Language Emergence Implications for Applied Linguistics—A Sociocultural Perspective

胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章测试题Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? —A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of thediachronic study of language.19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is ________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004）36. Why is it difficult to define language? （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific? （青岛海洋大学，1999）Key: Chapter 1[In the reference keys, I won’t give examples or further analysis. That seems too much work for me. Therefore, this key is only for reference. In order to answer this kind of question, you need more examples. So you should read the textbook carefully. – icywarmtea]I. 1~5 BACCC 6~10 BACAC II. 11~15 FFTFF 16~20 FFFFFIII. 21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function 24. yo-he-ho25. scientific 26. descriptive 27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic 29. langue 30. competence IV. 31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generallyunconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.V. 35. Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36. It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations. VI. 37. It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against the observable facts – come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10 What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units largerthan the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merelya different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either _____ or ______, while all vowel sounds are __________22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. ___ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation 32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution 34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog.(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop (2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid (4) velar nasal (5) voiced interdental fricative答案 Chapter 2I. 1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABB II. 11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII. 21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction 23. tongue 24. height 25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs 27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation 29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV .31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V. 35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI. 37.Omit.Chapter 3 LexicoI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1 Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an _______ is pronounced as a word22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: _______, _______ and __________24. All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending 32. Allomorph 33. Closed-class word 34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? （厦门36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II （武汉I II(1) acronym a. foe (2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3)derivational morpheme c. UNESCO (4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed (5) prefix e. calculationKey: Chapter 3I. 1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADB II. 11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFF III. 21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation 27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootIV. 31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch) 32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.V. Omit. VI. 37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) bChapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati¬cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguisticcompetence.12. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Syntax 32. IC analysis 33. Hierarchical structure 34. Trace theoryV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction? （武汉大学，2004）36. Distinguish the two possible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis. （北京第二外国语大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The student wrote a letter yesterday.Key: Chapter4 I. 1~5 DCDDD 6~10 ADDBA II. 11~15 TTTTF 16~20 FTFTTIII.21. simple 22. sentence23. subject 24. predicate 25. complex 26. embedded 27. open 28. Adjacency29. Parameters 30. CaseIV. 31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure.E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.V. 35.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36.(1) more | beautiful flowers (2) more beautiful | flowersChapter 5 Meaning I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advancedby ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represeA. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theorD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaningcomponents, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7._________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8.___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic features II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.12. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.14. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.15. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.18. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.19. “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.20. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis ofa sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.22. The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.23. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24. Words that are close in meaning are called __________.25. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called __________.26. __________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27. __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into。

规，因此高职学生的休闲质量和品位偏低。

2、应试教育下的休闲方式单调，休闲技能低下虽然现代教育倡导素质教育，我国应试教育的外壳，导致学生不知道如何去寻求生活的意义。

学生们记得要上课、要考试、要实习、要竞赛，要去听各类学术讲座，却唯独忘记抽点空闲去思考、去发展兴趣、去寻求心灵的宁静与精神的成长。

鉴于各种客观原因，目前高职院校对学生的休闲教育还未引起高度重视，仍处于"拓荒"阶段，对学生休闲能力、技能的培训，远远不足以让学生重视自己的休闲生活，基本的休闲技能和素质缺乏，只局限在学习范围之内。

当前学生头脑中的所谓的"休闲"的全部内容及生活几乎都离不了单一的主题和形式———学习。

这也与当前组织指导休闲教育不够有着较大的关联，以致他们的休闲生活，随心所欲，缺乏安排，带有明显的偶然性和随意性。

闲暇时间增加了，如何科学合理地安排自己的休闲时间？使休闲时间的利用价值最大化？人们在寻求一种如何休闲的方法！而休闲教育就是教人从小就学会合理、科学、有效地利用时间，学会欣赏生命和生活、学会各种形式的查、学会对价值的判断、学会选择和规避问题的方法、学会能促进身心健康的各种技能。

