Chapter Five Market Segmenting, Targeting and Positioning

市场营销策略外文文献及翻译Marketing StrategyMarket Segmentation and Target StrategyA market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets.Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-marketstrategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency.The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiplesegment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, acompany still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entailsselecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment.Positioning the ProductManagement's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products.Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:1.Positioning in Relation to a competitorFor some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an advantage.To fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intelunched a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,"Intel Inside" in their ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and executes its marketing strategies.At the same time,it keeps an eye on Pepsi-Cola,being sure to match anyclever,effective marketing moves made by its primary competitor.2.Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or AttributeSometimes a company's positioning strategy entails associating its product with or distancing it from a product class or attributes.Some companies try to place their products in a desirable class,such as"Madein the USA."In the words of one consultant,"There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,'Made in the USA'".Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge over large competitors such as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which don't produce all of their products in the U.S..3.Positioning by Price and QualityCertain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality products and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the price-qualitycontinuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at theother.We're not saying,however,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penney's tired―and for the most part succeeded in―repositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel lines and stressing designer names.The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrowerterms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the product of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from competing products.A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive color or lettering.A brand mark isrecognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Lauren's Polo Brand.Green Giant canned and frozen vegetable products and Arm&Hammer baking soda are both brand names and brand marks.A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a seller and given legal protection.A trademark includes not just the brand mark,as many people believe,but also the brand name.The Lanham Act of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law RevisionAct,which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms.For sellers,brands can be promoted.They are easily recognized when displayed in a store or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that needs to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based solely on price.The reputation of a brand alsoinfluences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiate commodities Sunkist oranges,Morton salt,and Domino sugar,for example .PricingPricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations.Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through itslife cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices to"skim"the imum amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low initial price to win a large market share.Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and situations.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented pricing, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,and use psychological pricing to communicate about the product's quality or value.In promotional pricing,companies temporarily sell their product bellow list price as a special-event to draw more customers,sometimes even selling below cost.With value pricing, the company offers just the night combination of quality and good service at a fair price. Another approach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price distant customers, choosing fromalternative as FOB pricing,uniform delivered pricing, zone pricing, basing-point pricing, and freight-absorption pricing. Finally,international pricing means that the company adjusts its price to meet different world markets.Distribution ChannelsMost producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution channel―a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user.Why do producers give some of the selling job tointermediaries?After all,doing so means giving up some control over how and to whom the products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to targetmarkets.Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.A distribution channel moves goods from producers to customers.Itovercomes the major time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:rmation.2.Promotion.3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyer's needs, including such activities as manufacturing and packaging.5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to fulfill the completed transferred.1.Transporting and storing goods.2.Financing.3.Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channel work.The question is not whether these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they can be shifted among channel members.To the extent that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these functions are shifted to intermediaries, the producer's costs and prices may be lower, but the intermediaries must charge more to cover the costsof their work. In dividing the work of the channel, the various functions should be assigned to the channel members who can perform them most efficiently and effectively to provide satisfactory assortments of goods to target consumers.Distribution channels can be described by the number of channellevels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel level. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish the better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel member's years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carried, and the size andquality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or selective distribution, the company will want to evaluate the store's customers, location, and future growth potential.Understanding the nature of distribution channels is important, as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because they provide greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets.The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel levels, which can include no intermediaries in adirect channel, or one to several intermediaries in indirect channels.PromotionPromotion is one of the four major elements of the company's marketing mix. The main promotion tools――advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal selling――work together to achieve the company'scommunications objectives.People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the many legal and ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling, and direct selling. Companies must work hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and resellers.市场营销策略一、市场细分和目标市场策略具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。

