear that it is reason instead of rules or principles that enable human beings regulate their behavior. Mark Twain shows a Humanism that is Classical Humanism, which is centered on human values and individual‟s dignity and worth, and capacity for self-realization through reason. In The Catcher in the Rye Holden refuses to comply with the real world‟s rules. He creates his ideal world in his mind and uses his own human values to judge people around him. In the days of wondering in New York, Holden meets a lot of people and tries to establish relations with them. From his trying we know that how should people interact with others and establish a harmonious society, which is full of sincerity, honesty, warmth and humanistic care. Humanism in The Catcher in the Rye focused primarily on human needs and interests and defining how a person should live and interact with other humans, which we call Philosophical Humanism. The most important principle of interpersonal communication is generous heart, human care, idelogical freedom and rejection of violence.ReferencesMcHenry, Robert, ed. The New Encyclopedia Britannica.U.S.A.: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1768.Twain, Mark, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. New York: Tom Doherty Associates, LLC., 1876.Wehmeier, Sally, ed. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary(Sixth edition). UK: Oxford University Press, 1970.J. D. 塞林格. 麦田里的守望者（孙仲旭译）. 南京：译林出版社.Net.1 Mori, Kyle, J.D. Salinger and Holden Caulfield Of, "Catcher in the Rye"-Just How Similar was Salinger's Life to Holden's?/article/64156/jd_salinger_and_holden_caulfi eld_of.html?page=6, 2006-9-28.Net.2 Lewis Loflin, Humanism, the Early Church, and Rational Religion /news/mine/humanism.htm, 2002-3.Net.3 Austin Cline, Philosophic Humanism,/od/abouthumanism/a/modern.htm.。

2002年考研英语二阅读text3精翻Title: The Evolution of CommunicationThe advent of communication has undergone significant evolution throughout history. From primitive means of conveying messages to advanced technologies, communication has become an integral part of human existence. In this text, we will explore the different stages of this evolution.The first stage of communication involved simple forms of expression, such as gestures and facial expressions. This mode of communication allowed humans to convey basic emotions and intentions. Over time, humans developed spoken language, enabling them to express more complex thoughts and ideas. This marked a significant leap forward for communication.The invention of writing systems further revolutionized communication. The ability to record information in a permanent and tangible form allowed for the transmission of knowledge across time and space. Writing became a fundamental tool for documentation, education, and culture.With the rise of modern civilization, the printing press was invented, leading to the mass production of written materials. Books and newspapers became accessible to more people, enabling the spread of information and ideas on a larger scale.In the 19th century, the telegraph introduced long-distance communication. This groundbreaking technology enabled people to send messages across vast distances, revolutionizing the speedand efficiency of communication. Subsequently, the telephone was invented, allowing for real-time conversations between individuals separated by long distances.In recent decades, the internet has emerged as a transformative force in communication. With its widespread adoption, the internet has facilitated instant messaging, email, and social media platforms. These digital tools have made communication even more efficient and convenient, connecting people from all corners of the globe.As communication continues to evolve, advances in technology are shaping the way we interact and connect with one another. From the earliest forms of nonverbal communication to the digital age, communication has become increasingly sophisticated and indispensable to our daily lives.In conclusion, the evolution of communication has witnessed remarkable advancements throughout history. From simple gestures to complex digital systems, we have progressed from expressing basic emotions to sharing complex thoughts and ideas globally. The continuous development of communication technologies holds great potential for the future, enhancing our ability to connect and understand one another like never before.。