开设休闲有关课程，培养正确的休闲理念和休闲观，加强休闲的意识，提高休闲质量和休闲技能，培养专业的休闲教育人才，将休闲教育作为高职学生生活的重要组成部分，而不是片面的把休闲与学习对立起来，从而提高学生的休闲质量和档次。

■参考文献[1]马惠娣.闲暇时间与"以人为本"的科学发展观[J].自然辩证法研究,2004,(06)[2]赵谦.素质教育视野下的高职生休闲现状分析与休闲教育思考[J]长沙航空职业技术学院学报2012，（1）[3]赵侠刘玉娟.通识教育视阈下大学生休闲教育[J]河北联合大学学报(社会科学版)，2012，（2）[4]张芳芳贺志波.培育大学生的科学休闲观[J]潍坊学院学报2012.（2）1.引言语言的模糊性和精确性互为条件依存在语言系统中。

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTIONSession ALanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial, and environmental factors.Other definitions：Language is a symbolic form of communication that involves, on the one hand, the comprehension of words and sentences and, on the other, the expression of feelings, thoughts, and ideas. The basic units of language are phonemes, morphemes, and words.from Encyclopedia BritannicaLanguage is the systematic communication by vocal symbols. It is a universal characteristic of the human species.Nothing is known of its origin, although scientists have identified a gene that clearly contributes to the human ability to use language. Scientists generally hold that it has been so long in use that the length of time writing is known to have existed (7,900 years at most) is short by comparison. Just as languages spoken now by peoples of the simplest cultures are as subtle and as intricate as those of the peoples of more complex civilizations, similarly the forms of languages known (or hypothetically reconstructed) from the earliest records show no trace of being more ―primitive‖ than their modern forms.from The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia人类特有的一种符号系统。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题第一章:语言学导论I. Choose the best answer。

(20％)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contact B。

communicationC. relation D。

community2。

Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？A。

tree B. typewriterC。

crash D。

bang3。

The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4。

In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？A。

Interpersonal B. EmotiveC. Performative D。

Recreational5。

Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place，due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A。

