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UNIT ONEIndust rialEngine ering Educat ion for the 21st Centur y21世纪的工业工程教育The 21st centur y is just a few yearsaway. Strate gic planne rs all over the world a re usingthe year 2000 as the pointfuture busine ss activi ties.Are we all ready f or that time? As the indust rialworldprepar es to meet the techno logic al chall e n gesof the 21st centur y, thereis a need to focuson the people who will take it there. People will be the most import ant of the “man-machin e-materi al” system s compet ing in the next centur y. IEs should play a crucia l role in prepar ing organ i z atio ns for the 21st centur y throug h theirrolesas change initia torsand facil i t ator s. Improv ement s are needed in IE underg radua te educat ion if that role is to be succes sfull y carrie d out.21世纪来临在即，全世界的战略家们把2000年作为商业活动的焦点。
本科毕业论文外文翻译外文译文题目:不确定条件下生产线平衡：鲁棒优化模型和最优解解法学院：机械自动化专业：工业工程学号: 201003166045学生姓名: 宋倩指导教师：潘莉日期: 二○一四年五月Assembly line balancing under uncertainty: Robust optimization modelsand exact solution methodÖncü Hazır , Alexandre DolguiComputers ＆Industrial Engineering，2013,65：261–267不确定条件下生产线平衡：鲁棒优化模型和最优解解法安库·汉泽，亚历山大·多桂计算机与工业工程，2013，65：261–267摘要这项研究涉及在不确定条件下的生产线平衡，并提出两个鲁棒优化模型。
假设了不确定性区间运行的时间。
该方法提出了生成线设计方法,使其免受混乱的破坏。
基于分解的算法开发出来并与增强策略结合起来解决大规模优化实例.该算法的效率已被测试,实验结果也已经发表。
本文的理论贡献在于文中提出的模型和基于分解的精确算法的开发.另外，基于我们的算法设计出的基于不确定性整合的生产线的产出率会更高，因此也更具有实际意义。
此外,这是一个在装配线平衡问题上的开创性工作,并应该作为一个决策支持系统的基础。
关键字：装配线平衡；不确定性; 鲁棒优化；组合优化；精确算法1.简介装配线就是包括一系列在车间中进行连续操作的生产系统。
零部件依次向下移动直到完工。
它们通常被使用在高效地生产大量地标准件的工业行业之中。
在这方面，建模和解决生产线平衡问题也鉴于工业对于效率的追求变得日益重要。
生产线平衡处理的是分配作业到工作站来优化一些预定义的目标函数。
那些定义操作顺序的优先关系都是要被考虑的,同时也要对能力或基于成本的目标函数进行优化。
就生产（绍尔，1999）产品型号的数量来说，装配线可分为三类：单一模型（SALBP）,混合模型(MALBP）和多模式（MMALBP）。
本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译外文题目：A Strategic Framework for Customer Relationship Management 译文题目：客户关系管理的战略框架学生姓名：专业：工业工程指导教师姓名：评阅日期：Adrian Payne & Pennie FrowA Strategic Framework for Customer RelationshipManagementOver the past decade, there has been an explosion of interest in customer relationship management (CRM) by both academics and executives. However, despite an increasing amount of published material, most of which is practitioner oriented, there remains a lack of agreement about what CRM is and how CRM strategy should be developed. The purpose of this article is to develop a process-oriented conceptual framework that positions CRM at a strategic level by identifying the key crossfunctional processes involved in the development of CRM strategy. More specifically, the aims of this article are•To identify alternative perspectives of CRM,•To emphasize the importance of a strategic approach to CRM within a holistic organizational context,•To propose five key generic cross-functional processes that organizations can use to develop and deliver an effective CRM strategy, and•To develop a process-based conceptual framework for CRM strategy development and to review the role and components of each process.We organize this article in three main parts. First, we explore the role of CRM and identify three alternative perspectives of CRM. Second, we consider the need for a cross-functional process-based approach to CRM. We develop criteria for process selection and identify five key CRM processes. Third, we propose a strategic conceptual framework that is constructed of these five processes and examine the components of each process.The development of this framework is a response to a challenge by Reinartz, Krafft, and Hoyer (2004), who criticize the severe lack of CRM research that takes a broader, more strategic focus. The article does not explore people issues related to CRM implementation. Customer relationship management can fail when a limitednumber of employees are committed to the initiative; thus, employee engagement and change management are essential issues in CRM implementation. In our discussion, we emphasize such implementation and people issues as a priority area for further research.CRM Perspectives and DefinitionThe term “customer relationship management” emerged in the information technology (IT) vendor community and practitioner community in the mid-1990s. It is often used to describe technology-based customer solutions, such as sales force automation (SFA). In the academic community, the terms “relationship marketing” and CRM are often used interchangeably (Parvatiyar and Sheth 2001). However, CRM is more commonly used in the context of technology solutions and has been described as “information-enabled relationship marketing” (Ryals and Payne 2001, p.3). Zablah, Beuenger, and Johnston (2003, p. 116) suggest that CRM is “a philosophically-related offspring to relationship marketing which is for the most part neglected in the literature,” and they conclude that “further exploration of CRM and its related phenomena is not only warranted but also desperately needed.”A significant problem that many organizations deciding to adopt CRM face stems from the great deal of confusion about what constitutes CRM. In interviews with executives, which formed part of our research process (we describe this process subsequently), we found a wide range of views about what CRM means. To some, it meant direct mail, a loyalty card scheme, or a database, whereas others envisioned it as a help desk or a call center. Some said that it was about populating a data warehouse or undertaking data mining; others considered CRM an e-commerce solution, such as the use of a personalization engine on the Internet or a relational database for SFA. This lack of a widely accepted and appropriate definition of CRM can contribute to the failure of a CRM project when an organization views CRM from a limited technology perspective or undertakes CRM on a fragmented basis.The definitions and descriptions of CRM that different authors and authorities use vary considerably, signifying a variety of CRM viewpoints. To identify alternativeperspectives of CRM, we considered definitions and descriptions of CRM from a range of sources, which we summarize in the Appendix. We excluded other, similar definitions from this list.Grabner-Kraeuter and Moedritscher (2002) suggest that the absence of a strategic framework for CRM from which to define success is one reason for the disappointing results of many CRM initiatives. This view was supported both by the senior executives we interviewed during our research and by Gartner’s (2001) research. Our next challenges were to identify key generic CRM processes using the previously described selection criteria and to develop them into a conceptual framework for CRM strategy development.Our literature review found that few CRM frameworks exist; those that did were not based on a process-oriented cross-functional conceptualization of CRM. For example, Sue and Morin (2001, p. 6) outline a framework for CRM based on initiatives, expected results, and contributions, but this is not process based, and “many initiatives are not explicitly identified in the framework.” Winer (2001, p. 91) develops a “basic model, which contains a set of 7 basic components: a database of customer activity; analyses of the database; given the analyses, decisions about which customers to target; tools for targeting the customers; how to build relationships with the targeted customers; privacy issues; and metrics for measuring the success of the CRM program.” Again, this model, though useful, is not a crossfunctional process-based conceptualization. This gap in the literature suggests that there is a need for a new systematic process-based CRM strategy framework. Synthesis of the diverse concepts in the literature on CRM and relationship marketing into a single, process-based framework should provide practical insights to help companies achieve greater success with CRM strategy development and implementation.Interaction ResearchConceptual frameworks and theory are typically based on combining previous literature, common sense, and experience (Eisenhardt 1989). In this research, weintegrated a synthesis of the literature with learning from field-based interactions with executives to develop and refine the CRM strategy framework. In this approach, we used what Gummesson (2002a) terms “interaction research.” This form of research originates from his view that “interaction and communication play a crucial role” in the stages of research and that testing concepts, ideas, and results through interaction with different target groups is “an integral part of the whole research process” (p. 345). The sources for these field-based insights, which include executives primarily from large enterprises in the business-tobusiness and business-to-consumer sectors, included the following:•An expert panel of 34 highly experienced executives;•Interviews with 20 executives working in CRM, marketing, and IT roles in companies in the financial services sector;•Interviews with six executives from large CRM vendors and with five executives from three CRM and strategy consultancies;•Individual and group discussions with CRM, marketing, and IT managers at workshops with 18 CRM vendors, analysts, and their clients, including Accenture, Baan, BroadVision, Chordiant, EDS, E.piphany, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Gartner, NCR Teradata, Peoplesoft, Oracle, SAP, SAS Institute, Siebel, Sybase, and Unisys;•Piloting the framework as a planning tool in the financial services and automotive sectors; and•Using the framework as a planning tool in two companies: global telecommunications and global logistics. Six workshops were held in each company.Process Identification and the CRM FrameworkWe began by identifying possible generic CRM processes from the CRM and related business literature. We then discussed these tentative processes interactively with the groups of executives. The outcome of this work was a short 170 / Journal of Marketing, October 2005 list of seven processes. We then used the expert panel of experienced CRM executives who had assisted in the development of the process selection schema to nominate the CRM processes that they considered important andto agree on those that were the most relevant and generic. After an initial group workshop, each panel member independently completed a list representing his or her view of the key generic processes that met the six previously agreed-on process criteria. The data were fed back to this group, and a detailed discussion followed to help confirm our understanding of the process categories.As a result of this interactive method, five CRM processes that met the selection criteria were identified; all five were agreed on as important generic processes by more than two-thirds of the group in the first iteration. Subsequently, we received strong confirmation of these as key generic CRM processes by several of the other groups of managers. The resultant five generic processes were (1) the strategy development process, (2) the value creation process, (3) the multichannel integration process, (4) the information management process, and (5) the performance assessment process.We then incorporated these five key generic CRM processes into a preliminary conceptual framework. This initial framework and the development of subsequent versions were both informed by and further refined by our interactions with two primary executive groups: mangers from the previously noted companies and executives from three CRM consulting firms. Participants at several academic conferences on CRM and relationship marketing also assisted with comments and criticisms of previous versions. With evolving versions of the framework, we combined a synthesis of relevant literature with field-based interactions involving the groups. The framework went through a considerable number of major iterations and minor revisions; the final version appears in Figure 2.This conceptual framework illustrates the interactive set of strategic processes that commences with a detailed review of an organization’s strategy (the strategy development process) and concludes with an improvement in business results and increased share value (the performance assessment process). The concept that competitive advantage stems from the creation of value for the customer and for the business and associated cocreation activities (the value creation process) is well developed in the marketing literature. For large companies, CRM activity will involvecollecting and intelligently using customer and other relevant data (the information process) to build a consistently superior customer experience and enduring customer relationships (the multichannel integration process). The iterative nature of CRM strategy development is highlighted by the arrows between the processes in both directions in Figure 2; they represent interaction and feedback loops between the different processes. The circular arrows in the value creation process reflect the cocreation process. We now examine the key components we identified in each process. As with our prior work, we used the interaction research method in the identification of these process components.客户关系管理的战略框架在过去的十年里，管理层和学术界对客户关系管理（CRM）的兴趣激增。
机械工程专业外文文献及翻译文献一（外文标题）
摘要：
该文献研究了机械工程领域中的某个具体问题。
通过实验方法和数学模型的分析，作者得出了一些有意义的结论。
本文介绍了作者的研究方法和结果，并讨论了其在机械工程领域的应用前景。
翻译：
（将文献的主要内容用简洁准确的语言翻译成中文）
文献二（外文标题）
摘要：
该文献探讨了机械工程领域中的另一个重要问题。
通过实证分析和理论推导，作者提出了解决方案，并对其进行了验证。
本文阐述了作者的方法和实验结果，并探讨了其在实践中的应用潜力。
翻译：
（将文献的主要内容用简洁准确的语言翻译成中文）
文献三（外文标题）
摘要：
该文献研究了机械工程领域中的另一个新颖课题。
作者通过数
值模拟和实验验证，得出了一些有趣的发现。
本文介绍了作者的研
究过程和结果，并讨论了其对机械工程领域的影响。
翻译：
（将文献的主要内容用简洁准确的语言翻译成中文）
总结
本文档介绍了三篇机械工程专业的外文文献，包括摘要和翻译。
这些文献都对机械工程领域中的不同问题进行了研究，并提出了相
关的解决方案和发现。
希望这些文献能为机械工程专业的学生和研
究人员提供有价值的参考和启发。
中文译文基于IE技术的工时定额确定摘要工时定额是核算企业运营成本与工人收入的基础,直接关系着企业的生产效率与工人的生产积极性。
针对中小型企业的工时定额建立方法缺乏标准性与科学性，并严重依赖技术人员的经验.本文提供了一种基于IE技术的综合性工时定额确定方法。
工时定额由辅助时间、人机操作时间、工作时间等组成.辅助时间可以通过基于基本工作分解的模特排时法来确定,工作时间由工时定额标准时间来确定。
此外,学习曲线被应用于优化计算结果。
文章的最后用一个实例来验证该方法的有效性。
关键词：工时定额;工时定额标准数据;模特排时法;学习曲线引言工时定额是工厂制定生产计划与进行经济核算所依据的一种主要指标,它的确定方法对于工厂的成本计算是非常重要的.大部分中小型企业采用多品种、小批量的生产方式,产品的规格经常改变，因此工时定额的确定是非常困难的。
现阶段的企业通常采用经验估工法、标准数据法以及既定时间标准设定法来计算工时定额，这需要经验丰富的技术人员与管理人员经过长期的修正才能确定。
无疑,这需要一个比较长的工作周期以及比较高的工作量，而且，工时定额的最终结果很容易被主观因素所影响，从而很难保证准确性与科学性。
所有的这些因素都会为生产计划制定与成本控制造成不利影响。
近年来,学者对这一课题进行了广泛的研究并取得了比较大的进展。
一些研究表明，标准时间可以基于典型操作来进行计算，并阐述了选择典型操作方法的规则.另外一些学者提出了一种包含基于范例推理与基于知识推理的混合推理模型。
这个模型已经成功应用于装配复杂且影响因素众多的一个框架.参考文献3针对提高私营企业生产效率这一目标建立了一种对所有动作进行分类的工时定额基础数据。
另外，使用神经网络来进行工时定额计算是一种新的思路．我们可以发现,工时定额的建立没有统一的规范与标准,所以，寻找出一种更科学,更有效的工时定额确定方法是十分有意义的.本文应用基础的IE知识以及基本元素分解法与模特排时法来详细说明各项基本操作,接下来用更加更合理与人性化的方法来计算工时定额。
毕业论文外文资料翻译学生姓名：学号：学院：经济管理学院专业：工业工程指导教师：外文出处： Professional English for IndustrialEngineering 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文工业工程的真正价值工业工程师非常善于解决问题。
可是具有讽刺性的却是他们仍有一个长期性的问题得不到解决----一致性。
而且这个问题解决起来一直很困难。
事实上，“一致性”恰好是目前工业工程领域所面临的众多挑战性问题之一。
今天激烈的世界竞争和紧张的公司预算都迫使工业工程师们去解决被人们忽视很久的问题。
公司开始重新组合团队结构；工业工程部被逐渐被取消或者重新命名；而且大学和学院也承担着向工业界提供被更好的培训而掌握了更广泛工作能力的毕业生的压力。
另一方面，现在的工业工程师可以使用许多他们30年前的同行想都想不到的技术和工具。
新技术已经提高了精确度和速度并逐渐提高了工业工程师们解决更多样问题的能力。
值得一提的是，工业工程现在有更多的机会去集中于现在许多企业已经视为独立的学科的众多领域中的一个-----包括防真学、运筹学、人因学、物料搬运和物流学。
命名问题什么问题可能会在如此明亮的机会阵列上投下阴影呢？对于初学者来说，随着工业工程新的机遇的产生，诸如工业工程师到底能胜任什么样的工作问题也随之产生。
曾经，定义工业工程是很容易的。
“工业工程那时候在解决问题，制订工作标准和工作简明化方面很简单”有限公司的经理卡罗.彻罗宾如是说。
“但是现在需要放弃那些落后的工业工程定义了。