Chapter OneIntroduction to the World of RetailingRetailing is evolving into a global, high-tech industry that plays a major role in the global economy. About one in five U.S. workers is employed by retailers. Increasingly, retailers are selling their products and services through more than one channel—such as stores, Internet, and catalogs. Firms selling services to consumers, such as dry cleaning and automobile repairs, are also retailers.Retailing is defined as a set of business activities that add value to the products and services sold to consumers for their personal or family use. These value-added activities include providing assortments, breaking bulk, holding inventory, and providing services.The retail management decision process involves developing a strategy for creating a competitive advantage in the marketplace and then developing a retail mix to implement that strategy. The strategic decisions, discussed in the first section of this textbook, involve selecting a target market, defining the nature of the retailer's offering, and building a competitive advantage through locations, human resource management, information and supply chain management systems, and customer relationship management programs. The tactical decisions for implementing the strategy, discussed in the second half of this textbook, involve selecting a merchandise assortment, buying merchandise, setting prices, communicating with customers, managing the store, presenting merchandise in stores, and providing customer service. Large retail chains use sophisticated information systems to analyze business opportunities and make these decisions about how to operate their businesses in multiple countries.Retailing offers opportunities for exciting, challenging careers, either by working for a retail firm or starting your own business. Aspects of retail careers are discussed in Appendix 1A, and Appendix 1B provides some sources of information about the retail industry. Suggestions about starting your own business and franchising appear in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2 at the end of the book.Chapter TwoTypes of RetailersThis chapter has explained the different types of retailers and how they compete with different retail mixes to sell merchandise and services to customers. To collect statistics about retailing, the federal government classifies retailers by the type of merchandise and services they sell. But this classification method may not be useful to determine a retailer's major competitors. A more useful approach for understanding the retail marketplace is to classify retailers on the basis of the retail mix, merchandise variety and assortment, services, location, pricing, and promotion decisions they make to attract customers.During the past 30 years, U.S. retail markets have been characterized by the emergence of many new retail institutions. Traditional institutions (supermarkets, convenience, department, discount, and specialty stores) have been joined by category specialists, superstores, hypermarkets, convenience stores, warehouse clubs,off-price retailers, catalogers, and nonstore retailers. In addition, there has been substantial growth in services retailing.The inherent differences between services and merchandise result in services retailers emphasizing store management, whereas merchandise retailers emphasize inventory control issues. Traditional retail institutions have changed in response to these new retailers. For example, department stores have increased their emphasis on fashion-oriented apparel and improved the services they offer. Supermarkets are focusing more attention on meal solutions and perishables.Chapter ThreeMultichannel RetailingTraditional store-based and catalog retailers are adding electronic channels and evolving into integrated, customer-centric, multichannel retailers. This evolution toward multichannel retailing has been driven by the increasing desire of customers to communicate with retailers anytime, anywhere, anyplace.Each of the channels (stores, catalogs, and Web sites) offers unique benefits to customers. The store channel enables customers to touch and feel merchandise and use the products immediately after they are purchased. Catalogs enable customers to browse through a retailer's offering anytime and anyplace. A unique benefit offered by the electronic channel is the opportunity for consumers to search across a broad range of alternatives, develop a smaller set of alternatives based on their needs, get specific information about the alternatives they want, and make an order with a few clicks.By offering multiple channels, retailers overcome the limitations of each channel. Thus, Web sites can be used to extend the geographical presence and assortment offered by the store channel, market promotions, educate consumers, and provide an intimate link between the retailer and the customer. Stores can be used to provide a multiple sensory experience and an economical method of getting merchandise to both stores and Internet customers.The type of merchandise sold most effectively through the Internet channel depends on shipping costs, shipping time, the degree to which electronic retailers can provide prepurchase information that helps customers determine whether they will be satisfied with the merchandise, and their customer service return policies to lessen the online risk. The successful use of an electronic channel overcomes its limitations by offering testimonials from other buyers or providing brand, size, and usage information. For consumers who have previously purchased a branded product, brand name alone may be enough information to predict their satisfaction with the purchase decision.Some critical resources needed for successful multichannel retailing include operating each of the channels efficiently and then having the systems needed to provide a seamless customer experience across channels. Traditional store-based and catalog retailers possess most of these assets and thus are better positioned to evolve into multichannel retailers than are the entrepreneurial electronic retailers that first started using the Internet to reach customers. Widespread disintermediation by manufacturers is unlikely because mostmanufacturers do not have the capability to distribute merchandise efficiently to individual consumers or provide sufficient assortments.Providing a seamless interface across channels is challenging for multichannel retailers. Meeting the shopper's expectations will require the development and use of common customer databases and integrated systems. In addition, multichannel retailers will have to make decisions about how to use the different channels to support the retailer's brand image, as well as how to present consistent merchandise assortments and pricing across channels.Chapter FourCustomer Buying BehaviorTo satisfy customer needs, retailers must thoroughly understand how customers make store choice and purchase decisions and the factors they consider when deciding. This chapter describes the six stages in the buying process (need recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, choice of alternatives, purchase, and postpurchase evaluations) and how retailers can influence their customers at each stage.The importance of the stages depends on the nature of the customer's decision. When decisions are important and risky, the buying process is longer because customers spend more time and effort on information search and evaluating alternatives. When buying decisions are less important to customers, they spend little time in the buying process, and their buying behavior may become habitual.The buying process of consumers is influenced by their personal beliefs, attitudes, and values and by their social environmental. The primary social influences are provided by the consumers' families, reference groups, and culture.To develop cost-effective retail programs, retailers group customers into segments. Some approaches for segmenting markets are based on geography, demographics, geodemographics, lifestyles, usage situations, and benefits sought. Because each approach has its advantages and disadvantages, retailers typically define their target segment by several characteristics.Chapter FiveRetailing Market StrategyStrategic planning is an ongoing process. Every day, retailers audit their situations, examine consumer trends, study new technologies, and monitor competitive activities. But the retail strategy statement does not change every year or every six months; the strategy statement is reviewed and altered only when major changes in the retailer's environment or capabilities occur.When a retailer undertakes a major reexamination of its strategy, the process for developing a new strategy statement may take a year or two. Potential strategic directions are generated by people at all levels of theorganization, then evaluated by senior executives and operating personnel to ensure that the eventual strategic direction is profitable in the long run and can be implemented.A retailer's long-term performance is largely determined by its strategy. A strategy coordinates employees' activities and communicates the direction the retailer plans to take. Thus, retail market strategy describes both the strategic direction and the process by which the strategy is to be developed.The retail strategy statement includes an identification of a target market and the retail format (its offering) to be directed toward that target market. The statement also needs to indicate the retailer's methods to build a sustainable competitive advantage. Seven important opportunities for retailers to develop sustainable competitive advantages are (1) customer loyalty, (2) location, (3) human resource management, (4) distribution and information systems, (5) unique merchandise, (6) vendor relations, (7) and customer service.The strategic planning process consists of a sequence of steps, including (1) defining the business mission, (2) conducting a situation audit, (3) identifying strategic opportunities, (4) evaluating the alternatives, (5) establishing specific objectives and allocating resources, (6) developing a retail mix to implement strategy, and (7) evaluating performance and making adjustments.Chapter SixFinancial StrategyThis chapter explains some basic elements of the retailing financial strategy and examines how retailing strategy affects the financial performance of a firm. We use the strategic profit model as a vehicle for understanding the complex interrelations between financial ratios and retailing strategy. We also note that different types of retailers have different financial operating characteristics. Specifically, department store chains like Macy's generally have higher profit margins and lower turnover ratios than warehouse clubs like Costco. Yet when margin and turnover are combined into return on assets, it is possible to achieve similar financial performance.We also describe some financial performance measures used to evaluate different aspects of a retailing organization. Although the return on assets ratio in the strategic profit model is appropriate for evaluating the performance of the retail executives responsible for managing the firm, other measures are more appropriate for more specific activities. For instance, inventory turnover and gross margin are appropriate for buyers, whereas store managers should be concerned with sales or gross margin per square foot or per employee.Chapter SevenRetail LocationsDecisions about where to locate a store are critical to any retailer's success. Location decisions are particularly important because of their high-cost, long-term commitment and impact on customer patronage. Choosing a particular location type involves evaluating a series of trade-offs. These trade-offs generally include the occupancy cost of the location, the pedestrian and vehicle customer traffic associated with the location, the restrictions placed on store operations by the property managers, and the convenience of the location for customers. In addition, legal issues need to be considered when selecting a site.Retailers have a plethora of types of sites from which to choose. Each type of location has advantages and disadvantages. Many central business districts, inner-city, and Main Street locations have become more viable options than in the past due to gentrification of the areas, tax incentives, and the lack of competition. There also are a wide variety of shopping center types for retailers. They can locate in a strip or power center, or they can go into an enclosed mall or a lifestyle, fashion/specialty, theme/ festival, or outlet center. Other nontraditional sites are mixed use developments, virtual locations, airports, resorts, stores within a store, and temporary locations.Chapter EightRetail Site LocationLocation decisions have great strategic importance because they have significant effects on store choice and are difficult advantages for competitors to duplicate. Picking good sites for locating stores is part science and part art.Some factors retailers consider when evaluating an area to locate stores are (1) the economic conditions, (2) competition, (3) the strategic fit of the area's population with the retailer's target market, and (4) the costs of operating stores. Having selected an area to locate stores, the next decision is how many stores to operate in that area.When making the decision about how many stores to open in an area, retailers have to consider thetrade-offs between lower operating costs and potential cannibalization from multiple stores in an area. Most retail chains open multiple stores in an area because promotion and distribution economies of scale can be achieved. Although scale economies can be gained from opening multiple locations in an area, there also are diminishing returns associated with locating too many additional stores in an area due to cannibalization.The next step for a retailer is to evaluate and select a specific site. In making this decision, retailers consider three factors: (1) the characteristic of the site, (2) the characteristics of the trading area for a store at the site, and (3) the estimated potential sales that can be generated by a store at the site.Trade areas are typically divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary zones. The boundaries of a trade area are determined by how accessible it is to customers, the natural and physical barriers that exist in the area, the type of shopping area in which the store is located, the type of store, and the level of competition.Once retailers have the data that describe their trade areas, they use several analytical techniques to estimate demand. The Huff gravity model predicts the probability that a customer will choose a particular store in a trade area, based on the premise that customers are more likely to shop at a given store or shopping center if it is conveniently located and offers a large selection. Regression analysis is a statistically based model that estimates the effects of a variety of factors on existing store sales and uses that information to predict sales for a new site. The analog approach—one of the easiest to use—can be particularly useful for smaller retailers. Using the same logic as regression analysis, the retailer can make predictions about sales by a new store based on sales in stores in similar areas.Finally, retailers need to negotiate the terms of a lease. These lease terms affect the cost of the location and may restrict retailing activities.Chapter NineHuman Resource ManagementHuman resource management plays a vital role in supporting a retailing strategy. The organization structure defines supervisory relationships and employees' responsibilities. The four primary groups of tasks performed by retailers are strategic decisions by the corporate officers, administrative tasks by the corporate staff, merchandise management by the buying organization, and store management.In developing an organization structure, retailers must make trade-offs between the cost savings gained through centralized decision making and the benefits of tailoring the merchandise offering to local markets—benefits that arise when decisions are made in a decentralized manner.Retailers are engaged in a war of talent. To win the war, retailers develop programs to attract, develop, motivate, and keep talent. A key factor in reducing turnover is developing an atmosphere of mutual commitment.Managing diversity also is important in retailing because customers are becoming more diverse, and new entrants into the retail workforce will come largely from the ranks of women and minorities. Programs for managing diversity include diversity training, support groups and mentors, and promotion management.The human resource department is also responsible for making sure that its firm complies with the laws and regulations that prevent discriminatory practices against employees and making sure that employees have a safe and harassment-free work environment.Chapter TenInformation Systems and Supply Chain ManagementSupply chain management and information systems have become important tools for achieving a sustainable competitive advantage. Developing more efficient methods of distributing merchandise creates an opportunity to reduce expenses and improve customer service levels.The systems used to control the flow of information to buyers and then on to vendors have become quite sophisticated. Retailers have developed data warehouses that provide them with intimate knowledge of who their customers are and what they like to buy. These data warehouses are being used to strengthen the relationships with their customers and improve the productivity of their marketing and inventory management efforts.Some retailers are using distribution centers for crossdocking instead of storing merchandise. Others have their vendors supply them with floor-ready merchandise and adhere to strict delivery schedules. Still other retailers are having vendors deliver merchandise directly to their stores and use pull supply chains that base inventory policies on consumer demand. Retailers are outsourcing many of these logistics functions to third-party logistics companies.Retailers and vendors are collaborating to improve supply chain efficiency. Electronic data interchange enables retailers to communicate electronically with their vendors. The Internet has accelerated the adoption of EDI, especially among smaller, less sophisticated vendors. Other more involving and effective collaborative approaches include information sharing, VMI, and CPFR. These approaches represent the nexus of information systems and logistics management. They reduce lead time, increase product availability, lower inventory investments, and reduce overall logistics expenses.Finally, RFID has the potential of further streamlining the supply chain. These small devices are affixed to pallets, cartons, and individual items and can be used to track merchandise through the supply chain and store information, such as when an item was shipped to a distribution center. Although still relatively expensive to be placed on all items, RFID technology can reduce labor, theft, and inventory costs.Chapter ElevenCustomer Relationship ManagementTo develop a strategic advantage, retailers must effectively manage their critical resources—their finances (Chapter 6), human resources (Chapter 9), real estate and locations (Chapters 7 and 8), inventory and information (Chapter 10), and customers (Chapter 11). This chapter focuses on activities that retailers are undertaking now and will undertake in the future to increase the sales and profits they get from their better customers.Customer relationship management is a business philosophy and set of strategies, programs, and systems that focuses on identifying and building loyalty with a retailer's most valued customers. Loyal customers are committed to patronizing a retailer and are not prone to switch to a competitor. In addition to building loyalty, CRM programs are designed to increase the share of wallet from the retailer's best customers.Customer relationship management is an iterative process that turns customer data into customer loyalty through four activities: (1) collecting customer data, (2) analyzing the customer data and identifying target customers, (3) developing CRM programs, and (4) implementing CRM programs. The first step of the process is to collect and store data about customers. One of the challenges in collecting customer data is identifying the customer in connection with each transaction. Retailers use a variety of approaches to overcome this challenge.The second step is to analyze the data to identify the most profitable customers. Two approaches used to rank customers according to their profitability are calculating the customer’s lifetime value and categorizing customers on the basis of characteristics of their buying behavior—their recency, frequency, and monetary value.Using this information about customers, retailers can develop programs to build loyalty in their best customers, increase their share of wallet with better customers (e.g., converting gold customers into platinum customers), and deal with unprofitable customers (getting