An Outline of American Literatureby Kathryn VanSpanckerenglossary1Abolitionism-Active movement to end slavery in the U.S. North before the Civil War in the 1860s.2Allusion-An implied or indirect reference in a literary text to another text.3Beatnik-Artistic and literary rebellion against established society of the 1950s and early 1960s, associated with Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and others. "Beat" suggests holiness ("beatification") and suffering ("beaten down").4BostonBrahmins-Influential and respected 19th-centuryNew England writers who maintained the "genteel tradition"of upper- class values.5Calvinism-Strict theological doctrine of the French Protestant church reformer John Calvin (1509-1564) and the basis of Puritan society. Calvin held that all humans were born sinful and only God s grace (not the church) could save a person from hell. 6Captivity narrative-Account of capture by Native American tribes, such as those created by writers Mary Rowlandson and John Williams in colonial times.7Character writing-Popular 17th- and 18th-century literary sketch of a character who represents a group or type.8Civil War-The war (1861-1865) between the northernU.S. states, which remained in theUnion, and the southern states, which seceded and formed the Confederacy. The victory of the North ended slavery and preserved theUnion.9Conceit-Extended metaphor. Term used to describe Renaissance metaphysical poetry inEngland and colonial poetry, such as that of Anne Bradstreet, in colonialAmerica.10Decadents-Late 19th- and early 20th-century "aesthetic" artists and writers, chiefly British and French, involved with "turn of century" ideas of endings, decay, and artificiality.11Deconstruction-Controversial mode of textual analysis that can reveal hidden ideological assumptions. Questions hierarchical thinking in which one term is privileged over another (e.g. culture versus nature, man versus woman). Draws on thought of French theorist Jacques Derrida, who elaborated on linguist Ferdinand de Saussure s vision of language as a system of differences.12Deism-An 18th-century Enlightenment religion emphasizing reason, not miracles; partly a reaction against Calvinism and religious superstition.13Election-A Puritan doctrine in which God "elects," or chooses, the individuals who will enter heaven according to His divine will.14Ellipsis-Omission from a text of one or more words that are obviously understood but that must be supplied to make a construction gramatically correct.15Enlightenment-An 18th-century movement that focused on the ideals of good sense, benevolence, and a belief in liberty, justice, and equality as the natural rights of man.16Existentialism-A philosophical movement embracing the view that the suffering individual must create meaning in an unknowable, chaotic, and seemingly empty universe.17Expressionism-Post-World War I artistic movement, of German origin, that distorted appearances to communicate inner emotional states.18Faust-Literary character who sells his soul to the devil in order to become all-knowing, or godlike; protagonist of plays by English Renaissance dramatist Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) and German Romantic writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832).19Feminism-The view, articulated in the 19th century, that women are inherently equal to men and deserve equal rights and opportunities. More recently, a social and political movement that took hold in theUnited States in the late 1960s, soon spreading globally.20Genre-A category of literary forms (novel, lyric poem, epic, for example).21HartfordWits-Patriotic but conservative late 18th-century literary circle centered atYale College inConnecticut (also known as the Connecticut Wits).22Hudibras-A mock-heroic satire by English writer Samuel Butler (1612-1680). Hudibras was imitated by early revolutionary-era satirists.23Image-Concrete representation of an object, or something seen.24Imagists-A group of mainly American poets, including Ezra Pound and Amy Lowell, who used sharp visual images and colloquial speech; active from 1912 to 1914.25Irony-A meaning (often contradictory) concealed behind the apparent meaning of a word or phrase.26KnickerbockerSchool-New York City-based writers of the early 1800s who imitated English and European literary fashions. "Light" literature - Popular literature written for entertainment.27McCarthy era-The period of the Cold War (late 1940s and early 1950s) during which U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy pursued American citizens whom he and his followers suspected of being members or former members of, or sympathizers with, the Communist party. His efforts included the creation of "blacklists" in various professions -- rosters of people who were excluded from working in those jobs. McCarthy ultimately was denounced by his Senate colleagues.28Metaphysical poetry-Intricate type of 17th-century English poetry employing wit and unexpected images.29Middle Colonies-Present-day Atlantic or eastern U.S. states-- colonial New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and sometimes Delaware -- known for commercial activities centering on New York City and Philadelphia.30Midwest-The central area of theUnited States, from theOhio River to theRocky Mountains, including the Prairie andGreat Plains regions (also known as theMiddle West).31Millennialism-Seventeenth-century Puritan belief that Jesus Christ would return to Earth and inaugurate 1,000 years of peace and prosperity, as prophesied in the New Testament.32Mock-epic-A parody using epic form (also known as mock-heroic).33Modernism-International cultural movement after World War I expressing disillusionment with tradition and interest in new technologies and visions.34Motif-A recurring element, such