语言学：Chapter 1 The origins of language

The Origins of LanguageWhat is the origin of language?How did humans invent this tool?Origin of LanguageThe origin of language is a topic that has been written about for centuries. We know that, at least once during human evolution, a system of verbal communication emerged from proto-linguistic or non-linguistic means of communication, but beyond that little can be said.Speculations on the Origin of Language⏹The divine source⏹The natural-sound source⏹The oral-gesture source⏹Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）The Divine SourceIn most religions, there appears to be a divine source who provides humans with language.The Biblical account in Genesis⏹The Book of Genesis2:19-20 God give Adam the task of assigning names to all the animals and plants he had in Eden.⏹The key Biblical narrative is a later Bible story that God punished human for building the Tower of Babel by confusing the tongues of the builders; the observed variety of human languages is a consequence of that divine judgment:Origin of LanguageGod descended to see the city and the tower that the sons of man had built. God said, 'They are a single people, all having onelanguage, and this is the first thing they do! Now nothing they plan to do will be unattainable for them! Come, let us descend and confuse their speech, so that one person will notunderstand another's speech'.From that place, God scattered them all over the face of the earth, and they stopped building the city. He named it Babel, because this was the place where God confused the world's language.It was from there that God dispersed humanity over all the face of the earth.ExperimentsA few experiments have been carried out on the basis of a hypothesis that if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original God-given language.Psammetichus’ExperimentAn Egyptian pharaoh Psammetichus tried the experiment with two newborn infants around 600 BC. After two years in the company of goats and a mute shepherd, the children were reported to have spontaneously uttered, not an Egyptian word, but something reported to be the Phrygian words bekos, meaning “bread”.The Experiment of James Ⅳof Scotland⏹He carried out a similar experiment around AD 1500 and the children were reported to have started speaking Hebrew.⏹All other cases of children who have been discovered living without access to human speech in their early years, grow up with no language at all.The natural-sound source⏹This view suggests that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.⏹The “bow-wow”hypothesis: imitation of animal sounds⏹The “pooh-pooh”hypothesis: instinctive utterance of pain, anger and joy⏹The “yo-he-ho”hypothesis: rhythmic chants and vocalisms uttered in communal labor.The Oral-gesture Source⏹The oral-gesture theory proposes an extremely specific connection between physical and oral gesture.⏹Originally a set of physical gestures were developed as a means of communication. Then a set of oral gestures developed.Glossogentics⏹Glossogentics focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.⏹In the evolutionary development there are certain physical features, best thought of as partial adaptations, that appear to be relevant for speech.Each of these speculations may account for certain aspects of human language; however,it remains a mystery!。

Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。

The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentMonthly examExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。

胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。

胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。

Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLanguage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.The pooh-pooh theoryLanguage arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.To sum up:The divine-origin theory: language is a gift of god to mankind.The invention theory: imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.The evolutionary theory: the result of physical and psychological development.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intendedmeaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words. Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Productivity/Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‗new‘. In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cannot create a ‗new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.g. human vocal tractFunctions of language (3+6+7+3)1. Three main functionsthe descriptive function: the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.the expressive function: it supplies information about the user‘s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. the social function：also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people2. The Russian-born structural linguists Roman Jakobson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function. That is, in conjunction of the six primary factors of any speech event, he established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication in his famous article: Linguistics and PoeticsAddresser—Emotive (intonation showing anger)Addressee—Conative (imperatives and vocatives)Context—Referential (conveys a message or information)Message—Poetic (indulge in language for its own sake)Contact—Phatic communion (to establish communion with others)Code—Metalinguistic (to clear up intentions, words and meanings)3. In the early 1970s the British linguist M.A.K. Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions, namely, instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic, and imaginative. This system contains three macrofunctions—the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual function.three meta-functions proposed by M. A. K. Halliday(1) The ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information. It constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations(2) The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community. It enacts social relationships(3) The textual functionTo form a text. It creates relevance to context.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actualrealization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentrates primarily on what speakers do with language which led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In Halliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the public ation of F. de Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psych ological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。

《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。

Chapter 1Introduction1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics语言学: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language语言: a system of arbitrary vocal 任意的声音symbols used for human communication.用于人类交流的任意声音符号系统(3) arbitrariness任意性: the absence of similarity betweenthe form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality,语言符号的形式与现实的关系缺乏相似性e.g. the worddog does not look like a dog.(4) duality双重性: the way meaningless elements of languageat one level (sounds and letters) combine to formmeaningful units (words) at another level.在一个层面上（语言和字母）的无意义的语言元素结合在另一个层次上形成有意义的单位（词）(5) competence语言能力: knowledge of the grammar of alanguage as a formal abstraction and distinct from thebehavior of actual language use作为一种形式抽象的语言的语法知识，区别于实际语言使用的行为, i.e.performance.(6) performance语言运用: Chomsky’s term for actuallanguage behavior as distinct from the knowledge thatunderlies it, or competence.乔姆斯基对实际语言行为的术语不同于它的知识，或能力。

Chapter 1 The origins of languageJespersen‟s proposal that human language originated while humans were actually enjoying themselves.We do know that spoke language developed well before written language.The dinine source 神授说1.According to one view,Go d created Adam and “whatsoever Adam called every living creature ,that was the name thereof”2.Hindu tradition,language came from the goddess Sarasvati,wife of Brahma,creator of the universe.3.实验1：An Egytian pharaoh tried the experiment with two newborn infants.After two years in the company of goats and mute shepherd,the children were reported to have spontaneously uttered,not an Egyptian word.4.实验2：James IV of scotland carried out experiment and the children were reported to have started speaking Hebrew.5.结论：Children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.If human language did emanate from a divine source,we have no way of reconstructing that original language.The natural –sound source 自然声音说定义：”natural sounds” The suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.1.”Bow-wow”理论形成The fact that all modern language have some words with pronunciations wihich seem to “echo”naturally occurring sounds could be used to support this theory.In English,in addition to cuckoo,we have splash,bang,boom,rattle,buzz,hiss,screech,and forms such as bow-wow.In fact,this type of view has been called the”bow-wow theory”of language origin.It has been also suggested that the oringinal sounds of language came from natural cries of emotion,such as Pain,anger and joy.Basically,the expressive noises people make in emotional reactions contain sounds that are not otherwise used in their language and,consequently,seem to be unlikely candidates as source-sounds.2.”Yo-heave-ho”理论形成One other”natural sound”proposal has come be known as the “yo-heave-ho”theory.The sounds of a preson involved in physical effort could be the source of our language ,especially when that physical effort involved several people and had to be coordinated.The appeal of this theory is that it places the developmentof human language in some social context.The oral-gesture source 口语-体势相关说1.One suggestion regarding the origins of the sounds of language involves a link between physical gesture and orally produced sounds2.The “oral-gesture”theory ,however,proposes an extremely specific connection between physical and oral gesture.It is claimed that originally a set of physical gesture was developed as a means of communication.Then a set of oral gestures,specifically involving the mouth,developed3.we can,indeed,use mine or specific gestures for communicative purposes,but it is hard to visualize the actual”oral”aspect which would mirror many such gestures.4.a large numberof linguistic messages which would appear to defy transmission via this type of gesturing.Glossogenetics 言语遗传学说1.