”甚至现在，在许多公司，工业工程仍然在从事那些现在看来是经典工业工程的传统的工作。
“埃斯曼.柯达公司的人力资源部经理约翰帕娃说：“最大的变化就是工业工程领域的商业化使它们成为具有竞争性的舒适职业。
”而且，工业工程师已经适应了这种竞争技能。
他们现在正在争取这份工作。
联合包装服务公司的工业工程经理杰瑞说：“如果一个人不能对整项工作做全面把握而只是将注意力放在个别的方面，那么结果就不会令人满意。
中文3210字本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译外文题目：Improved Methods for Production Manufacturing Processes in Environmentally Benign Manufacturing译文题目：生产制造过程中对于环境有利的改进方法学生姓名：专业：工业工程0901指导教师姓名：评阅日期：Improved Methods for Production Manufacturing Processes inEnvironmentally Benign ManufacturingHow to design a production process with low carbon emissions and low environmental impact as well as high manufacturing performance is a key factor in the success of low-carbon production.It is important to address concerns about climate change for the large carbon emission source manufacturing industries because of their high energy consumption and environmental impact during the manufacturing stage of the production life cycle. In this paper methodology for determining a production process is developed.This methodology integrated process determination from three different levels new production processing, selected production processing and batch production processing.This approach is taken within a manufacturing enterprise based on prior research.The methodology is aimed at providing decision support for implementing Environmentally Benign Manufacturing (EBM) and low-carbon production to improve the environmental performance of the manufacturing industry. At the first level.a decision-making model for new production processes based on the Genetic Simulated Annealing Algorithm (GSAA) is presented.The decision-making model considers not only the traditional factors, such as time, quality and cost, but also energy and resource consumption and environmental impact,which are different from the traditional methods.A manufacturing system is an input-output system in which manufacturing resources (materials and energy) are transformed into products or semi-products. Manufacturing is the backbone industry for economic growth; meanwhile, it consumes a large amount of limited resources and is the root of the current environmental pollution problems. It is reported that 70–80% of the global environmental pollution is caused by manufacturing. Production processing is one of the stages in the life cycle of a production that directly consumes resources, produces environmental pollution emissions and causes occupational health and safety problems [1,2]. Therefore, it is essential for the manufacturing industry to implement environmental benign manufacturing (EBM) and low-carbon manufacturing strategiesthat, with high technology application and economic efficiency, have less resource consumption and less environmental pollution.Since the 1970s, creating the concept has been greatly expanded. 1998 U.S. National Research Council NRC confirmed that manufacturing is still create the most basic means of social wealth, the country's economic engine is running strong pillars and to create defined as: the creation, development, support and provide products and services required by the process of the process And organizational entities. 1999 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT that manufacturers include: product planning, design and development, sales and service and the achievement of these functions by the use of the technology and processes, and to enable the integration of technology and human way.As an industry, modern manufacturing has expanded to include: hardware, software or integrated hardware and software, biotechnology and agricultural production of certain products. China's industrial projects must actively participate in and help manufacturers deal with the following six major challenges:①The use of information technology enterprise organizations to enhance the market's rapid response capability. To this end, manufacturers must make full use of e-commerce and concurrent engineering and other technical means and tools.②Rapid captures, collect competitive information, and quickly put them into competitive intelligence and knowledge. Industrial projects must make full use of competitive intelligence (competitive intelligence), horizontal comparison (benchmarking) and the relations (relationship) and other advanced methods and tools.③Rapid deployment and system integration, technology and resources. Manufacture and development of the network based on Internet and intranet communication.④Eliminate or control pollution, enhance their adaptability to the environment. Executive: the smallest non-renewable resource use, minimize energy use, air and water pollution minimization, so that work and living environment of the four criteria for green guidelines.⑤The development of recombinant enterprises (Reconfigurable Enterprise). The so-called reorganization of enterprises can be in a good infrastructure (such as laws, regulations and administrative, and the orderly and efficient financial and market operation, distribution of resources and communication networks, and other social conditions) support, according to task or project requests for cooperation can quickly "Polymerization" (that is composed of dynamic alliance or virtual), once the task is completed, we can fast-track "dissolution" of a new generation of variable organization and management of enterprises.⑥Innovation and improvement in the flow of (the) way. It is based on elementary particle physics, biotechnology, nanotechnology and micro and small parts of the production and manufacture of materials and innovations in technology to improve the methods and processes.At the same time,Industrial projects should actively participate in the response to the challenge of the 10 key technology research and development, they are:① Reconfigurable Manufacturing System RMSs (Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems). Manufacturing Practice has proved that enterprises in the three core elements of competition in the manufacturing system often meet customer demand for the development of new products to market and rapid response to market the business activities of the bottleneck. RMSs of traditional manufacturing systems planning, design, construction and operation of the innovation theory and method, which uses system component / module configuration (layout) of the variability can be updated with the realization of the manufacturing system variability. It will of the products, manufacturing systems and the installation of hardware and software design and manufacturing have a profound impact.②No loss of processing (Waste2free Processing). The future of the manufacturing process is energy consumption and minimize the consumption of resources.③New course materials (New Materials Process). It is built on the innovations of raw materials and spare parts manufacturing methods and processes on the basis of.④Manufacturing biotechnology (Biotechnology for Manufacturing). It is the useof technology to automate the processing and assembling a new generation of manufacturing technology.⑤Enterprise modeling and simulation (Enterprise Modeling and Simulation). Such technology to solve enterprise system transformation, business processes and manufacturing operations of all the modeling, simulation and systems integration and other issues effectively integrated.⑥ IT (Information Technology). It is the correct and efficient decision-making at all levels to provide key information in all directions and the rapid conversion of intelligence information and knowledge technologies.⑦Product and process design (Product and Process Design Methods). It requires innovative systems, products and processes/process design theory, methods and tools, is the next generation of computer-aided design principle,methods and tools.⑧Enhanced machines - the interface (Enhanced Machine Human Interfaces). It is machines and people to solve the problem of a new generation of human-computer interface engineering technology, focused on solving the physical interface design and enhance the learning ability of the staff problems.⑨Staff education and training (Workforce Education and Training). It requires the construction of a rapid Lenovo knowledge of education and training and development of direct communication between the different language translation machine, and different cultures, languages staff cooperation.⑩Intelligence cooperation system software (Software for Intelligent Collaboration Systems). Its purpose is to a different language and cultural background of the expert intelligence cooperation through the integration of software as one. It includes group communication protocol; an agreement creating private networks, distributed business process control methods and standards and sharing of knowledge, such as software development is the use of the interactive and dynamic model of cooperation between all the smart software and interface software form of virtual cooperation Space.A process route diagnosis and improvement method that uses EBM concepts differs from traditional enterprise diagnosis methods. EBM concepts consider theenvironmental impact, resource efficiency and resource consumption. The goal of this work is to offer a fundamental solution to a recurrent enterprise problem by establishing an evaluation model that incorporates EBM concepts. The ultimate aim is to balance the economic and social benefits.China has adopted the former Soviet Union's industrial system, people on the efficiency and standardization of awareness is relatively weak. A considerable number of enterprises exist: the lack of scientific practices, systematic, standardized, mainly to use their experience and personal desire to act; operating methods of improving the general workers from the spontaneous acts of individuals; still use a rough estimation method developed experience in the fixed time, Standard time is not fixed reunification. These conditions led to corporate data based on the practicality and accuracy of poor, can not play for top companies to provide reliable support for decision-making role.A. work on technology in hand, and restrictions on the work of the universal:With the scientific and technological progress, development and production of computer technology in industrial engineering in the field of application, it is necessary to improve the method and scale of efficiency and quality of work, but work on technology has long been dependent on the skill level of operations Has been designed by researchers working with its work on the production of knowledge and practical experience to design processes and calculated the corresponding fixed working hours. Researchers working in the design practices and the development of the process of fixed working hours required a substantial amount of information processing, thinking the decision-making, data and the complexity of calculating the word-processing work. With the development of the times, this boring repetitive work of the cumbersome way gradually exposed the many shortcomings of the design: Design a long time, the design of low efficiency; operating standards of the poor consistency; document the lack of quantitative analysis of operations, can not effectively guide the production process.B. the lack of work on software system:At present, many domestic and foreign software companies in China into thesoftware systems are mostly concentrated in the CAD, CAPP, CAM, PDM, ERP and other popular software, and software investment in research work and development are very few. The reason, of course, there are software vendors in this area of neglect, but the main reason for domestic enterprises has exposed the basic data on the attitude of indifference, lack of work on software systems understanding. Research failed to keep pace with the computerization of work, led to the development of enterprises based on data lag, and high-level production systems,For example MRP, ERP, and so on can not be accurate and timely data to support the foundation, causing the whole production system inefficient.With the development and strengthening of modern enterprises, the size of the business growing based on data increasingly huge and updated data based on speed has accelerated, the traditional manual work study has been unable to meet the needs of modern enterprises. Business-to-basic data accuracy, timeliness and standardization of the requirements of basic data and experience of traditional means of access to the conflict between has become increasingly prominent.To solve these problems and contradictions, some domestic enterprises began to explore the work on computer-aided system, in particular the labor scale computer-aided system. These systems for enterprise work on the implementation of the convenience brought about certain, but not mature, mostly in the experimental stage, only to individual enterprises often work in some areas of research, not to promote universal. Therefore, a comprehensive research and development work on a common computer-aided system (Computer Aided Work Study System referred to CAWS system) is China's current work on the key areas of innovation. CAWS system for enterprises to adopt the scientific processes, methods and the development of reliable standards of the time, labor fixed the provision of supporting decision-making; Not only work on the computerization of various applications, but also with other highly integrated production systems to the business hours of work and study methods developed to provide reliable technical support, improving the accuracy of the data based enterprises and the standardization of the collection and management, and Work on improving the efficiency and quality.Resource consumption and waste materials are the roots of environmental pollution. Thus, before the environmental characteristics of resources are analyzed deeply in process planning, in terms of EBM, the resource flow and its environmental impact in the manufacturing system have to be analyzed and described first China's enterprises, implementation of research and innovation, exploration work on the theory and information technology integration means, the development and application of computer-aided research systems (CAWS system), a research work to solve our problems and contradictions of the inevitable Road..生产制造过程中对于环境有利的改进方法如何使一个生产过程达到低碳排放、对环境的影响减小以及高生产性能的一个关键因素就是低碳生产。