CommunicativeApproachAn Introduction of Communicative Approach1. The Communicative Approach is an approach to foreign or second LT which emphasizesthat the goal of language teaching is communication competence. The Communication Approach is also called Communication Language Teaching.2. The Communication Approach has been developed particularly by British appliedlinguists as a reaction away from grammar-based approaches such as the Audio-lingual Method.3. Teaching materials used with a Communication Approach often teach the languageneeded to express and understand different kinds of functions, such as requesting, describing, expressing likes and dislikes.4. The Communication Approach follow a Notional Syllabus or some othercommunicatively organized syllabus and emphasizes the processes of communication, such as using language appropriately in different kinds of tasks,e. g, to solve puzzles, to get information, and using language for socialinteraction with other people.Background of the Communication Approach1. Towards the end of the 1960s there went on a growing dissatisfaction among FLteachers and applied linguists with the dominating LT method of the time.①First, the criticism was that this kind of teaching produced structurallycompetent students who were oftencommunicatively incompetent.②Another reason for this dissatisfaction was undoubtedly for internationalcommunication, professionalcooperation and travel.③Meanwhile, some theoretical linguists had become conscious of the fact thatin linguistic researchmeaning and context were neglected.By the late 1960s, people began to consider semantics to be basic to any theoretical model of language. Meaning was seen to depend to a large degree on the sociocultural contexts in which speech acts occurred. Sociocultural aspects of language in use had been particularly stressed by the functionalists, who considered the purposes language serves in normal interaction to be basic to the determination of syntactic functions.2. All this was reflected in some proposals to reconstruct the language syllabusso that learning communicative conventions would become as important as learning grammatical conventions.3. D.A. Wilkins was the main figure in setting out the fundamental considerationsfor a “functional-notional “approach to syllabus design based on communicative criteria.4. The distinguishing characteristics of the Notional-Functional Syllabus (NFS)were its attention to function as the organizing elements of English language curriculum, and its contrast with a structural syllabus in which sequenced grammatical structures served as the organizers. Reacting to methods that attended too strongly to grammatical forms, the NFS sought to focus on the pragmatic purposes to which we put language.5. Wilkin’s book Notional Syllabuses had a significant impact on the developmentof Communicative Language Teaching. Courses for different languages were then developed based on his semantic / communicative analysis. The NFS did not necessarily develop communicative competence in learners. First of all, it is not a method. It was a syllabus. However, by attending to the functional purposes of language, and by providing contextual (notional) settings for the realization of those purposes, it provides a link between a dynasty of methods that was now perishing and a new era of language teaching------Communicative Language Teaching.6. The Communicative Approach is essentially a manifestation of the 1970sm, in thesense that this was the decade when the most explicit debate took place, especially in the U.K. The subsequent period has been characterized by explorations of other, related possibilities for the design of materials and methods. More importantly, teachers in many parts of the world are finding that they need to come to terms with changes in their role, as communicative principles in language teaching become central goals of their educational systems. These educational perspectives evolved alongside, and to some extent were derived from, significant developments in linguistics, sociolinguistics and psychology.7. What are the two categories of meaning of language proposed by Wilkins? What isthe distinction between the two terms?The two categories of meaning proposed by Wilkins are “notions” and “functions”. “Notions” are domains inwhich we use language to express thought and feeling. They are both general and specific. General notionsare abstract concepts such as existence, space, time, quantity and quality. Within the general notion of spaceand time, for example, are the concepts of location, motion, dimension, speed and length of time, andfrequency. Specific notions correspond more closely to what we have become accustomed to calling“contexts” or “situations”. Personal identification, for example, is a specific notion under which name,address, phone numbers, and other personal information is subsumed. “Functions”refer to the purposes forwhich utterances or units of language are used. In language learning, language functions are often describedas categories of behavior; e.g. requests, apologies, complaints, offers, and compliments.8. According to Wilkins, language has two categories of meaning :structural meaningand functional meaning.9. Wilkins analyzed the communicative meaning that a language learner needs tounderstand and express, and he insists that the structural component cannot be ignored.Theories of language underlying the Communicative Approach1. The Communicative Approach in language teaching starts from a theory of languageas communication. When we communicate, we use the language to accomplish some functions, such as arguing, persuading, or promising. Moreover, we carry out these functions within a social context.2. The Communicative Approach has a theory of language rooted in the functionalschool. Functional linguistics is concerned with language as an instrument of social interaction rather than a system that