定义Glossogenetics focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.2.There is a concentration,in this approach,on some of the physical aspects of humans that are not shared with any other creatures.3.In the evolutionary development there are certain physical features,best thought of as partial adaptations,that appear to be rellevant for speech.Physiological adaptation 生理顺序1.The characteristics ,the teeth of human are upright and roughly even height ,are not needed for eating ,but they have extremely helpful in making sounds such as f,v and th2.Human lips save much more intricate muscle interlacing and their resulting flexibility certainly helps with sounds like p,b and w.3.The human mouth is relatively small,can be opened and closed rapidly,and contains a very flexible tongue which can be used to shape a wide variety of sounds.4.In the course of human physical development ,the assumption of an upright posture moved the head forward and the larynx lower.5.Disadvantage of larynx is that the position of the human larynx makes it much more possible for the human to choke on pieces of food.6.The human brain is lateralized,that is ,it has specialized functions in each of the two hemispheres.Those functionswhich are analytic ,such as tool-using and language ,are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.It may be that there is an evolutionary connection between the tool-using and language-using abilities of humans,and that both are related to the development of the human brain.7.The huamn may have first developed the naming ability,producing a specific noise for a specific object.The crucial additional step which was then accomplished was to bring another specific noise into combination with the first to build a complex message.Interactions and transactions 互动性和传递性1.In developing speech,humans have obviously incorporated versions of naturally occurring sounds such as cuckoo and bow-wow.2.They have also incorporated cries of emotional reaction,such as Wow,Ugh and Oops,and accompany much of their speech with physical gestures such as pointing and raising of the hand in the shape of fist,with middle finder pointing up.3.互动定义：It has to do with how humans use language to interact with eachother,socially or emotionally.4.传递定义：Humans use their linguistic abilities to communicate knowledge,skills and information.Chapter 2 The development of writing1.we may trace cave drawings and clay as ancient precursors of writing2.writing which is based on some type of alphabetic script can only be traced back to inscriptions dated aroud 3000 years ago.3.much of the evidence used in the reconstruction of ancient writing systems comes from inscriptions on stone or tablets found in the rubble of ruined cities.Pictograms and ideograms 象形文字和表意文字1.cave drawing are not usually thought of as any type of specifically linguistic message.They are normally considered as part of tradition of pictorial art2.象形文字定义：when some of the “pictures”came to represent particular images in a consistent way,we can begin to describe the product as a form of pocture-writing or pictograms.An essential part of this use of a representative symbol is that everyone should use similar forms to convey roughly similar meaning.3.In time,this picture might take on a more fixed symbolic form and this type of symbol is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing,or ideograms4.distinction between pictograms and ideogramsThe more …picture-like‟ forms are pictograms,the more abstract ,derived forms are ideograms.A key property of both pictograms and ideograms is that they do not represent words or sounds in a particular language.5.when the relationship between the symbol and entity or idea becomes sufficiently abstract,we can be more confident that the symbol is being used to represent words in a language.when symbols come to be used to represent words in a language,they are described as examples of word-writing,or logograms.Logograms 语标书写法1.语标书写法定义：The term …cuneiform‟means …wedge-shaped‟ and inscription used by Sumerians were produced by pressing a wedge-shaped implement into soft clay tablets.。

语⾔学复习要点Chapter 11.要点a.the definition of languageb.the design features and the functions of languagec.the distinction between human language and animal communication or other artificial sign systemd.major distinctions in linguistics2.实践1）Unlike animal communication systems, human language is __________.A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest2) Which of the following is the most important function of language?A. interpersonal functionB. performative functionC. informative functionD. recreational function3) The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree centigrade” is _______.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4) __________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics?A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John LyonsChapter 21.