AAA学校外文翻译如有雷同，纯属巧合专业工业工程学生姓名xxx班级 B工业 072 学号指导教师完成日期 2011年3 月19日外文资料名称: Various stages of theprojectcostcontrol外文资料出处：Accreditation and QualityAssurance附件： 1. 外文原文2.外文资料翻译译文Various stages of the project cost controlChung-Ho ChenAbstract:Project Cost Management is the basic content of determining reasonable and effective control of the project cost. There are two projects cost implications, the corresponding project cost management has two, one for the management of project investment, a price for the project management. Works against investment management, the so-called project cost effective control is to optimize the building programme, designed on the basis of the programme, in the various stages of construction procedures, using certain methods and measures the cost of the project have control at a reasonable scope and approved Within the limits of the cost.KEY WORDS:Engineering project cost cost management cost control cost limit 1. Project cost management problems that exist inChina's current stage of the project cost for project management to settle at for the purpose, focus only on the construction process of cost control, neglect of pre-construction project investment decision-making stage of cost control. Investment decision-making phase of the construction project investment estimate is an important basis for decision-making, it has a direct impact on national economic and financial analysis of the results of the reliability and accuracy. As a result of this project is the initial stage of work, the information can not be full, comparable projects in this area or less accumulated relatively little information, estimate the approach flawed and unscientific, making construction cost management and the cost of work At this stage difficult to accomplish something.Construction cost management to a passive design drawings prepared in accordance with the budget estimate and project cost calculated mainly ignored in the design stage to optimize the design of construction cost management, effective cost control. According to relevant statistics show that the impactof the design phase of investment for the possibility of more than 75 percent, but China's designers, most of the pursuit of high safety and design fees, the design does not consider economic factors, resulting in a number of large projects waste materials Phenomenon.Construction Cost Management divorced from each other at all stages, investment estimates, budget for the design and construction budget plans, the contract price, prices, accounts for price, the cost of these six stages from construction units and departments in charge of the design units, the respective management of construction enterprises, The former do not have control of the latter, which affected the former project cost effective management system.China's current construction cost management information system to collect finishing imperfections. The project has been completed the construction cost of collection, collation and analysis of information on the cost of the division is of great reference value. At present, China's very limited information on this part, most of all a personal cost engineer, can not share data. Cost can not be division between the exchanges and learn from each other, causing a big waste of resources.The following projects from the various stages of construction of a concrete analysis of how to strengthen the whole process of project cost management:(1)The decision-making phase of the project cost management is the beginning. In the investment decision-making phase of the project, the project's economic decision-making and various kinds of technology, investment and the project after the completion of the project have a decisive impact on economic efficiency, control of the project investment is a very important stage. Specifically, the decision-making phase of the project, a project in the new project proposals approved, the project cost advisory body should be based on long-term national economic development planning, economic development invarious sectors in economic development planning the basic requirements of the proposed project to Technically advanced and economically reasonable, and favourable in the community can create benefits, financial and other aspects of the implementation of a comprehensive and full investigation, analysis and feasibility studies, do a good job in the feasibility study. For policy makers decided to provide a reliable basis for the project. Investmentdecision-making phase of the construction cost of the entire process of project cost if Lan has a decisive impact on the overall situation. The construction project feasibility studies and investment decision-making is a source of the project cost. Cost is determined reasonable assessment of construction projects, the key follow-up work.（2）Phase of the project design phase of the design expenses only construction costs of the entire life of less than 1%, but the impact of the project cost accounts for more than 75 percent, and often easy to be ignored. Therefore, the project cost advisory body should be the design phase of cost management as a whole process of cost management in the key task. Preliminary design of the project budget for the accuracy of a certain country or industry and meet the depth requirements, effective control of project cost is the premise. Seize this critical design of the project cost control can be achieved multiplier effect. The design phase of cost control, is the source of cost control, is the most fundamental and important control.（3）Bidding phase of the project cost management is an important component of an acceptable kind of works commissioned by the owners of the list (or engineering Base Price) and a series of relevant documents, basic price of the pipeline is bidding management of the core work, because the basic price is Determine the price of the contract basis, with only the basic price of science, can we correctly judge the tender reported by the reasonable prices and reliability can be when the make the right decisions, strictly implement the project bidding regulations, grasp Price is reasonable and competitive. Evaluation and calibration of the cost Practitioners and the preparation ofcost as the basis for the legitimacy of the tender evaluation is based on legitimate and effective to ensure that the scientific and reasonable price. The market for the tender offer, the basic price of the provision of social services, and create an environment for fair competition.（4） Phase of the project implementation, cost management can not be ignored. Project implementation stage is a stage of building products, the entire process of building the project cost management is also the most difficult, most complicated stage. In addition to this stage of the passage of time with the other construction costs, a large number of investment funds through the construction of this part of the "materialization", the ultimate form of fixed assets, and investment projects. Effective cost control can be a good adjustment of the contracting parties and interests, namely the owners to reduce the input costs and increase the project's profit, but also to standardize the construction of the contractor. As a project cost advisory body, the actual operation in strict accordance with the owners agreed to assist the analysis of the claims handling matters, clearly define the responsibilities in the timely submission of counter-claims, to restore the unnecessary loss of the contract and the provisions have been agreed, calculated each time changes caused by Cost changes for the control of owners provide the basis for investment decisions.（5）Clearing stage is the completion of construction projects truly reflect the price of the product, is also the terminus of construction cost management. The stage should carefully examine the pre-clearing, more than one operator works out of high fixed sets, Takatori, are not realistic and visa, unreasonable technical measures such as increasing the cost should be based on the information available price information, on review Whether or not to raise prices of materials; should strengthen contract management, implementation of the contract itemized review system so that the project cost through a legally binding contract to identify and control; In addition, the completion of the project delivery, to conduct post-project evaluation,according to the original Rules, analysis and comparison project scope, progress and the changes in the cost, sum up experience, and cost information collated entry computer, so that future use.2.Effective control of the principles of project costTo the planning stage, the design stage as the focus of the entire process of construction cost control. Project cost control throughout the entire process of building projects, but must be focused. Clearly, the project cost control is the key to the project before the implementation of the investment decision-making and design phase of the project to make investment decisions, project cost control is the key to the design. According to some western countries analysis, design fee is generally equivalent to lifetime cost of all construction projects of less than 1%, but this is less than 1 percent of the cost of the construction project cost to the impact of more than 75 percent, thus, important that the design stage Sexual. However, for a long time, China's generally ignored the project phase of the preparatory work for cost control, project cost control are often the main focus on the construction phase - review of budget plans and reasonable settlement of the purchase price Jianan. This approach, while also effective, but is, after all, "remedial measures", Shibeigongban. To effectively control the project cost, we must shift the focus to control the project's initial stage of construction - the planning stage and the stage of design.Active Control, in order to obtain satisfactory besults. Since the eardy 1970s, the people vill control theory, system theory and research results for project management, will be controlled based on the decisions taken in advance of active measures to reduce and avoid as much as possible0the target value and acdual value of the deviations from this Is an active, positive control method, known as the active control. In other words, the project cost control, not only to reflect the investment decision-making, reflecting the design, contracting and construction, passive control project cost, more dynamic tothe impact of investment decisions, the impact of design, contracting and construction and taje the initiative to control project cost. Cost of dhe project to identify and control between interdependenae and mutual restraint, the ddtermination of the project cost control project cost is the basis and the carrier. At the same time, cost control resides in the project cost determine the whole process of determining the cost of the process that is cost control process.Technology and economic integration of project cost control is the most effective means. In the process of building projects, technology and the organic integration of economic, technological, economic analysis and evaluation, correctly handle the advanced technology and economic strength between the unity of opposites relations, and strive to achieve the advanced technology and reasonable under the conditions of the economy , On tha basis of reasonable economic advanced technology, the project cost control to infiltrate into the concept of the design and construction techjology measures. Project Management Project Cost control is an effective way. Construction supervision system is highly developed market economy, constrection project management professional and social level continuously improve the `roduct. Construction supervision of the mission, organization and management from the perspective of science and to take measures to ensure the construction project cost goals, objectives and time limit to achieve a reasonable quality objectives for the owners seek the best input and output. Practice has proved that the engineering supervision of the project cost control is an effective way.3.Various stages of the project cost controlDecision-making phase of project cost control. The planning phase of the project cost, many owners have the wrong understanding that the cost of the lower the better. Cost control is not a unilateral issue, and should be a multi-factor problem, should be integrated engineering practice, considering. In the investment decision-making phase of construction projects,the project's technical and economic decision-making, the project cost and the economic benefits of the project when completed, has a decisive role in project cost control is an important stage, rationally determine the cost of the project and control the direction of the exact location And building optimization of guiding role.The design phase project cost control. The design phase is the construction of intent from investors to the idea of the changing reality of a critical stage, the design phase of the project cost control is a key link. From the following aspects of project cost control: the design implementation of the tendering system, strengthen supervision of the design phase, determine a reasonable design, mature technology, to reduce the construction phase of major design changes and programmes of change in the effective control of the works Cost will play a role. An engineering design, if the Commissioner of participation into the project, excluding unfavorable factors may generally be excluded 80 percent of the error. In the entire process of construction cost control, the start of construction at best can only invest 20 percent savings, the key lies in the cost of construction period to identify and control. Commissioner of the design phase of work: Design Institute under the provision of design drawings and notes to help owners examine different design options for the economy, develop the preliminary capital expenditure plan to ensure that the investment will be the most effective use of support Owners of the Commissioner of work: Design Institute under the provision of design drawings and notes to help owners examine different design options for the economy, develop the preliminary capital expenditure plan to ensure that the investment will be the most effective use of the owners meet The different design options, the need to work out their own materials and equipment to conduct a cost analysis and research, design and cost proposals to assist them in the investment limit within the limits designed to reduce investment. To seek a one-time small investment and economic good design, the most rational economic indicators.The use of optimal design principles. At the design stage to reduce the use of value engineering cost 25 percent ￣ 40 percent, with notable results. Also known as value engineering value analysis, is a modern scientific management techniques, is a new technical and economic analysis, through analysis of the product's features to save resources and reduce the cost of the purpose of an effective method. It made up for the cost of traditional management that simply reduce costs and improve quality management always stressed that the quality of the deficiencies and is conducive to resolving the long-term construction period long, waste, poor quality, high cost of the problem. Value Engineering laws generally carried out in three steps: assessing the design of targeted technical scores and scores of economic calculation of the design object technology index and economic index, calculated each design object of the geometric mean, from which to compare, choose the best design .Construction of the tender stage project cost control. Construction of the tender stage of the project cost control should be accurate grasp of design drawings, construction projects through the analysis of the specific circumstances of the units and pre-qualification of bidders, preparation of tender