the lead out). Four approaches that retailers use to build loyalty and retain their best customers are (1) launching frequent shopper programs, (2) offering special customer services, (3) personalizing the services they provide, and (4) building a sense of community. Unprofitable customers are dealt with by developing lower-cost approaches for servicing them. Effectively implementing CRM programs is difficult because it requires coordinating a number of different areas in a retailer's organization.Chapter TwelveManaging Merchandise AssortmentsThis chapter provides an overview of the merchandise management planning process and examines sales forecasting and assortment planning in more detail. Merchandise is broken down into categories for planning purposes. Buyers and their partners, merchandise planners and assorters, manage these categories, often with the help of their major vendors.Performance measures used to assess merchandise management are GMROI, sales-to-stock ratios and inventory turnover, and gross margin. Retailers use GMROI to plan and evaluate merchandise performance. The GMROI planned for a particular merchandise category is derived from the firm’s overall financial goals, broken down to the category level. Gross margin percentage and inventory turnover work together to form this useful merchandise management tool.High inventory turnover is important for a retailer's financial success. But if the retailer attempts to push inventory turnover to its limit, stockouts and increased costs may result.When developing a sales forecast, retailers need to know what stage of the life cycle a particular category is in and whether the product is a fad, fashion, or staple item so they can plan their merchandising activities accordingly. Creating a sales forecast involves such sources of information as (1) previous sales data, (2) personal awareness, (3) fashion and trend services, (4) vendors, and (5) traditional market research.The next step in the merchandise planning process is developing an assortment plan and model stock list. The assortment plan reflects the retailer's merchandise strategy with respect to the depth and breadth of merchandise carried in the category.Chapter ThirteenMerchandise Planning SystemsThis chapter reviews the merchandise planning and buying systems for staple and fashion merchandise. Buying systems for staple merchandise are very different from those for fashion merchandise. Because information is available about past sales for each SKU, it is relatively straightforward to forecast future merchandise needs.The sales forecast and inventory turnover described in Chapter 12 work together to drive the merchandise budget plan for fashion merchandise. The sales forecast is broken down by month, based on historical seasonality patterns. It is necessary to purchase more in months when sales are forecast to be higher than average. Planned inventory turnover is converted to stock-to-sales ratios and used in the merchandise budget plan to determine the inventory level necessary to support sales. Monthly stock-to-sales ratios are then adjusted to reflect seasonal sales patterns. The end product of the merchandise budget planning process is the dollar amount of merchandise a buyer should purchase each month for a category if the sales forecast and inventory turnover goals are to be met.The open-to-buy system begins where the merchandise budget plan and staple goods inventory management systems leave off. It tracks how much merchandise is purchased for delivery in each month. Using an open-to-buy system, buyers know exactly how much money they’ve spent compared with how much they plan to spend.Once the merchandise is purchased, merchandise buyers in multistore chains must allocate the merchandise to stores. Buyers must look at the differences in not only sales potential among stores but also the characteristics of the customer base.In the end, the performance of buyers, vendors, and individual SKUs must be determined. Three different approaches can evaluate merchandise performance. The sell-through analysis is more useful for examining the performance of individual SKUs in the merchandise plan. The buyer compares actual with planned sales to determine whether more merchandise needs to be ordered or if the merchandise should be put on sale. In an ABC analysis, merchandise is rank ordered from highest to lowest. The merchandising team uses this information to set inventory management policies. For example, the most productive SKUs should carry sufficient backup stock to never be out of stock. Finally, the multiattribute method is most useful forevaluating vendors’ performance. This chapter concludes with Appendix 13A, in which we examine the retail inventory method.Chapter FourteenBuying MerchandiseThis chapter examines issues surrounding purchasing merchandise and vendor relations. Retailers can purchase either national brands or private-label brands. Each type has its own relative advantages. Choosing appropriate brands and a branding strategy is an integral component of a firm's merchandise and assortment planning process.Buyers of manufacturers brands attend trade shows and wholesale market centers to meet with vendors, view new merchandise, and place orders. Virtually every merchandise category has at least one annual trade show at which retailers and vendors meet. The process for buying private-label merchandise can be more complicated than that for buying national brands, because the retailer takes on some of the responsibilities that a national brand manufacturer normally would have, such as designing and specifying products and selecting manufacturers to make the products. A large percentage of private-label merchandise is manufactured outside of the United States. The cost, managerial, and ethical issues surrounding global sourcing decisions must be considered.Buying merchandise sometimes is facilitated by resident buying offices. Market representatives of these resident buying offices facilitate merchandising purchases in foreign markets.Buyers of both national brands and private labels engage in negotiating a series of issues with their vendors, including markdown money, slotting fees, advertising allowances, terms of purchase, exclusivity, and transportation costs. Successful vendor relationships depend on planning for and being adept at negotiations.Retailers that can successfully team up with their vendors can achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. There needs to be more than just a promise to buy and sell on a regular basis. Strategic relationships require trust, shared goals, strong communications, and a financial commitment.Buyers need to be aware of ethical and legal issues to guide them in their negotiations and purchase decisions. There are also problems associated with counterfeit and gray-market merchandise and issues that vendors face when selling to retailers, such as exclusive territories and tying contracts. Care should be taken when placing restrictions on which retailers they will sell to, what merchandise, how much, and at what price.。