要点a.the definition of phonetics and its three major research fieldsb.the location, characteristics and function of the speech organse.cardinal vowelsf.IPAg.Broad and narrow transcription and the lip position in the pronunciation of the cardinalvowelsh.The definition of phonologyi.The comparison and contrast between phonetics and phonologyj.The definition of phone, phoneme, allophone, minimal pair and free variationk.Theories on phoneme, phonemic contrast and complementary distributionl.Features on phonetic similarity and distinctionm.Suprasegmental features (syllables, stress, tone, etc.)2.实践1）Of the three cavities, ___ is the most variable and active in amplifying and modifying speechsounds.A. nasal cavityB. pharynxC. oral cavity2) All syllables contain a ________.A. nucleusB. codaC. onset3）Ａsound which capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a given language is a ________.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phoneme4) __________ is one of the suprasegmental features.A. stopB. VoicingC. DeletionD. tone5) Narrow transcription is the phonetic transcription with ___________.A. diacriticsB. distinctive featuresC. voicingA. larynxB. soft palateC. voicingD. articulation7) Which of the following consonants does not exist in English?A. dental stopB. bilabial stopC. alveolar stopD. velar stop8. _________ is not a distinctive feature in English phonology.A. NasalityB. VoicingC. AspirationD. Rounding9.________ is not an English consonant.A. labio-dental plosive b. alveolar nasal C. velar stop D. dental fricative10. The choice of an allophone in a given phonetic context is _________.A. randomB. predictableC. variableD. independent11. Voicing of explosives is a distinctive feature in __________.A. ChineseB. EnglishC. both Chinese and EnglishD. neither Chinese and EnglishChapter 31．要点a. the definitions of the basic concepts in this chapter：word, morpheme, morphology, free morpheme, bound morpheme, inflectional affix and derivational affix,b. inflection and word formation,3.实践1）Compound words consist of _______ morphemes.A. bound2) Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are __________.A. grammatical wordsB. Lexical wordsC. neither grammatical nor lexical words3) “Radar” is a/an ________.A. acronymB. blendingC. coinageD. clipping4) The words “take ” and “table ” are called _______ because they can occur unattached.A. form wordsB. bound morphemesC. free morphemesD. inflectional morphemes5) A __________ is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.A. BlendingB. AcronymC. AbbreviationD. invention6) A ___ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A. stemB. rootC. allomorphD. Lexeme7) _______ is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.A. loanshiftB. Loan translationC. loanwordD. loanblend8）________is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts asmasculine/feminine/neuter, animate/inanimate, etc.9) the relation between words “rose” and “flower ” is that of _________.A. synonymyB. antonymyChapter 41. 要点a. the important concepts in this chapter: syntax, endocentric and exocentric construction, the deep structure and surface structure, immediate constituent analysis, concord, government, category,Chapter 51. 要点a. the definition of semantics,b. theory of semantic triangle,c. different kinds of meaning,d. sense relationse. componential analysisf. sentence meaning2. 实践1) The sense relationship between “John plays violin” and “John plays a musical instrument” is _______.A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. entailment2) “Semantics is the scientific study of meaning” is a ____.A. synonymyB. polysemyC. antonymyD. tautology.3) Conceptual meaning is ________.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. associativeD. affective4) When the word “root” means “part of plat that keeps it firmly in the soil and absorbs water and food from the soil”, the meaning is ________ meaning.A. connotativeB. conceptualC. reflected5) “Wide/narrow ” is an example of ____________.A. gradable oppositeB. relational oppositesD. complementarityChapter 61. 要点a. speech act theoryb. principle of conversationc. Cooperative Principled. characteristics of implicaturee. context2. 实践1）An illocutionary act is identical with ________A. sentence meaningB. the speaker?s meaningC. language understandingD. the speaker?s competence2) The Indirect Speech Act was developed by _______.A．John Austin B. Levinson C. John Lyons D. John Searle3) ________ is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context use.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Semantics4. Tautologies like boys are boys are extreme examples in which maxim of _____ is violated.A. qualityB. quantityC. relevanceD. mannerChapter 71. 要点a. morphological change and syntactic changeb. vocabulary changec. addition of new wordsd. changes in the meaning of words2. 实践1)a. speech community and speech varietyb. varieties of language：regional dialect, sociolect, idiolect ethnic dialect, register, standard dialect, pidgin and creole,c. bilingualism and diglossia2. 实践1) In the present day, the stability of _ seems to be decreasing.A. social-class dialectB. idiolectC. tabooD. regional dialectChapter 91. 