documents, works basic price determined through Pingbiaodingbiao, select the successful bidder units, and to determine the contract price . Reasonably sure of is the basic price of the tender stage of the project cost control an important way of determining the basic price is often incomplete because of the design, material changes, or the market price because of the constantly changing and difficult to have an accurate value. When these happen, you can use fuzzy identification, fuzzy clustering analysis, computer simulation technology (Monte Carlo simulation) Three mathematical methods, the project cost to more accurately determine.The construction phase project cost control. Project implementation phase of the project cost control can proceed from the following: careful review of the contract price and volume list, the basic unit prices and other relevantdocuments in conjunction with the progress of the project and the quality of works carried out the correct measurement, review payment of bills, according to the provisions The price of clearing; correctly understand the design intent, strictly control the design changes, the design is wrong with the local timely corrections; strengthen engineering claims control, contract management in all its aspects; skilled use of the budget over the fixed and reasonable conduct on-site visa; review of organizational design, Use of technology economy is relatively comprehensive assessment method, using the value of works on the construction phase and construction materials to optimize options, select a reasonable construction plan; strengthen project construction supervision.On the review of the list of projects, supervision engineers should pay attention to inventory control measures in the project. Price list of projects provided in the list of measures, for the completion of the project is the construction project occurred in the pre-construction and construction process technology, life, security and other non-engineering aspects of the project entity. At this stage because many projects are the construction plans and construction of circumstances imperfections at the scene on the tender, until tender, construction projects and measures designed to have greater access to the actual scene. Supervising engineer in the handling of raw data to collect first-hand, itemized checking identification, not of the proposed amendments.Clearing the completion of phase project cost control. For a long time, the completion of the construction plans ultra-clearing budget is cost management issues requiring urgent solution. The completion phase of the project cost control, should conscientiously do a good job the following points: check the terms of the contract, clearing the completion of the preparation of the audit, preparation of the project refers to the preparation of the completion of the works and the cost of clearing areas. Examine whether the content of the completion of the contract requirements, whether qualifiedacceptance, review billing methods, pricing methods, concessionary terms whether the contract; completion of the audit plans of projects in the audit, the plans should be based on the completion of the design changes, such as visa at the scene, according to state In terms of engineering works required by the rules of each check; strictly enforced in accordance with the valuation method of valuation; rigorous review design changes to visa fees for inspection standards, different regions of the rate of price index may be different. Therefore, the project must be in accordance with the standards of admission fees under the contract requirements, according to grade the quality of construction unit, the type of construction work, such as setting a reasonable standard admission fee.翻译：译者：AAA工程项目各阶段的成本控制Chung-Ho Chen摘要：工程项目成本管理的基本内容就是合理确定和有效的控制工程项目成本。
Unit 1 Introduction to Industrial EngineeringThe Roles of IE工业工程是新兴的经典和新颖的将计算解决复杂和系统性的问题，在今天的高度科技世界职业之一。
，特别是在中国快速发展的经济和其作为世界制造业中心的演技，为IE的需求将增加，并不断扩大和迫切。
生产系统或服务系统，包括输入，转换和输出。
通过改造，增加值的增加，系统的效率和效益都有所提高。
转化过程中所使用的技术和管理科学以及它们的组合依靠。
管理生产系统的服务体系，是一个具有挑战性和复杂的，行为科学，计算机和信息科学，经济，以及大量的主题有关的基本原则和技术，生产和服务系统的技术。
The Demand for IE Graduates对于IE 毕业生的需求工业工程课程设计准备的学生，以满足未来中国的经济和和谐社会建设的挑战。
许多即毕业生（IES ），事实上，设计和运行现代制造系统和设施。
其他选择从事服务活动，如健康，Äìcare 交付，金融，物流，交通，教育，公共管理，或咨询等。
为IE毕业生的需求比较旺盛，每年增长。
事实上，对于非法入境者的需求大大超过供给。
这种需求/供给不平衡是为IE大于其他任何工程或科学学科，并预计在未来多年存在。
因此，over150大学或学院于2004年在中国开设了IE浏览器程序。
The Objectives of the Textbook教科书的目标这本教科书的主要目的是引入系统化的理论和先进的技术和方法，工业工程，以及他们的英语表达有关科目。
教科书的另一个目的是加强和改进学生，AOS与工业工程专业英语文献的阅读和理解能力。
Engineering and Science工程与科学怎么这两个词，úindustrial，ùand，úengineering，ùget相结合，形成长期，úindustrial工程，非盟是什么工业工程和其他工程学科之间的关系，企业管理，社会科学为了了解工业工程的作用，在今天，AOS经济和知识为基础的的时代，它是有利于学习，希望在IE的演变历史的发展，有许多半途而废写历史发展的工程。
xxxxxxxxx毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译（本科学生用）题目：Poduct Line Engineering: The State of the Practice生产线工程：实践的形态学生姓名：学号：学部（系）:专业年级:指导教师：职称或学位：2011年3月10日外文文献翻译（译成中文1000字左右）：【主要阅读文献不少于5篇，译文后附注文献信息，包括：作者、书名（或论文题目）、出版社（或刊物名称）、出版时间（或刊号）、页码。
提供所译外文资料附件（印刷类含封面、封底、目录、翻译部分的复印件等，网站类的请附网址及原文】Requirements engineering practicesA precise requirements engineering process— a main driver for successful software development —is even more important for product line engineering. Usually, the product line’s scope addresses various domains simultaneously. This makes requirements engineering more complex. Furthermore, SPL development involves more tasks than single-product development. Many product line requirements are complex, interlinked, and divided into common and product-specific requirements. So, several requirements engineering practices are important specifically in SPL development:♉ Domain identification and modeling, as well as commonalities and variations across product instancesSeparate specification and verification for platform and product requirements♉ Management of integrating future requirements into the platform and products♉ Identification, modeling, and management of requirement dependenciesThe first two practices are specific to SPL engineering. The latter two are common to software development but have much higher importance for SPLs.Issues with performing these additional activities can severely affect the product line’s long-term success. During the investigation, we found that most organizations today apply organizational and procedural measures to master these challenges. The applicability of more formal requirements engineering techniques and tools appeared rather limited, partly because such techniques are not yet designed to cope with product line evelopment’s inherent complexities. The investigation determined that the following three SPL requirements engineering practices were most important to SPL success.Domain analysis and domain description.Before starting SPL development, organizations should perform a thorough domain analysis. A well-understood domain is a prerequisite for defining a suitable scope for the product line. It’s the foundation for efficiently identifying and distinguishing platform and product requirements. Among the five participants in our investigation, three explicitly modeled the product line requirements. The others used experienced architects and domain experts to develop the SPL core assets without extensive requirements elicitation. Two organizations from the first group established a continuous requirements management that maintained links between product line and product instance requirements. The three other organizations managed their core assets’ evolution using change management procedures and versioning concepts. Their business did not force them to maintain more detailed links between the requirements on core assets and product instances.The impact of architectural decisions on requirements negotiations.A stable but flexible architecture is important for SPL development. However, focusing SPL evolution too much on architectural issues will lead to shallow or even incorrect specifications. It can cause core assets to ignore important SPL requirements so that the core assets lose relevance for SPL development. Organizations can avoid this problem by establishing clear responsibilities for requirements management in addition to architectural roles.The work group participants reported that a suitable organizational tool for balancing requirements and architecture is roundtable meetings in which requirements engineers,lead architects, and marketing and sales personnel discuss SPL implementation. Also,integrating the architects into customer negotiations will solve many problems that can arise from conflicting requirements. Another measure is to effectively document requirements and architectural vision so that product marketing and SPL architects can understand each other and agree on implementation.Effective tool supportWe often discussed tool support for SPL requirements engineering during the investigation. Because requirements engineering for SPL can become highly complex, effective tool support is important. Existing tools don’t satisfactorily support aspects such as variability management, version management for requirements collections, management of different views on requirements, or dependency modeling and evolution. So, an SPL organization must design custom solutions for these issues. Specifically, the two participants in the investigation that had established continuous requirements management had to maintain expensive customization and support infrastructures for their tool environment. The other organizations tried to avoid these costs by mitigating insufficient tool support through organizational measures such as strict staging of the requirements specification.工程实践要求精确的需求工程过程，它是一个成功的软件开发的主要动力，更是对产品线工程的重要。
外文资料Business Process Change: A Study of Methodologies, Techniques, and Tools.CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION1.1 The Rationale for TQM and BPROver the past two decades, domestic competition and globalization have threatened the growth, profitability and the very survival of many firms and organizations in general. Organizational and technological factors are combining to create a very competitive business environment in which customers are the focal point. Further, these factors can sometimes change quickly in a very unpredictable manner (Turban, McLean and Wetherbe 2002). The pace of change and the degree of uncertainty are expected to accelerate in the twenty-first century. Specific developments will be difficult to predict with certainty, and the types of changes will vary across industries. Competition will continue to increase both at home and abroad. There will be many new products with shorter development cycles and life cycles. Some industries will have smaller production volumes with more product customization and variety (Hunt 1989). New technologies will optimize production processes and improve product quality. All of these changes are significantly affecting the way business is conducted in not only international markets but also in local markets, which are now increasingly exposed to worldwide competition.Globalization will pose challenges for some firms, while offering growth opportunities for firms capable of developing a global reach (Taylor 1991).No organization, big or small,private or public, in the manufacturing or the service sector, can afford to ignore these changes (Kelada 1996).Effective response to the changes and competitiveness in manufacturing or service operations requires a clear understanding of the business environment, anticipation of market trends, and the effective management of organizational capabilities to quickly respond to customer needs. As customers become more knowledgeable about the availability and quality of products and services, theirsophistication and expectations increase. They demand customized products and services with high quality and low prices. Organizations will be under increasing pressures to produce more, using fewer resources (Turban et al. 2002).In order to succeed or even survive in this dynamic world, companies must not only take traditional action, such as lowering costs, but also take innovative action, such as changing structure or processes (Boyett and Boyett 1995). Other researchers have proposed various paradigms, theories, and strategies to cope with the ever changing environment and to sustain Organizational Competitiveness. Two proposed strategies are the evolutionary approach of Total Quality Management (TQM) and the revolutionary approach of Business Process Reengineering (BPR).TQM has been adopted as the organization-wide approach to quality management and continuous improvement since the early 1980s in the United States. It has been widely studied and implemented both in practitioner and academic research literature. An Industry Week article (Benson 1993) claimed that, "In 10 short years, TQM has been as pervasive a part of business thinking as quarterly financial results. A special section of Fortune magazine titled, "Quality 2000: The Next Decade of Progress," included the following statement, "since 1985, thousands of organizations have adopted and applied the principles of total quality management (TQM). As a result, the worldwide standards for the quality of products and services have never been higher. TQM has proven to be a highly adaptive management tool that is here to stay. It has passed the fad test. TQM has delivered on its promise, but has not reached its potential." Today, people talk much less about TQM; however, they practice it, applying its concepts and principles to their work (Kelada 1996). Many companies that have successfully adopted TQM do not even use the phrase total quality anymore; it has simply become a way of doing business (Jacob 1993).Some companies have achieved major improvements. As Samson and Terziovski (1999) state, "At the pinnacle of lists of those who have accomplished great improvements are the winners of the various quality awards around the world." However, they also argue that after twenty years of experience with TQM practices, it is clear that the performance improvements are, "indeed not clear, but are verymixed!" They add, "for each successful implementation of TQM there are many which have not been able to translate their efforts into operational or business improvement." There have been TQM failures reported by other authors in the literature. According to Kelada(1996), there have been "more failures than successes".TQM has also been criticized as being no longer adequate for survival in the increasingly dynamic competitive environment. Can and Johansson(1995) stated that TQM had not worked for many companies because it had been narrow in focus and limited to improving the existing way of doing business. Some experts claimed that BPR had replaced TQM because the latter was an incremental, limited and continuous improvement of existing processes. In contrast they claimed that BPR was a radical change in business processes, and the most effective approach in dealing with the drastic changes in the world (Kelada1996). Hammer(1990) advised, "don't automate,obliterate." He defined Reengineering as the radical redesign of business processes for dramatic improvement. He emphasized a "clean-slate" approach i.e. discard the old system and start with one that has been completely redesigned. Other researchers such as Davenport and Short (1990), Davenport(1993b), Hammer and Champy (1993), and Teng, Grover, and Fiedler(1994) also recommended using Business Process Reengineering (BPR) to radically redesign and improve business processes.In the face of intense competition and other business pressures, Davenport(1993b) suggested that, "quality initiatives and continuous, incremental process improvements, though still essential, will no longer be sufficient." He added that, "firms must seek not fractional, but multiplicative levels of improvement一l OX rather than 10%. Such radical levels of change require powerful new tools that will facilitate the fundamental redesign of wo rk.”Davenport(1993) depicts the History of Process Improvement Approaches in Figure 1 .The first approach was Inspection as the final step in the manufacturing process.Poor quality goods were rejected or recycled. The second approach used Statistical Quality Control to implement a strict control of the manufacturing process.It focused on improvement in existing processes. The radical Process Innovation approach was adopted in the 1980s.1.2 Business Process ReengineeringBPR has also been known as Business Process Redesign, Business Reengineering, Process Improvement, Process Innovation, Business Transformation and Business Process Change. There has been much confusion as to what this strategy entails, and when it came into existence. Earl(1994) wrote an essay attempting to evaluate and understand what is new and what is old about BPR. He described BPR as the "latest management recipe being offered for the survival of western businesses." He wrote, "The protagonists seem convinced that it is a new approach to improving business performance even if it may be a synthesis of recent and not so recent ideas. The cynics feel that they have seen it before in different guises and stress the apparent naivety of some of the component concepts.Meanwhile some of the companies claim that `it has worked for them', even if some did not realize it was BPR that they were practicing! These claims and counterclaims can be caricatured as `new wonder drug' or `old wine in new bottles'." Earl concluded that BPR had components that were both old and new.Davenport (1995) stated that all "components" of BPR existed prior to 1990, but later assembled into one management process. He added that, "Reengineering is new, therefore, only as a new synthesis of previously existing ideas."King (1994) stated that Process Reengineering was in the debunking phase of its life cycle. He proposed the existence of an evolutionary pattern in which management ideas and techniques are first presented as panaceas for business success and subsequently debunked as worthless. He mentioned previous examples and suggested that BPR was not immune to this pattern.The years following the seminal BPR publications in 1990-1993 were characterized by a bandwagon effect involving many firms eager to implement BPR. The continued global competition, economic down turn, and the potential offered by emerging technologies were pushing finms to fundamentally rethink their business processes. Many firms reasoned that business process change was the only way toleverage their core competencies and achieve competitive advantage. This belief led to a near "reengineering frenzy" (Kettinger and Grover 1995).By the mid 1990s, a number of firms had poor experiences in implementing BPR The literature began reporting failures as highas50-75%(Caron, Jarvenpaa&Stoddard,1994;Hammer&Champy,1993;Braganza&Myers,1997). Support for BPR began to wane. Some researchers attempted to stem the tide of negative reaction by explaining the fundamentals of BPR and its "real" objectives.The increasing competitive pressure that organisations currently face forces them to find ways of minimising the time it takes to develop the product, bring products to the market and offer efficient and effective service to customers while at the same time maximising profits. This pressure has made BPR one of the most popular topics in organisational management and has created new ways of doing business (Tumay 1995). BPR relates to the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of an entire business system to achieve significant improvements in performance of the company.Many leading organisations have conducted BPR in order to improve productivity and gain competitive advantage. For example, a survey of 180 US and 100 European companies found that 75% of these companies had engaged in significant re-engineering efforts in the past three years (Jackson 1996). Among the reasons leading to the success of BPR is an emphasis on a top-down approach, empowerment, teamworking and flattening of hierarchies.Nevertheless, despite the success stories associated with BPR, there are high failure rates associated with it. Hammer and Champy(1995 ) noted that failure rates as high as 70% can be observed as a result of BPR. However, presently, data to support this claim is limited.Research in the area has tried to provide reasons for this high failure rate. Among these are: trying to do too much, not appreciating the risk factors (communications, mea surer, accountability) and not putting the most appropriate people on the project. However, among the top five reasons leading to the failure of BPR, the one that concerned people was prominent. In this, `middle management resistance' was cited as the most common cause for failure.Other reasons contributing to BPR failure were top/senior management, the prevailing culture and political culture, as well as employee fear and resistance to change (Gram and Wellins 1996). Other frequently cited problems related to BPR include the inability to predict the outcome of radical change, difficulty in capturing existing processes in a way that can be seen by multidisciplinary team members, a lack of creativity in process redesign, cost of implementing the new process, or inability to recognise the dynamic nature of the processes. It is often argued that one of the major problems that contribute to the failure of BPR projects is a lack of tools for evaluating the effects of designed solutions before implementation (Paolucci et al 1997; Tumay 1995).Mistakes as a result of BPR can only be recognised once the redesigned processes are implemented. This raises important issues, as it is particularly expensive and difficult to attempt the task of correcting earlier mistakes at this point. Although the evaluation of alternative solutions might be difficult, it is imperative that the risks associated with BPR projects are minimised. The following section describes the approach that the centre has adopted to investigate the aforementioned issues.The Centre for Re-engineering Business Processes at Brunel University aims to investigate how the success rate of BPR can be improved. We suggest that this can only be achieved by considering all the relevant factors in a systematic manner. Some of these factors include the role of information technology in business process change as enabler and implementers, human and organisational factors related to, for example, resistance to change or motivation of teams involved in BPR, and the importance of using dynamic modelling techniques to develop models of processes prior to their change. Some of the current areas of our research are summarised and described in Fig. 1 .Experiences from other similar organisations that under took BPR, investigating cases of BPR success and failure and learning lessons from other BPR projects represent another important area to be considered.Additional factors that are vitally important to BPR projects are the human aspects. These factors could determine how the resistance to change could bereduced and how teams involved in BPR projects could be better motivated which eventually leads to better performance within the team and better results for the BPR project.The role of information technology as a BPR enabler or implementer is another important area that is being investigated by the members of REBUS. It has been perceived that knowledge management is becoming increasingly important for organisations. Capturing tacit knowledge and disseminating it among employees has significant impact on business processes, organisational culture and general performance of a company. This is one of the new areas being researched within the centre.Other research areas being investigated include: the study of interorganisational system stakeholders and the role of stakeholders in BPR (Pouloudi and Whitley 1997), business process modelling, information systems-enabled change management (Giaglis et al 1999a), the success and failure of business re-engineering in developing and industrial countries, the coherence of business process changes and information technology (Choudrie et al 1998) and management innovation and change panaceas (Currie and Hlupic 2000).Stakeholders have their own interests, and by committing themselves to the team these can be reconciled. For instance, a case team could consist of technicians, managers or consultants, each having experience and knowledge of different areas of expertise. Different areas can thus be reconciled by bringing them together as a team, and in doing so enabling them to work towards a common goal.中文翻译业务流程变化：方法学的研究，技术和工具第1章：引言1.1基本原理TQM和BPR在过去的二十年中，国内竞争和全球化有受到威胁的增长，盈利能力及许多企业和组织的生存一般。
附录附录1：英文文献Line Balancing in the Real WorldAbstract:Line Balancing (LB) is a classic, well-researched Operations Research (OR) optimization problem of significant industrial importance. It is one of those problems where domain expertise does not help very much: whatever the number of years spent solving it, one is each time facing an intractable problem with an astronomic number of possible solutions and no real guidance on how to solve it in the best way, unless one postulates that the old way is the best way .Here we explain an apparent paradox: although many algorithms have been proposed in the past, and despite the problem’s practical importance, just one commercially available LB software currently appears to be available for application in industries such as automotive. We speculate that this may be due to a misalignment between the academic LB problem addressed by OR, and the actual problem faced by the industry.Keyword:Line Balancing, Assembly lines, OptimizationLine Balancing in the Real WorldEmanuel FalkenauerOptimal DesignAv. Jeanne 19A boîte2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium+32 (0)2 646 10 741 IntroductionAssembly Line Balancing, or simply Line Balancing (LB), is the problem of assigning operations to workstations along an assembly line, in such a way that the assignment be optimal in some sense. Ever since Henry Ford’s introduction of assembly lines, LB has been an optimization problem of significant industrial importance: the efficiency difference between an optimal and a sub-optimal assignment can yield economies (or waste) reaching millions of dollars per year.LB is a classic Operations Research (OR) optimization problem, having been tackled by OR over several decades. Many algorithms have been proposed for the problem. Yet despite the practical importance of the problem, and the OR efforts that have been made to tackle it, little commercially available software is available to help industry in optimizing their lines. In fact, according to a recent survey by Becker and Scholl (2023), there appear to be currently just two commercially available packages featuring both a state of the art optimization algorithm and auser-friendly interface for data management. Furthermore, one of those packages appears to handle only the “clean” formulation of the problem (Simple Assembly Line Balancing Problem, or SALBP), which leaves only one package available for industries such as automotive. This situation appears to be paradoxical, or at least unexpected: given the huge economies LB can generate, one would expect several software packages vying to grab a part of those economies.It appears that the gap between the available OR results and their dissemination in Today’s industry, is probably due to a misalignment between the academic LB problem addressed by most of the OR approaches, and the actual problem being faced by the industry. LB is a difficult optimization problem even its simplest forms are NP-hard – see Garry and Johnson, 1979), so the approach taken by OR has typically been to simplify it, in order to bring it to a level of complexity amenable to OR tools. While this is a perfectly valid approach in general, in the particular case of LB it led some definitions of the problem hat ignore many aspects of the real-world problem.Unfortunately, many of the aspects that have been left out in the OR approach are in fact crucial to industries such as automotive, in the sense that any solution ignoring (violating) those aspects becomes unusable in the industry.In the sequel, we first briefly recall classic OR definitions of LB, and then review how the actual line balancing problem faced by the industry differs from them, and why a solution to the classic OR problem maybe unusable in some industries.2 OR Definitions of LBThe classic OR definition of the line balancing problem, dubbed SALBP (Simple Assembly Line Balancing Problem) by Becker and Scholl (2023), goes as follows. Given a set of tasks of various durations, a set of precedence constraints among the tasks, and a set of workstations, assign each task to exactly one workstation in such a way that no precedence constraint is violated and the assignment is optimal. The optimality criterion gives rise to two variants of the problem: either a cycle time is given that cannot be exceeded by the sum of durations of all tasks assigned to any workstation and the number of workstations is to be minimized, or the number of workstations is fixed and the line cycle time, equal to the largest sum of durations of task assigned to a workstation, is to be minimized.Although the SALBP only takes into account two constraints (the precedence constraints plus the cycle time, or the precedence constraints plus the number of workstations), it is by far the variant of line balancing that has been the most researched. We have contributed to that effort in Falkenauer and Delchambre (1992), where we proposed a Grouping Genetic Algorithm approach that achieved some of the best performance in the field. The Grouping Genetic Algorithm technique itself was presented in detail in Falkenauer (1998).However well researched, the SALBP is hardly applicable in industry, as we will see shortly. The fact has not escaped the attention of the OR researches, and Becker and Scholl (2023) define many extensions to SALBP, yielding a commondenomination GALBP (Generalized Assembly Line Balancing Problem). Each of the extensions reported in their authoritative survey aims to handle an additional difficulty present in real-world line balancing. We have tackled one of those aspects in Falkenauer (1997), also by applying the Grouping Genetic Algorithm.The major problem with most of the