is viewed in isolation. In addition to talking about language function and language form, there are other dimensions of communication to be considered if we are to be offered a more complete picture.They are, at least, topics (e.g. health, transport ); context and setting ( both physical and social ); and roles of people involved .3. According to Halliday, a British linguist, social context of language use canbe analyzed in terms of three factors:①he field of discourse: what is happening, including what is being talked about;②he tenor of discourse: the participants who are taking part in this exchange of meaning, who they are and what kind of relationship they have to each other;③he mode of discourse: what part the language is playing in this particular situation, for example, in what way the language is organized to convey the meaning, and what channel is used---written or spoken or a combination of the two.4. This analysis leads to a new branch, discourse analysis, the study of how sentencesin spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews. Therefore, discourse analysis becomes an indispensable part of Communicative Language Teaching.5. Closely related to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is pragmatics, the studyof the use of language in communication. Pragmatics is particularly interested in the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.6. How do you understand the relationship between the grammatical forms of a languageand their communicative functions?The relationship between the grammatical forms of a language and their communicative functions is not a one-to-one correspondence. Whereas the sentence structure is stable and straightforward, its communicative function is variable and depends on specific situational and social factors. The fact is that a single linguistic form can express a number of functions, so also can a single communicative function be expressed by a number of linguistic forms. In a communicative perspective, this relationship is explored more carefully, and as a result our views on the properties of language have seen expanded and enriched.7. In talking about CLT, on cannot avoid talking about “ communicative competence”,a term coined by Hymes (1972) in order to contrast a communicative view oflanguage with Chomsky’s (1965) theory of competence.8. How do your teaching materials handle the relationship between grammar andcommunicative function? For instance, is a “function” taught together with several grammatical forms, or just one? Alternatively, is a “function” just used as an example where the main focus is on teaching grammar?Do this point according to what your teaching materials are used. You may refer to the key to No. 2 point above, and analyze the factors using a communicative perspective.9. Chomsky claimed that every normal human being was born with a language acquisitiondevice (LAD). The LAD is a sort of mechanism or device which contains the capacity to acquire one’s first language. The LAD includes basic knowledge about the nature and structure of human language. For Chomsky, the focus of linguistic theory was to characterize the abstract abilities speakers possess that enable them to produce grammatically correct sentences in a language.10. In Hymes’s view, “ communicative competence” (proposed by Hymes) refers tothe ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to whom. Hymes’s emphasis on the importance of context in determining appropriate patterns of behavior, both linguistic and extralinguistic, appealed to teachers who found an overemphasis on accurate use of language structures to be confining and unrealistic.11. Another linguistic theory of communication favored in CLT is Halliday’sfunctional account of language use. Halliday (1975) described seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their first language:①Language can be used to get things;②to control the behavior of others;③to create interaction with others;④to express personal feelings;⑤to learn and to discover;⑥to create a world of the imagination;⑦to communicate information.12. Another source of a communicative view of language can be found in Henry Widdowson,(1978) who presented a view of the relationship between linguistic system and their communicative values in text and discourse.13. Henry Widdowson focused on the communicative acts underlying the ability to uselanguage for different purposes. His distinction between appropriacy and accuracy, communicative competence and grammatical competence, use and usage threw much light on CLT.14. According to Canale and Swain (1980), communicative competence entails fourdimensions: grammatical competence; sociolinguistic competence; discourse competence and strategic competence.①rammatical competence refers to what Chomsky calls “linguisticcompetence.”②Sociolinguistics competence refers to an understanding of the social contextin which communication takes place, including role relationships, the sharedinformation of the participants, and the communicative purpose for theinteraction.③Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual messageelements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning isrepresented in relationship to the entire discourse or text.④Strategic competence refers to the coping strategies that communicatorsemploy to start, end, keep, repair and redirect communication.15. A communicative view of language has the following four characteristics byRichards and Rodgers:①Language is a system for the expression of meaning;②The primary function of language is for interaction and communication is oneof the CommunicativeApproach characteristics;③According to the Communicative Approach, the structure of language reflectsits functional andcommunicative uses;④The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structuralfeatures, but categories offunctional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.。