要点a. the relationship between language and cultureb. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis1.Which of the following statements about language is Not true?/doc/416a48858762caaedd33d4e3.html nguage is a system./doc/416a48858762caaedd33d4e3.html nguage is symbolic.C.Animals also have language./doc/416a48858762caaedd33d4e3.html nguage is arbitrary.2.What is the most important function of language?A.Interpersonal.B. Phatic/doc/416a48858762caaedd33d4e3.html rmative D. Meatlingual.3.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed byA. SaussureB. HallidayC. ChomskyD. The Prague School4. Which of the following phonetic description matches the English consonant {p}A. a voiceless bilabial stopB. a voiced bilabial stopC. a voiceless dental stopD. a voiceless dental fricative5. Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?C. approximationD. aspiration6. If two similar sound segments never occur in the same phonetic environment, then they areA. two separate phonemesB. two allophones of phonemesC. two free variation of a phonemeD. a minimal pair7. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology?A. phoB. no.C. loD. gy8. If there is an English adjective “pornitial”, _______ is the most possible for negative form.A. ip-B. im--C. ilD.in-9. An ____ language is a language in which concepts that we express using proposition, possessive adjectives, and so on are expressed as morphs concatenanted in the same words as the relevant base.A. inflectingB. agglutinationC. isolatingD. analytical10. Which of the following words is created through the process of acronym?A. adB. editC. AIDSD. Bobo11. The word “lab” is formed throughA. back formationB. blendingC. clippingD. derivationA. between stone and yesterdayB. between she and brokeC. between broke and the windowD. between window and with13. Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns?A. gender.B. numberC. caseD. voice14. Chomsky holds that the major task of linguistics is toA. study real “facts” in daily settingsB. tell people how to speak appropriatelyC. look for …the universal grammar?D. tell people what is right in language use15. A word with several meanings is called ___ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a mutilple16. Among Leech?s seven types of meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers toA. conceptualB. affectiveC. reflectedD. thematic17. ____ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of the meaning of each constituent word.A. CollocationB. IdiomC. Semantic componentD. Synonym18. There are _____ deixis in the sentence She has sold it here yesterday.A. 3B. 4D. 619. ____ may be used as an example of indirect speech act.A. “Could you open the window?”B. “I hereby declare Mr. William elected.”C. “Good morning!”D. “I command you to report at 6 in the morning tomorrow.”20. The maxim of ____ requires that a participant?s contribution be relevant to the conversation.A. QuantityB. qualityC. manners D relation21. A scientific study of language studies is conducted with references to some ____ of language structure.A. dataB. general theoryC. factsD. hypotheses22. studies the historical development of language over a period of time, it is a historical study.A. synchronicB. descriptiveC. prescriptiveD. diachronic23. The distinction between competence and performance is similar to the distinction betweenA. prescriptive and descriptiveB. synchronic and diachronicC. speech and writingD. langue and parole24. Children can speak before they can read or write shows thatA. language is basically vocalB. language is arbitraryC. language is used for communicationD. language is productive25. A minimal pair can be illustrated byA. sip/sheepB. bread/breastD. breath/breathe26 Diphthongs are characterized by ____.A. glidingB. voicingC. aspirationD. stress27. The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” isA.[v]B. [d]C.[f]D.[m]28. …Look? is a monomorphemic word which conveys ____ meaning.A. morphologicalB. morphemicC. lexicalD. grammatical29. ____ morphemes are those than cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free of bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix30. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to that type of ___ to form a new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word31. ____ are closed categories because no new words are allowed for.A. syntactic categoriesB.Major lexical categoriesC. minor lexical categoriesD. phrasal categories32. “She gave the book to John..”can be changed to “to whom did she give the book?”This involves ___.A. NP—movement.B. WH-movementC. AUX-movementD. Post-verb adjective movement33. The meaning of a language form is as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer” is proposed byA. PlatoB. FirthC. ChomskyD. Bloomfield34. Sound（adj.）and sound (n.) are identical in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. They are____.A. homophonesB. homographsC. hyponymsD. complete homonyms35. A word with several meaning is a _____.A. synonymyB. polysemic wordC. co-hyponym.D. complete homonym36. ____ of a sentence depends on the context in which the sentence is