approaches reported by Becker and Scholl (2023) is that they generalize the simple SALBP in just one or two directions. The real world line balancing, as faced in particular by the automotive industry, requires tackling many of those generalizations simultaneously.3 What Differs in the Real World?Although even the simple SALBP is NP-hard, it is far from capturing the true complexity of the problem in its real-world incarnations. On the other hand, small instances of the problem, even though they are difficult to solve to optimality, are a tricky target for line balancing software, because small instances of the problem can be solved closet optimality by hand. That is however not the case in the automotive and related industries (Bus, truck, aircraft, heavy machinery, etc.), since those industries routinely feature Assembly lines with dozens or hundreds of workstations, and hundreds or thousands of Operations. Those industries are therefore the prime targets for line balancing software.Unfortunately, those same industries also need to take into account many of the GALBP extensions at the same time, which may explain why, despite the impressive OR Work done on line balancing; only one commercially available software seemstube currently available for those industries.We identify below some of the additional difficulties (with respect to SALBP) that must be tackled in a line balancing tool, in order to be applicable in those industries.3.1 Do Not Balance but Re-balanceMany of the OR approaches implicitly assume that the problem to be solved involves a new, yet-to-be-built assembly line, possibly housed in a new, yet-to-be-built factory. To our opinion, this is the gravest oversimplification of the classic OR approach, for in practice, this is hardly ever the case. The vast majority of real-world line balancing tasks involve existing lines, housed in existing factories – infect, the target line typically needs tube rebalanced rather than balanced, the need arising from changes in the product or the mix of models being assembled in the line, the assembly technology, the available workforce, or the production targets. This has some far-reaching implications, outlined below.3.2 Workstations Have IdentitiesAs pointed out above, the vast majority of real-world line balancing tasks involves existing lines housed in existing factories. In practice, this seemingly “uninteresting” observation has one far-reaching consequence, namely that each workstation in the line does have its own identity. This identity is not due to any “incapacity of abstraction” on part of the process engineers, but rather to the fact that the workstations are indeed not identical: each has its own space constraints (e.g. a workstation below a low ceiling cannot elevate the car above the operators’ heads),its own heavy equipment that cannot be moved spare huge costs, its own capacity of certain supplies (e.g. compressed air), its own restrictions on the operations that can be carried out there (e.g. do not place welding operations just beside the painting shop), etc.3.3 Cannot Eliminate WorkstationsSince workstations do have their identity (as observed above), it becomes obvious that a real-world LB tool cannot aim at eliminating workstations. Indeed, unless the eliminated workstations were all in the front of the line or its tail, their elimination would create gaping holes in the line, by virtue of the other workstations’ retaining of their identities, including their geographical positions in the workshop. Also, it softens the case that many workstations that could possibly be eliminated by the algorithm are in fact necessary because of zoning constraints.4 ConclusionsThe conclusions inspection 3 stems from our extensive contacts with automotive and related industries, and reflects their true needs. Other “exotic” constraints may apply in any given real-world assembly line, but line balancing tool for those industries must be able to handle at least those aspects of the problem. This is very far from the “clean” academic SALBP, as well as most GALBP extensions reported by Becker and Scholl (2023). In fact, such a tool must simultaneously solve several-hard problems:• Find a feasible defined replacement for all undefined (‘ANY’) ergonomicconstraints on workstations, i.e. One compatible with the ergonomic constraints and precedence constraints defined on operations, as well as zoning constraints and possible drifting operations• Solve the within-workstation scheduling problem on all workstations, for all products being assembled on the line• Assign the operations to workstations to achieve the best average balance, while keeping the peak times at a manageable level. Clearly, the real-world line balancing problem described above is extremely difficult to solve. This is compounded byte size of the problem encountered in the target industries, which routinely feature assembly lines with dozens or hundreds of workstations with multiple operators, and hundreds or thousands of operations.We’ve identified a number of aspects of the line balancing problem that are vital in industries such as automotive, yet that have been either neglected in the OR work on the problem, or handled separately from each other. According to our experience, a line balancing to applicable in those industries must be able to handle all of them simultaneously. That gives rise to an extremely complex optimization problem.The complexity of the problem, and the need to solve it quickly, may explain why there appears to be just one commercially available software for solving it, namely outline by Optimal Design. More information on Outline, including its rich graphic user interface, is available at .References1 Becker C. and Scholl, A. (2023) `A survey on problems and methods in generalized assemblyline balancing', European Journal of Operations Research, in press. Available online at :10.1016/j.ejor.2023.07.023. Journal article.2 Falkenauer, E. and Delchambre, A. (1992) `Genetic Algorithm for Bin Packing and Line Balancing', Proceedings of the 1992 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, May10-15, 1992, Nice, France. IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA. Pp. 1186-1192. Conference proceedings.3 Falkenauer, E. (1997) `A Grouping Genetic Algorithm for Line Balancing with Resource Dependent Task Times', Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Neural Information Processing (ICONIP’97), University of Otego, Dunedin, New Zealand, November 24-28, 1997. Pp. 464-468. Conference proceedings.4 Falkenauer, E. (1998) Genetic Algorithms and Grouping Problems, John Wiley& Sons, Chi Chester, UK. Book.5 Gary. R. and Johnson D. S. (1979) Computers and Intractability - A Guide to the Theory of NP-completeness, Co., San Francisco, USA. Book.附录2：中文文献生产线平衡在现实世界摘要：生产线平衡（LB）是一种经典旳，精心研究旳明显工业重要性旳运筹学（OR）优化问题。
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)A solution= procedure for type E simpleassembly line balancing problemAbstract:This paper presents a type E simple assembly line balancing problem (SALBP-E) that combines models SALBP-1 and SALBP-2. Furthermore, this study develops a solution procedure for the proposed model.The proposed model provides a better understanding of management practice that optimizes assembly line efficiency while simultaneously minimizing total idle time. Computational results indicated that,under the given upper bound of cycle time (ct max), theproposed model can solve problems optimally with minimal variables, constraints, and computing time.Keywords Simple assembly line balancing problem, Type E simple assembly line balancing problem,Manufacturing optimization.1.IntroductionIt has been over five decades since researchers first discussed the assembly line balancing problem (ALBP). Of all kinds of ALBP, the most basic is the simple assembly line balancing problem (SALBP). Bryton defined and studied SALBP as early as 1954. In the following year (1955), Salverson built the first mathematical model of SALBP and presented quantitative solving steps, which attracted great interest. After Gutjahr and Nemhauser (1964) stated that SALBP is an NP-hard combination optimization problem, the majority of researchers hoped to develop an efficient method to obtain the best solution and efficiently solve variant assembly line problems (e.g. Baybars, 1986; Boysen, Fliedner, & Scholl, 2007, 2008; Erel & Sarin, 1998; Ghosh & Gagnon, 1989; Scholl & Becker, 2005, 2006; Toksari, Isleyen, Güner, & BaykoÇ, 2008; Yeh & Kao, 2009). During subsequent years, SALBP became a popular topic. Kim, Kim, and Kim (1996) divided SALBP into five kinds of problems, of which type I problem (SALBP-1) and type II problem (SALBP-2) are the two basic optimization problems. Researchers have published many studies on the solution for the SALBP-1 problem. Salverson (1955) used integer programming (IP) to solve the workstation assignment problem. Jackson (1956) proposed dynamic programming (DP) to solve SALBP-1. Bowman (1960) developed two mathematical models and introduced 0–1 variables to guarantee that no tasks took the same time and thatno tasks were performed at different workstations. Talbot and Patterson (1984) presented a mathematical model with a single decision variable, and used it to calculate the number of tasks assigned to workstations. Essafi, Delorme, Dolgui, and Guschinskaya (2010) proposed a mixed-integer program for solving a novel line balancing problem composed of identical CNC machines. Hackman, Magazine, and Wee (1989) used a branch and bound (BB) scheme to solve SALBP-1. To reduce the size of the branch tree, they developed heuristic depth measurement techniques that provided an efficient solution. Betts and Mahmoud (1989), Scholl and Klein (1997, 1999), Ege, Azizoglu, and Ozdemirel (2009) have suggested BB methods for application. Other heuristics have been developed for solving the variant problems. These may include simulated annealing (Cakir, Altiparmak, & Dengiz, 2011; Saeid & Anwar, 1997; Suresh & Sahu, 1994), Genetic Algorithm (McGovern & Gupta, 2007; Sabuncuoglu, Erel, & Tayner, 2000), and ant colony optimization algorithm (Sabuncuoglu, Erel, & Alp, 2009; Simaria & Vilarinho,2009). Recently, multiple-objective problems have emerged from the diversified demand of customers. For example, Rahimi-Vahed and Mirzaei (2007) proposed a hybrid multi-objective algorithm that considers the minimization of total utility work, total production rate variation, and total setup cost. Chica, Cordon, and Damas (2011) developed a model that involves the joint optimization of conflicting objectives such as the cycle time, the number of stations,and/or the area of these stations. Another interesting extension is the mixed-model problem, which is a special case of assembly line balancing problem with different models of the product allowed moving on the same line. Aimed at the mixed-model assembly line problem, Erel and Gökçen (1999) studied onmixed-model assembly line problem and established 0–1 integer programming coupled with a combined precedence diagram to reduce decision variables and constraints to increase solving efficiency. Kim and Jeong (2007) considered the problem of optimizing the input sequence of jobs in mixed-model assembly line using a conveyor system with sequence-dependent setup time. Özcan and Toklu (2009) presented a mathematical model for solving the mixed-model two-sided assembly line balancing problem with the objectives of minimizing the number of mated-stations and the number of stations for a given cycle time.Unlike SALBP-1, the goal of SALBP-2 is to minimize cycle time given a number of workstations. Most studies focused on solutions for SALBP-1, and not SALBP-2, because SALBP-2 may be solved with SALBP-1 by gradually increasing the cycle time until the assembly line is balanced (Hackman et al., 1989). Helgeson and Bimie presented a heuristic algorithm to solve SALBP-2 as early as 1961.Scholl (1999) presented several decision problems regarding the installation and utilization of assembly line systems, indicating that balancing problem is especially important in paced assembly line cases. Scholl used task oriented BB to solve SALBP-2 and compared it with existing solution procedures. Klein and Scholl (1996) adopted new statistical methods as a solution procedure and developed a generalized BB method for directly solving SALBP-2. In addition, Gökçen and Agpak (2006) used goal programming (GP) to solve simple U-type assembly line balancing problems, in which decision makers must consider several conflicting goals at the same time. Nearchou (2007) proposed a heuristic method to solve SALBP-2 based on differential evolution (DE). In the followingyear, Nearchou (2008) advanced a new population heuristic method base on the multi-goal DE method to solve type II problems. Gao, Sun, Wang, and Gen (2009) presented a robotic assembly line balancing problem, in which the assembly tasks have to be assigned to workstations and each workstation needs to select one of the available robots to process the assigned tasks with the objective of minimum cycle time. Several other methods have been reported in the literature. For example, Bock (2000) proposed the Tabu Search (TS) for solving SALBP-2 and extended TS using new parallel breadth, which can be used to improve existing TS programs for assembly line problems. Levitin, Rubinovitz, and Shnits (2006) developed a genetic algorithm (GA) to solve large, complex machine assembly line balancing problems by adopting a simple principle of evolution and the BB method. A complete review of GA to assembly line balancing problems can be found in Tasan and Tunali (2008).The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces SALBP-E formulation and its solution procedure. Section 3 presents solutions to a notebook computer assembly model and some test problems using small- to medium-sized for numerical calculations. Finally, this paper concludes with a summary of the approach.2.Formulation and solution procedure of SALBP-E The SALBP-E model integrates the SALBP-1 and SALBP-2 models. For this purpose, the following notations and variables are defined as follows:Notations:n Number of tasks (i = 1, . . . , n) m Number of stations (j = 1, . . . , m) m max Upper bound of stations (j = 1, . . . , m max) m min Lower bound of stations (j = 1, . . . , m min) t i Operation time of task iCt Cycle timeP Subset of task (i, k), given the direct precedence relationsDecision variables:x ijε {0, 1} 1 if task i is assigned to station j 0otherwise ( "i; j = m min, . . . , m max)y jε {0, 1} 1 if any task i is assigned to station j 0otherwise (j = 1, . . . , mmax)ct ≥Cycle time is set to greater than or equal to 0M* Minimal number of stationsThe original SALBP-1 model is as follows:SALBP-1:生产线设备选择多目标的方法摘要：考虑10一月2012一个新的问题，处理设计的可重构自动加工线这种线是由工作站顺序处理。