Review exercises of Chapter OneType1:Judge the following statements T(rue) or F(alse):•T1.Linguistics studies not any particular language , but language in general.•F2.A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks•T3.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation.•T4.General linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.•nguage is a simple entity with multiple layers and facets.•F6.Phonetics deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning.•T7.Morphology and syntax study the same aspect of language.•T8.The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.•nguage is a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.•F10.Sociolinguistics has nothing to do with language or society.•T11.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive , but sometimes prescriptive.•F12.Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar .•F13.A synchronic study of language is a historical study.•F14.Traditional grammar regards the spoken language as primary , not the written language.•T15.The writing system of any language is always a later invention, used to record the speech.•F16.The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.•nguage is vocal because the primary medium is sounds for all languages.•nguage is entirely arbitrary.•T19.Productivity is unique to animal language.•nguage is culturally transmitted while animal call systems are genetically transmitted.•F21.Linguists must be able to speak several languages in order to study them.•F22.Linguists are judges, they know what is right and what is wrong about language.•F23.When we say synchronic descriptions of a language are prior to diachronic descriptions, we mean in describing one state of the language , some knowledge of its previous state is unnecessary.•F24.In linguistics study, linguists first work out a theory about language structure, then, test it with language facts.•nguage is arbitrary by nature but it is not entirely arbitrary.•F26.Animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species, while human beings haven’t this genetic basis.•T27.No nonhuman communication system is arbitrary.•T28.A linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of language facts.Type2:Fill in the following blanks:• 1.Human capacity for language has a _genetic_____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.• 2.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of ___language_______.• nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal ____ __symbols_____ ________ used for human communication.• 4.In professional usage, the _linguistics_____ is a scholar who studies language objectively.• 5.If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it is said to be __descriptive____. If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior it is said to be _______prescriptive______.• 6.Charles Hockett specified ____12_______ design features of human language . the most important features are _arbitrariness______ ___duality______ productivity_______ interchangeability__________ _displacement___________ ____specialization______, etc.•nguage is a system which consists of two sets of structures, one of _sound_______ and the other of ________meaning___.•nguage can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker, that means language has the feature of ____displacement_____.•9.“ A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This sentence means that language has the feature of ___arbitrariness_____.•10.Writing is a secondary language form based upon _speech_________.•11.The reason why an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are not mutually intelligible is because language is culturally ____transmission_______.•12._Displacement_____ means that language can be used to refer to things which present or not present , real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.•nguage is a system consisting of two _dual/articulation_____ structures, or two levels.•nguage is a system of ______arbitrary ____ vocal symbols used for human communication.•15.Chomsky defines conpetence________ as the ideal speaker’s knowledge of the rules of his language.•16.____parole_____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.•17.Modern linguistics gives priority to the _spoken_____ form of language.•18.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ___diachronic______ study.•19.______psycholinguistics____ relates the study of language to psychology.•20.Linguistics is generally defined as the _scientific_____ study of language.Type3: Multiple Choice:•For example: The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is __C____.• A. morphology B. general linguistics• C. phonology D. semantics• 1.A scientific study of language is conducted with references to some _C____ of language structure.• A. data B. general theory C. facts D. hypotheses• 2. ___C__ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.• A. Psycholinguistics B. Applied linguistics• C. Socio-linguistics D. Anthro-linguistics3. The D____ study of language studies the historical development of language over aperiod of time , it is a historical study. A. synchronic B. descriptive• C. prescriptive D. diachronic• 4.Modern linguistics focuses on the present-day language , it will be possible to describe language from B_____ point of view. A. sociological B. synchronic• C. diachronic D. psychological• 5. The distinction between competence and performance is similar to the distinction between __D___.• A. prescriptive and descriptive B. synchronic and diachronic• C.speech and writing D. langue and parole• 6. “Language is a purely human and non-linguistic method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”is a definition of language made by_D_____.•Hall B. Chomsky C. Hockett D. Sapir•7. C. Hockett, who specified the design features of language , is a (n)__C__linguist.• A. French B. Swiss C. American D. Canadian•8. A linguist is interested in __B___ primarily.• A.speech sounds only B. all sounds• C. written language D. general theory.•9.Chridren can speak before they can read or write shows that A____.• A. language is basically vocal B. language is arbitrary• C. language is used for communication D. language is productive•10. Which of the following words is not entirely arbitrary?D•crash B. typewriter C. bang D. fish•11.Neither “iolk”nor “a he girl”is accepted to be well constructed in English .This indicates that language is__A___.• A. rule-governed B. not arbitrary C. not produced D. vocal•12. No one has ever said or heard “A black polar bear is playing in a small hotel with an African gibbon”, but one can say it when necessary , and he can understand it in the right register . This shows the _B_ nature of language.• A. arbitrary B. productive C. displaced D. culturally transmitted•13. When a dog is barking , you can decide it is a barking for something or at someone that exists now and there . It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or a bone to be lost.This indicates the language nature of__D___.• A. arbitrariness B. productivity C. duality D. displacement•14. Duality or D_ makes a person to talk about anything with his knowledge.• A.lower level of language B. higher level of language• C. basic level of language D. double articulation of language•15. “Three ”in English , “arbre”in French and “Baum”in German all refer to the same thing . “a type of plant with a wooden trunk and branches”. This indicates that _B___.• A. language is vocal B. language is arbitrary• C. language is productive D. language is culturally transmitted•16. The study of language as a whole is often called_A_____.• A. general linguistics B. sociolinguistics• C. psycholinguistics D. applied linguistics•17.The study of language meaning is called _C_____.• A. syntax B. morphology C. semantics D. pragmatics•18. The description of a language at some point in time is a B____study.• A. diachronic B. synchronic C. descriptive D. prescriptive•19. _D____ made the distinction between langue and parole.• A. Chomsky B. Sapir C. Hall D. Saussure•20. Which of the following is NOT the design features of human language?B• A. Arbitrariness B. Performance• C. Duality D. Displacement•21.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practical problems, the study of such application is known as _C___ .• A. anthropological linguistics B. computational linguistics• C. applied linguistics D. mathematical linguistics•22. _____B_ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.• A. Parole B. Langue C. Speech D. Writing•23. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of theA____ nature of language .• A arbitrariness B. productivity C. duality D. cultural transmission•24. Which of the following is NOT a major branch of linguistics?D• A. Phonology B. Syntax C. Pragmatics D. SpeechType4: Define all the following terminologies:•Page 18-19: Exercise OneLinguistics1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign and what itrelates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.(4) duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence: knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formal abstraction anddistinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e. performance.(6) performance: Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct from theknowledge that underlies it, or competence.(7) stylistics: the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features.(8) phatic communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintainsocial contact between the speaker and the hearer.(9) functionalism: the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function incommunication.(10) formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.(11) synchronic linguistics: the study of language and speech as they are used at a givenmoment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: the study of linguistic change over time in contrast to looking atlanguage as it is used at a given moment.Type5: Answer the following questions :•Page 19: Exercise 2,3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.•Type6: Discuss th2. No, language is human-specific. Human language has seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural transmission. These features are found utterly lacking in do gs’ or pigs’ noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems.3. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection bet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack” and “bang” are exceptions, but words like these are re latively few compared with the total number of words in a language.4. A human baby does not speak any language at birth. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese. That is to say, language cannot be transmitted through heredity. It is culturally transmitted.5. Firstly, linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Secondly, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of the written language. Thirdly, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.6. A descriptive approach attempts to tell what is in the language while the prescriptive approach tells people what should be in the language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.7. Synchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time while diachronic linguistics studies language developments through time. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.e following quotes:•Page 19: Exercise 8.8. No, human language has the design feature of specialization. It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. For example, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake. However, wolves can only respond to a stimulus and is totally involved physically in the communication process. Thus, a wolf cannot have a language similar to man’s, even though it could express a thousand different emotions. Besides, the aspect of productivity also distinguishes human language from wolf ’s postures.•。