uttered.A. sentence-meaningB. utterance-meaningC. the referenceD. the meaning37. “What a marvelous dinner you cooked!”What politeness maxim does the speaker of the utterance observe?A. Modesty maximB. sympathy maximC. approbation maximD. tact maxim38. Morphological changes involves?A. The lossB. additionC. alteration of morphological rulesD. all of above39. Proximately the number of pidgin speakers in the world isA. about 6 millionB. about 12 millionC. somewhere between 6 and 12 millionD. unknown40. In Early modern English ___ was the second person pronoun used by social superiors to inferiors.1-5 cccad 6-10 bbbbc 11-15 cbdca 16-20 abbad 21-25 bddac 26-30 aacbc 31bcddb 36-40 bcdbb. politeness principlesThe CP itself cannot explain why people are often to indirect in conveying what they really mean and why the conversational maxims are frequently infringed in social contexts. If these questions are considered in a broader, socially and psychologically oriented approach of pragmatics, they may be answered by the Politeness Principle (PP). Politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person?s public self-image.1. Tact maxim 策略原则(尽量减少他⼈损失、尽量使别⼈获益)2．Generosity maxim 慷慨原则3．Approbation maxim 赞颂原则4．Modesty maxim 谦虚原则5．Agreement maxim 附和原则6．Sympathy maxim 同情原则1）A. May I invite you to dinner this evening?B. Sorry. I have an appointment.2) A. How?s bill?s term paper?B. The handwriting is beautiful.3) A. Bill has taken your parking place again.B. Well, I like that.3. deitic words: are related to the orientation or position of events of entities in the real world. They may be personal, such as you, me, or spatial such as this, that, here, there, or temporal such as mow, then, etc.example:speaker: The professor has got a car.英语语⾔学常识练习1.What is true of linguist?A.He needs to be able to speak a large number of languages.B.He must have a wide experience of different types of languages.C.He takes great interest in analyzing and attempting to explain various linguisticphenomenon.D.His task is basically to study and understand the general principles upon all languages arebuilt.2.Which of the following is Not true of linguistics?A.It does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.B.It is descriptive, not prescriptive.C.It regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.D.It stresses the importance of strict grammatical rules.3.Study of grammar and its development over different historical periods is ________.A. applied linguisticsB. synchronic linguisticsC. diachronic linguisticsD. sociolinguistics4. Human language is distinguished from animal communication due to the following defining features except_________.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. cultural transmissionD. fluency5. The _________ of a language is the system and pattern of the speech sounds used in that particular language.A. phonologyB. phoneticsC. morphologyD. semantics6. Which of the following is not a dental?7. Which of the following is not a plosive?8. ________ refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.A. phonologyB. morphologyC. semanticsD. pragmatics9. The word reliability consists of ________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 510. Which of the following words is not a compound?A. managementB. loudspeakerC. baby-sitD. warm-hearted11. ___ is the study of how sentences are structured of in others words, it tries to state what words can be combined with others to form sentences and in what order.A. syntaxB. phonologyC. semanticsD. grammar12. Simply stated, ________ is the study of meaning in language.A. syntaxB. semanticsC. morphologyD. phonology13. According to the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards, the referent refers to ____.A. the linguistic element, that is the word, sentence, etc.B. the object, etc. in the world of experienceC. conceptD. name of the object.14. Which of the following pairs are collocationally-restricted synonyms?A. brotherly fraternalB. man chapC. addled eggs rancid baconD. statesman politician15. The word site is the ________ of sight.A. homophoneB. homographC. hyponymD. antonym16. Which of following is the hyponym of the word flower?A. plantB. treeC. roseD. petal17. The words male and female are _________.A. homographsB. hyponymsC. synonymsD. antonyms18. ________ is the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communications.A. pragmaticsB. syntaxC. semanticsD. morphology19. According to John Austin ?s speech act theory, a speaker, while making an utterance, is in most cases performing simultaneously the following acts except___________.A. A locutionary actB. an illocutionary actC. a per locutionary actD. a pre locutionary act20. Based on Grice?s Cooperative Principle in making conversation, “Do not say what you believeto be false.” Is a requirement of the maxim of __________.A. quantityB. qualityC. relationD. manner21. Which of the following words is a blend?A. gymB. smogC. radarD. edit22. The word cattle in Middle English means property, livestock; but now the word generally refers to any of such mammals as cows, steers, bulls, and oxen. This is an example of ________.A. meaning shift.B. widening of meaningC. narrowing of meaningD. loss of meaning23. Which of the following statements is correct?A. langue refers to the language system itself.B. Parole is the realization of the language system in speechC. sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves，while reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.D. All of above.