as an image, theme, or type of incident.35Muckrakers-American journalists and novelists (1900-1912) whose spotlight on corruption in business and government led to social reform.36Multicultural-The creative interchange of numerous ethnic and racial subcultures.37Myth-Legendary narrative, usually of gods and heroes, or a theme that expresses the ideology of a culture.38Naturalism-Late 19th- and early 20th-century literary approach of French origin that vividly depicted social problems and viewed human beings as helpless victims of larger social and economic forces.39Neoclassicism-An 18th-century artistic movement, associated with the Enlightenment, drawing on classical models and emphasizing reason, harmony, and restraint.40New England-The region of the United States comprising present- day Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut and noted for its early industrialization and intellectual life. Traditionally, home of the shrewd, independent, thrifty "Yankee" trader.41Objectivist-Mid-20th-century poetic movement, associated with William Carlos Williams, stressing images and colloquial speech.42Old Norse-The ancient Norwegian language of the sagas, virtually identical to modern Icelandic.43Oral tradition-Transmission by word of mouth; tradition passed down through generations; verbal folk tradition.44Plains Region-The middle region of theUnited States that slopes eastward from theRocky Mountains to the Prairie.45Post-modernism-Media-influenced aesthetic sensibility of the late 20th century characterized by open-endedness and collage. Post-modernism questions the foundations of cultural and artistic forms through self-referential irony and thejuxtaposition of elements from popular culture and electronic technology.46Prairie-The level, unforested farm region of the midwesternUnited States.47Primitivism-Belief that nature provides truer and more healthful models than does culture. An example is the myth of the "noble savage."48Providence-God s will, as expressed through events on Earth. Fate is seen as revelation.49Puritans-English religious and political reformers who fled their native land in search of religious freedom, and settled and colonizedNew England in the 17th century.50Reformation-A northern European political and religious movement of the 15th through 17th centuries that attempted to reform Catholicism; eventually gave rise to Protestantism.51Reflexive-Self-referential. A literary work is reflexive when it refers to itself.52Regional writing-Writing that explores the customs and landscape of a region of theUnited States.53Revolutionary War-The War of Independence, 1775-1783, fought by the American colonies againstGreat Britain.54Romance-Emotionally heightened, symbolic American novels associated with the Romantic period.55Romanticism-A reaction against neoclassicism. This early 19th- century movement elevated the individual, the passions, and the inner life. It stressed strong emotion, imagination, freedom from classical correctness in art forms, and rebellion against social conventions.56Saga-An ancient Scandinavian narrative of historical or mythical events.57SalemWitch Trials -Proceedings for alleged witchcraft held inSalem,Massachusetts, in 1692. Nineteen persons were hanged and numerous others were intimidated into confessing or accusing others of witchcraft.58Self-help book-Book telling readers how to improve their lives through their own efforts. A popular American genre from the mid- 19th century to the present.59Separatists-A strict Puritan sect of the 16th and 17th centuries that preferred to separate from the Church of England rather than reform. Many of those who first settledAmerica were separatists.60Slave narrative-First black literary prose genre in theUnited States; accounts of life of African-Americans under slavery.61South-Region of the United States including Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, Florida, West Virginia, and eastern Texas.62Surrealism-European literary and artistic movement that uses illogical, dreamlike images and events to suggest the unconscious.63Syllabic versification-Poetic meter based on the number of syllables in a line.64Synthesis-Blending of two senses, used by Edgar Allan Poe and others to suggest hidden correspondences and create exotic effects.65Tall tale-A humorous, exaggerated story common on the American frontier, often focusing on cases of superhuman strength.66Theme-Abstract idea embodied in a literary work.67Tory-Wealthy pro-English faction inAmerica at the time of the Revolutionary War in the late 1700s.68Transcendentalism-A broad, philosophical movement inNew England during the Romantic era (peaking between 1835 and 1845). It stressed the role of divinity in nature and the individual s intuition, and exalted feeling over reason.69Trickster-Cunning character of tribal folk narratives (particularly those of African-Americans and Native Americans) who breaks cultural codes of behavior; often a culture hero.70Vision song-Poetic song which members of some Native American tribes created when purifying themselves through solitary fasting and meditation.。