Inventory managementInventory ControlOn the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion.The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility.Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored:First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments .Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field ofthese big boys, but also their simple modules inside the warehouse management functionality is defined as "inventory management" or "inventory control." This makes the already not quite understand what our inventory control, but not sure what is inventory control.In fact, from the perspective of broadly understood, inventory control, shouldinclude the following:First, the fundamental purpose of inventory control. We know that the so-called world-class manufacturing, two key assessment indicators (KPI) is, customer satisfaction and inventory turns, inventory turns and this is actually the fundamental objective of inventory control.Second, inventory control means. Increase inventory turns, relying solely on the so-called physical inventory control is not enough, it should be the demand and supply chain management process flow of this large output, and this big warehouse management processes in addition to including this link, the more important The section also includes: forecasting and order processing, production planning and control, materials planning and purchasing control, inventory planning and forecasting in itself, as well as finished products, raw materials, distribution and delivery of the strategy, and even customs management processes.And with the demand and supply chain management processes throughout the process, it is the information flow and capital flow management. In other words, inventory itself is across the entire demand and supply management processes in all aspects of inventory control in order to achieve the fundamental purpose, it must control all aspects of inventory, rather than just manage the physical inventory at hand.Third, inventory control, organizational structure and assessment.Since inventory control is the demand and supply chain management processes, output, inventory control to achieve the fundamental purpose of this process must be compatible with a rational organizational structure. Until now, we can see that many companies have only one purchasing department, purchasing department following pipe warehouse. This is far short of inventory control requirements. From the demand and supply chain management process analysis, we know that purchasing and warehouse management is the executive arm of the typical, and inventory control should focus on prevention, the executive branch is very difficult to "prevent inventory" for the simple reason that they assessment indicatorsin large part to ensure supply (production, customer). How the actual situation, a reasonable demand and supply chain management processes, and thus set the corresponding rational organizational structure and is a question many of our enterprisesto exploreThe role of inventory controlInventory management is an important part of business management. In the production and operation activities, inventory management must ensure that both the production plant for raw materials, spare parts demand, but also directly affect the purchasing, sales of share, sales activities. To make an inventory of corporate liquidity, accelerate cash flow, the security of supply under the premise of minimizing Yaku funds, directly affects the operational efficiency. Ensure the production and operation needs of the premise, so keep inventories at a reasonable level; dynamic inventory control, timely, appropriate proposed order to avoid over storage or out of stock; reduce inventory footprint, lower total cost of inventory; control stock funds used to accelerate cash flow.Problems arising from excessive inventory: increased warehouse space andinventory storage costs, thereby increasing product costs; take a lot of liquidity, resultingin sluggish capital, not only increased the burden of payment of interest, etc., would affect the time value of money and opportunity income; finished products and raw materials caused by physical loss and intangible losses; a large number of enterprise resource idle, affecting their rational allocation and optimization; cover the production, operation of the whole process of the various contradictions and problems, is not conducive to improve the management level.Inventory is too small the resulting problems: service levels caused a decline in the profit impact of marketing and corporate reputation; production system caused by inadequate supply of raw materials or other materials, affecting the normal production process; to shorten lead times, increase the number of orders, so order (production) costs; affect the balance of production and assembly of complete sets.NotesInventory management should particularly consider the following two questions:First, according to sales plans, according to the planned production of the goods circulated in the market, we should consider where, how much storage.Second, starting from the level of service and economic benefits to determine howto ensure inventories and supplementary questions.The two problems with the inventory in the logistics process functions.In general, the inventory function:(1)to prevent interrupted. Received orders to shorten the delivery of goods fromthe time in order to ensure quality service, at the same time to prevent out of stock.(2)to ensure proper inventory levels, saving inventory costs.(3)to reduce logistics costs. Supplement with the appropriate time interval compatible with the reasonable demand of the cargo in order to reduce logistics costs, eliminate or avoid sales fluctuations.(4)ensure the production planning, smooth to eliminate or avoid sales fluctuations.(5)display function.(6)reserve. Mass storage when the price falls, reduce losses, to respond to disasters and other contingencies.About the warehouse (inventory) on what the question, we must consider the number and location. If the distribution center, it should be possible according to customer needs, set at an appropriate place; if it is stored in central places to minimize the complementary principle to the distribution centers, there is no place certain requirements. When the stock base is established, will have to take into account are stored in various locations in what commodities.库存管理库存控制在谈到所谓“库存控制”的时候，很多人将其理解为“仓储管理”，这实际上是个很大的曲解。
本科毕业论文外文翻译外文译文题目：对于E类型的简单生产线平衡问题的解决过程学院: 机械自动化专业: 工业工程学号: 201003166078学生姓名：谭柱森指导教师: 李颖日期: 二○一四年五月A solution procedure for type E simple assembly linebalancing problemNai—Chieh Wei , I-Ming ChaoIndustrial Engineering and Management，I—Shou University，No. 1，Section 1, Syuecheng Rd. Dashu District, KaohsiungCity 84001，Taiwan, ROC.对于E类型的简单生产线平衡问题的解决过程Nai-Chieh Wei , I-Ming Chao工业工程与管理，中华人民共和国，台湾省，高雄市，Syuecheng Rd。
Dashu街一号，义守大学，第一章第一节摘要本文提出了结合SALBP—1和SALBP-2的E型简单装配线平衡问题（SALBP—E），更多的,本研究为提出的模型提供了解决方法。
提出的模型在最小化空闲时间的同时优化装配线平衡率，为管理实践提供了更好的理解,计算结果表明：给出周期的上限ct以后,提出的模型可以最优的解决问题，因为它含有最少的变量,约max束和计算时间。
1前言从研究者第一次讨论装配线平衡问题以来，大约有50年了，在众多有关生产线平衡问题中,最基本的是简单装配线平衡问题，早在1954年，Bryton就定义并且研究了生产线平衡问题。
后一年，Salverson建立了第一个生产线平衡的数学模型并提出了定性的解决步骤,这引来了很大的兴趣，在Gutjahr 和Nemhauser说明生产线平衡是一种NP组合优化难题，大多数研究者希望开发一种能高效解决多种装配线问题的方法。
在随后的几年,生产线平衡成为了一个流行的主题，Kim，Kim，and Kim （1996）把生产线平衡分为五类问题，其中的问题1（SALBP —1）和问题Ⅱ（SALBP—Ⅱ)是两种基本的优化问题。
本科毕业生外文文献翻译学生姓名：指导教师：所在学院：专业：中国·大庆2013 年5 月Chapter 1IntroductionSpread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal ) generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural interference and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).1.1 History Frequency hoppingThe concept of frequency hopping was first alluded to in the 1903 U.S. Patent 723,188 and U.S. Patent 725,605 filed by Nikola Tesla in July 1900. Tesla came up with the idea after demonstrating the world's first radio-controlled submersible boat in 1898, when it became apparent the wireless signals controlling the boat needed to be secure from "being disturbed, intercepted, or interfered with in any way." His patents covered two fundamentally different techniques for achieving immunity to interference, both of which functioned by altering the carrier frequency or other exclusive characteristic. The first had a transmitter that worked simultaneously at two or more separate frequencies and a receiver in which each of the individual transmitted frequencies had to be tuned in, in order for the control circuitry to respond. The second technique used a variable-frequency transmitter controlled by an encoding wheel that altered the transmitted frequency in a predetermined manner. These patents describe the basic principles of frequency hopping and frequency-division multiplexing, and also the electronic AND-gate logic circuit.Frequency hopping is also mentioned in radio pioneer Johannes Zenneck's book Wireless Telegraphy (German, 1908, English translation McGraw Hill, 1915), although Zenneck himself states that Telefunken had already tried it several years earlier. Zenneck's book was a leading text of the time, and it is likely that many later engineers were aware of it. A Polish engineer, Leonard Danilewicz, came up with the idea in 1929.Several other patents were taken out in the 1930s, including one by Willem Broertjes (Germany 1929, U.S. Patent 1,869,695, 1932). During World War II, the US Army Signal Corps was inventing a communication system called SIGSALY for communication between Roosevelt and Churchill, which incorporated spread spectrum, but due to its top secret nature, SIGSALY's existence did not become known until the 1980s.The most celebrated invention of frequency hopping was that of actress Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil, who in 1942 received U.S. Patent 2,292,387 for their "Secret Communications System". Lamarr had learned about the problem at defense meetings she had attended with her former husband Friedrich Mandl, who was an Austrian arms manufacturer. The Antheil-Lamarr version of frequency hopping used a piano-roll to change among 88 frequencies, and was intended to make radio-guided torpedoes harder for enemies to detect or to jam. The patent came to light during patent searches in the 1950s when ITT Corporation and other privatefirms began to develop Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), a civilian form of spread spectrum, though the Lamarr patent had no direct impact on subsequent technology. It was in fact ongoing military research at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Magnavox Government & Industrial Electronics Corporation, ITT and Sylvania Electronic Systems that led to early spread-spectrum technology in the 1950s. Parallel research on radar systems and a technologically similar concept called "phase coding" also had an impact on spread-spectrum development.1.2 Commercial useThe 1976 publication of Spread Spectrum Systems by Robert Dixon, ISBN 0-471-21629-1, was a significant milestone in the commercialization of this technology. Previous publications were either classified military reports or academic papers on narrow subtopics. Dixon's book was the first comprehensive unclassified review of the technology and set the stage for increasing research into commercial applications.Initial commercial use of spread spectrum began in the 1980s in the US with three systems: Equatorial Communications System's very small aperture (VSAT) satellite terminal system for newspaper newswire services, Del Norte Technology's radio navigation system for navigation of aircraft for crop dusting and similar applications, and Qualcomm's OmniTRACS system for communications to trucks. In the Qualcomm and Equatorial systems, spread spectrum enabled small antennas that viewed more than one satellite to be used since the processing gain of spread spectrum eliminated interference. The Del Norte system used the high bandwidth of spread spectrum to improve location accuracy.In 1981, the Federal Communications Commission started exploring ways to permit more general civil uses of spread spectrum in a Notice of Inquiry docket. This docket was proposed to FCC and then directed by Michael Marcus of the FCC staff. The proposals in the docket were generally opposed by spectrum users and radio equipment manufacturers, although they were supported by the then Hewlett-Packard Corp. The laboratory group supporting the proposal would later become part of Agilent.The May 1985 decision in this docket permitted unlicensed use of spread spectrum in 3 bands at powers up to 1 Watt. FCC said at the time that it would welcome additional requests for spread spectrum in other bands.The resulting rules, now codified as 47 CFR 15.247 permitted Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and many other products including cordless telephones. These rules were then copied in many other countries. Qualcomm was incorporated within 2 months after the decision to commercialize CDMA.1.3 Spread-spectrum telecommunicationsThis is a technique in which a (telecommunication) signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the original information.Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique that employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple functions. This technique decreases the potential interference to other receivers while achieving privacy. Spread spectrum generally makes use of a sequential noise-like signalstructure to spread the normally narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI).Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms of spread spectrum. Each of these techniques employs pseudorandom number sequences —created using pseudorandom number generators —to determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the alloted bandwidth. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another modulation technique that accomplishes the same purpose, based on transmitting short duration pulses. Wireless Ethernet standard IEEE 802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its radio interface.Chapter 22.1 Spread-spectrum clock signal generationSpread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems generate. A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal and because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum. In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency and its harmonics, and would therefore radiate energy with an infinite spectral density. Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe).To avoid this problem, which is of great commercial importance to manufacturers, spread-spectrum clocking is used. This consists of using one of the methods described in the Spread-spectrum telecommunications section in order to reduce the peak radiated energy. The technique therefore reshapes the system's electromagnetic emissions to comply with the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations. It is a popular technique because it can be used to gain regulatory approval with only a simple modification to the equipment.Spread-spectrum clocking has become more popular in portable electronics devices because of faster clock speeds and the increasing integration of high-resolution LCD displays in smaller and smaller devices. Because these devices are designed to be lightweight and inexpensive, passive EMI reduction measures such as capacitors or metal shielding are not a viable option. Active EMI reduction techniques such as spread-spectrum clocking are necessary in these cases, but can also create challenges for designers. Principal among these is the risk that modifying th e system clock runs the risk of the clock/data misalignment.2.2Direct-sequence spread spectrumIn telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a modulation technique. As with other spread spectrum technologies, the transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth than the information signal that is being modulated. The name 'spread spectrum' comes from the fact that the carrier signals occur over the full bandwidth (spectrum) of a device's transmitting frequency.2.2.1Features1.It phase-modulates a sine wave pseudorandomly with a continuous string ofpseudonoise (PN) code symbols called "chips", each of which has a much shorter duration than an information bit. That is, each information bit is modulated by a sequence of much faster chips. Therefore, the chip rate is much higher than the information signal bit rate.2. It uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the transmitter isknown a priori by the receiver. The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to counteract the effect of the PN sequence on the received signal in order to reconstruct the informationsignal.2.2.2Transmission methodDirect-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a "noise" signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and −1 values, at a frequency much higher than that of the original signal, thereby spreading the energy of the original signal into a much wider band.The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However, this noise-like signal can be used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 × 1 = 1, and −1 × −1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a correlation of the transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver believes the transmitter is using.For de-spreading to work correctly, the transmit and receive sequences must be synchronized. This requires the receiver to synchronize its sequence with the transmitter's sequence via some sort of timing search process. However, this apparent drawback can be a significant benefit: if the sequences of multiple transmitters are synchronized with each other, the relative synchronizations the receiver must make between them can be used to determine relative timing, which, in turn, can be used to calculate the receiver's position if the transmitters' positions are known. This is the basis for many satellite navigation systems.The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process gain. This effect can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per bit, but physical devices used to generate the PN sequence impose practical limits on attainable processing gain.If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN sequence (or no sequence at all), the de-spreading process results in no processing gain for that signal. This effect is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within the limits of the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences.As this description suggests, a plot of the transmitted waveform has a roughly bell-shaped envelope centered on the carrier frequency, just like a normal AM transmission, except that the added noise causes the distribution to be much wider than that of an AM transmission.In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum pseudo-randomly re-tunes the carrier, instead of adding pseudo-random noise to the data, which results in a uniform frequency distribution whose width is determined by the output range of the pseudo-random number generator.2.2.3Benefits∙Resistance to intended or unintended jamming∙Sharing of a single channel among multiple users∙Reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception (stealth)∙Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver2.2.4Uses∙The United States GPS and European Galileo satellite navigation systems∙DS-CDMA (Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access) is a multiple access scheme based on DSSS, by spreading the signals from/to different users with different codes.It is the most widely used type of CDMA.∙Cordless phones operating in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands∙IEEE 802.11b 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi, and its predecessor 802.11-1999. (Their successor 802.11g uses OFDM instead)∙Automatic meter reading∙IEEE 802.15.4 (used e.g. as PHY and MAC layer for ZigBee)2.3 Frequency-hopping spread spectrumFrequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and receiver. It is utilized as a multiple access method in the frequency-hopping code division multiple access (FH-CDMA) scheme.A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency transmission:1.Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. Theprocess of re-collecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing it to recede into the background.2.Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. An FHSS signal simply appearsas an increase in the background noise to a narrowband receiver. An eavesdropper would only be able to intercept the transmission if they knew the pseudorandom sequence.3.Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types ofconventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum signals add minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently.2.3.1 Basic algorithmTypically, the initiation of an FHSS communication is as follows1.The initiating party sends a request via a predefined frequency or control channel.2.The receiving party sends a number, known as a seed.3.The initiating party uses the number as a variable in a predefined algorithm, whichcalculates the sequence of frequencies that must be used. Most often the period of the frequency change is predefined, as to allow a single base station to serve multiple connections.4.The initiating party sends a synchronization signal via the first frequency in thecalculated sequence, thus acknowledging to the receiving party it has correctly calculated the sequence.5.The communication begins, and both the receiving and the sending party changetheir frequencies along the calculated order, starting at the same point in time.2.3.2 Military useSpread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming, unless the adversary has knowledge of the spreading characteristics. Military radios use cryptographic techniques to generate the channel sequence under the control of a secret Transmission Security Key(TRANSEC) that the sender and receiver share.By itself, frequency hopping provides only limited protection against eavesdropping and jamming. To get around this weakness most modern military frequency hopping radios often employ separate encryption devices such as the KY-57. U.S. military radios that use frequency hopping include HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS.2.3.3Technical considerationsThe overall bandwidth required for frequency hopping is much wider than that required to transmit the same information using only one carrier frequency. However, because transmission occurs only on a small portion of this bandwidth at any given time, the effective interference bandwidth is really the same. Whilst providing no extra protection against wideband thermal noise, the frequency-hopping approach does reduce the degradation caused by narrowband interferers.One of the challenges of frequency-hopping systems is to synchronize the transmitter and receiver. One approach is to have a guarantee that the transmitter will use all the channels in a fixed period of time. The receiver can then find the transmitter by picking a random channel and listening for valid data on that channel. The transmitter's data is identified by a special sequence of data that is unlikely to occur over the segment of data for this channel and the segment can have a checksum for integrity and further identification. The transmitter and receiver can use fixed tables of channel sequences so that once synchronized they can maintain communication by following the table. On each channel segment, the transmitter can send its current location in the table.In the US, FCC part 15 on unlicensed system in the 900MHz and 2.4GHz bands permits more power than non-spread spectrum systems. Both frequency hopping and direct sequence systems can transmit at 1 Watt. The limit is increased from 1 milliwatt to 1 watt or a thousand times increase. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) prescribes a minimum number of channels and a maximum dwell time for each channel.In a real multipoint radio system, space allows multiple transmissions on the same frequency to be possible using multiple radios in a geographic area. This creates the possibility of system data rates that are higher than the Shannon limit for a single channel. Spread spectrum systems do not violate the Shannon limit. Spread spectrum systems rely on excess signal to noise ratios for sharing of spectrum. This property is also seen in MIMO and DSSS systems. Beam steering and directional antennas also facilitate increased system performance by providing isolation between remote radios.2.3.4 Variations of FHSSAdaptive Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH) (as used in Bluetooth) improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding using crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. This sort of adaptive transmission is easier to implement with FHSS than with DSSS.The key idea behind AFH is to use only the “good” frequencies, by avoiding the "bad" frequency channels -- perhaps those "bad" frequency channels are experiencing frequency selective fading, or perhaps some third party is trying to communicate on those bands, or perhaps those bands are being actively jammed. Therefore, AFH should be complemented by a mechanism for detecting good/bad channels.However, if the radio frequency interference is itself dynamic, then the strategy of “badchannel removal”, applied in AFH might not work well. For example, if there are several colocated frequency-hopping networks (as Bluetooth Piconet), then they are mutually interfering and the strategy of AFH fails to avoid this interference.In this case, there is a need to use strategies for dynamic adaptation of the frequency hopping pattern.Such a situation can often happen in the scenarios that use unlicensed spectrum.In addition, dynamic radio frequency interference is expected to occur in the scenarios related to cognitive radio, where the networks and the devices should exhibit frequency-agile operation.Chirp modulation can be seen as a form of frequency-hopping that simply scans through the available frequencies in consecutive order.第一章介绍扩频技术是信号（例如一个电气、电磁，或声信号）生成的特定带宽频率域中特意传播，从而导致更大带宽的信号的方法。
中文译文基于IE技术的工时定额确定摘要工时定额是核算企业运营成本与工人收入的基础，直接关系着企业的生产效率与工人的生产积极性。
针对中小型企业的工时定额建立方法缺乏标准性与科学性，并严重依赖技术人员的经验。
本文提供了一种基于IE技术的综合性工时定额确定方法。
工时定额由辅助时间、人机操作时间、工作时间等组成。
辅助时间可以通过基于基本工作分解的模特排时法来确定，工作时间由工时定额标准时间来确定。
此外，学习曲线被应用于优化计算结果。
文章的最后用一个实例来验证该方法的有效性。
关键词：工时定额；工时定额标准数据；模特排时法；学习曲线引言工时定额是工厂制定生产计划与进行经济核算所依据的一种主要指标，它的确定方法对于工厂的成本计算是非常重要的。
大部分中小型企业采用多品种、小批量的生产方式，产品的规格经常改变，因此工时定额的确定是非常困难的。
现阶段的企业通常采用经验估工法、标准数据法以及既定时间标准设定法来计算工时定额，这需要经验丰富的技术人员与管理人员经过长期的修正才能确定。
无疑，这需要一个比较长的工作周期以及比较高的工作量，而且，工时定额的最终结果很容易被主观因素所影响，从而很难保证准确性与科学性。
所有的这些因素都会为生产计划制定与成本控制造成不利影响。
近年来，学者对这一课题进行了广泛的研究并取得了比较大的进展。
一些研究表明，标准时间可以基于典型操作来进行计算，并阐述了选择典型操作方法的规则。
另外一些学者提出了一种包含基于范例推理与基于知识推理的混合推理模型。
这个模型已经成功应用于装配复杂且影响因素众多的一个框架。
参考文献3针对提高私营企业生产效率这一目标建立了一种对所有动作进行分类的工时定额基础数据。
另外，使用神经网络来进行工时定额计算是一种新的思路。
我们可以发现，工时定额的建立没有统一的规范与标准，所以，寻找出一种更科学，更有效的工时定额确定方法是十分有意义的。
本文应用基础的IE知识以及基本元素分解法与模特排时法来详细说明各项基本操作，接下来用更加更合理与人性化的方法来计算工时定额。
考虑到本文中的具体实例，我们采用过程分析、人机分析、动作分析以及模特排时法来进行辅助时间的确定，参照工时定额标准数据来确定加工时间，然后采用学习曲线来对计算结果进行数据优化。
对于中小型企业的工时定额确定，这种方法更科学、更准确、更适合。
工时定额计算的实现加工时间的确定主要基于生产过程分析，生产流程操作与加工流程的相互影响。
通过人机分析来寻找一种有理运算，根据基本元素分解将操作进行分步。
使用ECRS（取消、合并、调整顺序、简化）准则对每一步操作进行优化处理，最终得到标准操作方法。
结合模特排时法以及工时定额标准数据，就可以计算每个工件的标准定额时间。
通过使用这种更加准确的方法，工时定额的确定过程将更加科学与人性化。
最终，通过使用学习曲线以及经验与知识的累积，进一步的优化工作将被完成。
步骤一：工艺流程分析工艺流程分析是由生产部门来完成的。
工艺流程分析的开展需要获取产品的形状、尺寸以及其它精度信息以及企业现有的生产设备等信息，然后需要对详细的工序信息进行分析并形成工序卡片，然后安排工人进行加工。
工艺流程分析是加工的基础，所以这一步骤可以用来改善不合理的工艺过程。
步骤二：人机操作分析人机操作分析适用于单人单机操作。
这一步骤主要通过观察工人的实地操作并同时记录机器型号和工人的实际操作条件。
分析这些信息以得到合理的操作步骤，这样就可以提高工人以及机器的效率，缩短整个工艺周期。
部分工序工时定额的减少对于缩短整个加工时间的作用是相当大的。
步骤三：基本元素分析基本元素分析由吉尔布雷斯提出。
他对作业进行细微的运作分解与观察，对每一个连续动作进行分解，通过手、足动作、和眼、头活动，把动作的顺序和方法与双手、眼的活动联系起来进行详尽的分析，用动素记号记录和分类，找出动作顺序和方法存在的问题，如单手等待、不合理动作及浪费动作等问题并加以改善。
他提出了3大类的18种动作要素。
第一类是有效动作，也叫做必须动作，共包括九种：伸手、握取、移物、定位、装配、拆卸、使用、放手、检查。
第二类是需要取消或改善的辅助动作，包括五种：寻找、发现、选择、计划、预定位。
第三类是宽放动作，与工作没有直接关系，但有些时候需要延长。
包括持住、延迟、故延、休息。
通过分解工人们的这些特定动作，可以精确到固定元素，并使用ECRS准则来提高这个最终结果。
力争实现采用最少的动作要素来完成该项工作，然后这将成为更加人性化与标准化的操作流程。
步骤四：模特排时法分析技术人员、管理人员与操作工人均可以使用模特排时法来制定标准时间。
它基于身体的不同部位、产品的重量、移动距离与所需时间的关系来预测所需的总时间。
它采用手指的动作时间为动作时间单位MOD，其它部位的动作时间是以手指动作时间的整数倍来表示的。
该方法包括21种人体基本动作，其中11种是上肢的基本动作，4种是下肢和腰部的基本动作，其余的为辅助动作。
其中，一动作时间单位（MOD）为0.129秒。
然后这些动作就可以被折算成时间，最终得到总的基本工作时间单位数，总的辅助时间也就很容易被计算。
操作被改进后就可以被当做标准操作。
因此，采用基于模特排时法的动作研究结果来计算辅助时间是非常合理可行的。
步骤五：工时定额标准数据的确定对于加工时间，只要我们知道工件的尺寸参数以及机器的进给速度、加工速度，工序工时就可以很容易地被获取。
工时定额标准数据由经验丰富的技术人员制定，是一项非常优秀的参考标准。
因此，机床上的工序加工时间可以通过查阅工时定额标准表格来确定。
步骤六：学习曲线的应用随着总产量的增加，操作者的经验与能力也会随着响应增加。
换句话说，经过一段时间的学习，单个工件的加工时间将会被缩短，揭示它们之间一定比例关系的学习曲线将可以被生成。
操作时间可以通过结合该曲线来预测。
一些学术研究表明：机器的自动化程度越高，对工人来说学习效率也就越高，反之则学习效率越低。
学习效率在75%至95%之间波动。
如果把特定产品的生产能力设置为n，那么学习曲线就可以定义如下：（1）工时间如式（3）所示（2）（3）因此，辅助时间由基本动作分析法和模特排时法来确定，加工时间由工时定额标准数据来确定。
结合以上两者，总的加工时间就可以被确定。
最后，学习曲线的应用可以进一步对加工时间进行优化，从而缩短总的加工时间。
实例验证本文从一家小企业中选取一个特定的零件来验证此方法。
研究对象是一个推爪，它的二维零件图如下所示图1 零件二维图由上图，我们可以清楚地获得零件形状、尺寸信息与加工精度，我们选择了普通的立式铣床来制定加工工艺过程。
相应的工序信息如表一所示。
经过分析。
零件的加工工艺过程比较合理，不需要再进行任何的完善。
因为工时定额的确定仅仅考虑钳工以及铣削等切削工序，故淬火等热处理工序在本文中并未纳入考虑。
由同一个工人在一台机床上所进行的零件加工适合用于人机分析。
因为被加工零件的所有表面都经过了反复铣削加工，因此这里只挑选一个表面进行分析。
结果如表7所示。
根据加工工艺路线的顺序，并考虑到是否所有操作可以同时进行，经过改善的操作如表8所示。
比较表7和表8中的操作，因为工件在磨削过程中可同时进行锉毛刺操作所以机床与操作者可以同时分别进行操作，最多可以减少1.2分钟的加工时间，同时，机器的使用率也增加了8.9%（如表9所示）。
通过使用基本工作分析对准备与终结时间进行分解，辅助时间可以准确地被计算出来。
基于ECRS准则的基本操作优化如表2所示，优化结果如表3所示。
比较以上两个表，不同之处如表5所示。
我们可以从中发现，对第一个基本动作进行优化可以减少39个基本时间单位；通过对第二个基本辅助元素进行不必要操作的简化，我们可以减少23个时间单位；虽然第三项增加了工人们的休息时间，但减轻了他们的工作强度，最终极大地减少了总的基本工作数量。
从而极大地提高了学习使用模特排时法的时间。
完成基本工作分析之后，辅助时间就可以通过模特排时法估计出来（如表4所示）。
从表四中，我们可以计算出总的动作时间单位数：1406+946=2352（动作时间单位）；转换成时间就是：2352×0.129=303.408秒=5.0568分钟。
由于工人需要22%的宽放时间，故总的辅助时间为：5.5068×（1+22%）=6.17分钟。
根据《机加工与铸造的标准工时定额》，结合实际的产品分析，工序工时定额可以通过查阅工时定额标准数据来确定。
1.铣削时间定额通过查阅铣削工序的标准时间定额，这一操作的工时计算步骤如下所示：（4）（5）均切削余量除以工件的平均切削轨迹长度。
基于以上公式，铣削时间就可以计算出来（如表6所示）。
2.钻孔时间定额钻孔基本时间定额公式：（6）6所示。
3.钳工时间定额钳工时间定额与孔、槽划线定位以及锉圆角的时间有关，详细时间可由工时定额标准数据来获得（如表6所示）。
通过模特排时法计算出的辅助时间加上加工时间，就可以计算出总的工时定额时间：23.73+6.17=29.9分钟。
这样，工时定额计算就结束了。
将与人工时间和机器加工时间相关的学习比率设置为78%，学习效率a=0.358.假设制造100个工件，总的加工时间可以用式2来计算。
（7）单件加工时间可以使用式（3）计算：（8）从计算出我们可以看出，单件工时定额为29.9分钟。
通过使用学习曲线，这一过程仅需要8.49分钟；工时定额的减少达到252.18%，比大规模生产缩短的时间更多。
结论本文选择了一个中小型企业的特定零件作为研究对象，应用基础的工业工程技术（工作测定、方法研究）来进行工件加工时间与辅助时间的确定，然后就可以确定工件的总工时定额。
该方法具有理论上与实践上的可行性。
加工时间是确定的，我们通过查阅工时定额标准数据来计算。
但辅助时间是可变的且可以被压缩的，我们使用模特排时法来确定该项时间。
分析准备与加工时间之后，可以简化与改善这一操作，并通过模特排时法来建立标准操作，再结合宽放时间，工件工时定额的计算就完成了。
通过使用学习曲线理论，工人们的经验在实际加工操作过程中可以积累，工人们的熟练程度也显著增加。
通过实例验证，我们发现工件的工时定额数据从29.9分钟减少到8.49分钟，工时压缩比例达到了252.18%。
我们可以发现，人工操作时间所占的比例越大，工时数据可供压缩的空间也就越大，这也是传统的中小型企业改善管理体制的一种方法。
中国大部分中小型企业缺乏完善的管理体制，工时定额应用广泛但不标准。
通过使用包括模特排时法、学习曲线、工时定额标准数据等的完整工时定额确定方法，可以提高工时定额计算的准确性、科学性与可操作性。
表1 加工工艺表4 模特排时法时间分析表8 人机分析与比较（注：可编辑下载，若有不当之处，请指正，谢谢!）。