什么是STP理论？市场细分（Market Segmentation）的概念是美国营销学家温德尔·史密斯(Wended Smith)在1956年最早提出的，此后，美国营销学家菲利浦·科特勒进一步发展和完善了温德尔·史密斯的理论并最终形成了成熟的STP理论（市场细分（Segmentation）目标市场选择（Targeting）和市场定位（Positioning））。

它是战略营销的核心内容。

STP理论中的S、T、P分别是Segmenting、Targeting、Positioning三个英文单词的缩写，即市场细分、目标市场和市场定位的意思。

[编辑]STP理论的内容要义STP理论的根本要义在于选择确定目标消费者或客户，或称市场定位理论。

根据STP理论，市场是一个综合体，是多层次、多元化的消费需求集合体，任何企业都无法满足所有的需求，企业应该根据不同需求、购买力等因素把市场分为由相似需求构成的消费群，即若干子市场。

这就是市场细分。

企业可以根据自身战略和产品情况从子市场中选取有一定规模和发展前景，并且符合公司的目标和能力的细分市场作为公司的目标市场。

随后，企业需要将产品定位在目标消费者所偏好的位置上，并通过一系列营销活动向目标消费者传达这一定位信息，让他们注意到品牌，并感知到这就是他们所需要的。

STP理论是指企业在一定的市场细分的基础上，确定自己的目标市场，最后把产品或服务定位在目标市场中的确定位置上。

具体而言，市场细分是指根据顾客需求上的差异把某个产品或服务的市场逐一细分的过程。

目标市场是指企业从细分后的市场中选择出来的决定进入的细分市场，也是对企业最有利的市场组成部分。

而市场定位就是在营销过程中把其产品或服务确定在目标市场中的一定位置上，即确定自己产品或服务在目标市场上的竞争地位，也叫“竞争性定位”。

[编辑]营销学中的STP现代市场营销理论的核心就是STP营销，它包括三要素：市场细分（market segmentation）目标市场（market targeting）市场定位（market positioning）[编辑]市场细分市场细分的概念是美国市场学家温德尔·史密斯(Wendell R.Smith)于20世纪50年代中期提出来的。