5当代语言学6第12卷2010年第3期193-219页,北京当代语言学的波形发展主题一:语言、符号与社会*顾曰国中国社会科学院语言研究所主编按 适逢中国社会科学院语言研究所60周年华诞,本文作者谨代表5当代语言学6编辑部撰写此文,以致庆贺!提要 本文以索绪尔的普通语言学理论为参照点,围绕语言、符号与社会的关系,对近一个世纪的当代语言学的发展进行了梳理。

主要包括以下内容:继承和发展索绪尔的哥本哈根学派;受索绪尔影响但相对独立的美国描写主义语言学;先认可后批判索绪尔的生成语法学;不接受并远离索绪尔的奥格顿、理查德语义学和伦敦学派;向语言与人类、语言与社会扩展的人类语言学和社会语言学。

关键词 当代语言学语言符号系统语符学区别特征生成语法学伦敦学派社会语言学人类语言学1.引言当代语言学有多少分支?比如语音学、音系学、句法学、形态学、语义学、语用学、词汇学、修辞学、语体学、方言学、比较语言学、历史语言学、话语分析、篇章语言学、会话分析、社会语言学、人类语言学、心理语言学、认知语言学、应用语言学、语料库语言学、计算语言学;还有神经语言学、侦破语音学、临床语言学、病理语言学、生态语言学、语言工程、人机对话,甚至可能还有/基因语言学0。

这么多的语言学分支,它们是从哪里来的?它们之间的关系是什么?当代语言学的发展有无规律可寻?本文对西方主流语言学百年历程作一回顾,以期能为回答这三个问题提供一些线索。

我们知道,学界通常把索绪尔(Saussure)视为当代语言学(有关术语问题见下文)的鼻祖,发端于他的C ourse in G eneral L inguistics (5普通语言学教程6)(本文引用的是Saussure 2001[1983]的版本)。

严格地说这是一个比较简便的说法,本文为了讨论的方便沿用这个观点。

我们在承认索绪尔巨大影响的同时,不能忽视跟他同时代的其他语言学家的贡献。

经过近一个世纪的发展,索绪尔当时为确立语言学作为独立学科身份而区分的内部语言学和外部语言学的疆界已彻底打破。

一、D: language acquisition device 语言习得机制2. Displacement: Displacement is that language can refer to the contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 移位法3、cultural transmission：文化传递性Animals call systems are genetically transmitted. Human languages are culturally transmitted.4. Interpersonal function: 人际关系Interpersonal function is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. In addition, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves indicate the various types of interpersonal relations. Finally, language marks our identity.5.Linguistics: Linguistics is defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language 语言学6、Applied linguistics: Applied linguistics is a branch of study which apply linguistics to the research of other areas. 应用语言学7、Syntax: Syntax studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. 句法学8. morphology: Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes. 形态学二、1. Language acquisition and language learningLanguage acquisition is to get a language subconsciously and naturally with no great effort. Language learning is to get a language consciously with great efforts and usually under the teachers’ instruction.For instance, for most Chinese, their knowledge about their mother tongue-Chinese, is language acquisition, while their knowledge about English is language learning.2. Foreign language and second languageA language has gained official status in certain region or country is called second language, while foreign language has not.For example, for most Indians, English is their second language since English has gained official status in their country while English is regarded as foreign language in China.3. Expressive function and Evocative functionExpressive function is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. In this function, language is used to evaluate, appraise and assert the speaker’s attitudes, etc.Evocative function is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. It aims to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry or please.4. Phonetics and Phonology.Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, thedescription and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.5. Semantics and PragmaticsSemantics studies the meaning of languagePragmatics is the study of meaning in context.6. Synchronic and DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.7. Langue and paroleLangue is the linguistic competence of the speaker. It refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole is the actual phenomena or data of linguistics. It refers to the actualized language.Langue is abstract, stable, systematic and not actually spoken by anyone. Parole is specific, personal, subject to personal and situational constraints and always a naturally occurring event.petence and performance(语言能力和语言运用）A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules iscalled his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.简答题:1. What are the design features of language?Arbitrariness任意性Duality二元性Creativity创造性Displacement移位性Culture transmission文化传递性Interchangeability互换性2. What is morpheme? Morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning. For example，“purify”consist of “pur” and“ify”，and the noun“disappearance” consist of three morphemes: appear, dis and ance. They all have meanings, and cannot be divided any more.3. What is phoneme? Example. Phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. E.g.：/b/ /p/ /k/ /g/.4. What is the performative function of human language? Supply example s to illustrate.The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons .It can also extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religions occasion .For example ,language is always used in the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children and the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony.5. What are the basic three branches of phonetics?Articulatory phonetics, Acoustic phonetics, Auditory phonetics.6. Giving four branches of macrolinguistics.Psycholinguistics心理语言学sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics 计算语言学.7. What are the seven function of language.Informative信息功能interpersonal function人际功能performative 施为功能Emotive function感情功能phatic communion寒暄功能recreational function娱乐功能metalingual function元语言功能。