答案1-5adcda 6-10 dcbba 11-15 abbca 16-20 cdadb 21-23bcdBlank Filling1 Linguistics is the scientific study of ___.2 To many people, a linguist is the same as a ___ , one who can speak several Languages fluently.3 In professional usage, the ___ is a scholar who studies Language objectively, observing it scientifically, recording the facts of Language, and generalizing from them.4 ___ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing the sounds of speech; ___ phonetics studies the way the sounds of speech are perceived by the human ear.5 ___ deals with how Language is acquired, understood and produced.6 ___ studies the neurological basis of Language development and use in human beings.7 ___ is concerned with the diversity of Language as it relates to various sociological factors.8 ___ is concerned with variation and use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.9 The ancient theories of the origin of Language were of ____origin.10 The Egyptians considered themselves to have the oldest civilization and asserted that the original human Language was ___.1 The theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ___ theory.2 The theory that primitive man instinctively gave vocal expression to every external impression has been called the ___ theory.3 A commonly held view among the classic Greeks was that at some ancient time there was a “___ “ who gave the correct, natural name to everything.4 The theory that Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy has been called the ___ theory.5 The theory that primitive Language was an imitation of natural sound, such as animal cries, has been called the theory.6 The theory that Language arose from human beings? instinctive need for contact with his companion has been called the ___ theory.7 Writing is a secondary Language form based upon ___, and Morse code is tertiary, based upon ___.8 The reason why Languages other than our own sound like gibberish is because we have not mastered the complexity of their ___.9 The symbols are said to be arbitrary because they do not ___ what they represent.10 Language is called upon not only for communication, but also for ___ and cultural ____.1 Language is an ___ system of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society.2 Language is a purely human and ___ method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a ___ of voluntarily produced symbols.3 Language is a system of arbitrary ___ symbols which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who havelearned the ___ of that culture, to communicate or interact.4 The earliest grammar of any Language was ___ grammar by the Hindu scholar Panini.5 Plato proceeded first to divide the sentence into two parts: ___ and ___.6 The Greek approach to Language was taken over by the ___ and applied with little change to their Language ___.7 The first major new development in linguistics until the 13th century was ___ grammar.8 The 15th and 16th centuries were marked by the ___ of views of Language and an increased awareness of the ___ among Languages.9 In the 17th century the Port royal Grammarians stressed the ___ of thought.10 The beginning of modern linguistics was from the late 18th and early 19th century when the ___ method was developed and established.1 Chomsky?s theory of generative grammar revolutionized work in linguistics in 1957, with the publication of his book ___.2 Saussure?s exposition of ___ analysis led to t he school of ___ linguistics which developed around the work of Leonard Bloomfield in America.3 A Language is responsive to the ___ forces that shape history.4 The Language of Britain was ___ when the Romans invaded the land in 55 and 54 BC.5 The Celtic Language was influenced by ___ during the roman occupation after AD 44.6 The three Teutonic groups established in England by the successive invasions after AD 450 were: ___, ___ and __.7 As a result of the Norman Conquest of 1066, vast quantities of ___ words were added to the English vocabulary.8 The most memorable writing in the Middle English period was ___ by Geoffrey Chaucer.9.As Samuel Johnson?s A Dictionary of the English Language established a uniform standard for ___ and word use, so Bish op Lowth?s and other grammarians? works standardized English ___.10 Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce a pattern of ___. These movements have an effect on the ___ coming from the lungs.11 When sounds are produced, the air-stream sent out from the lungs passes through the ___ contained in the larynx.12 If the glottis is wide open, the air passes freely through the cords, but if it is narrowed, the presence of the air causes the cords to vibrate, producing ___ sounds.13 A sound which is made with the glottis wide open is called a ___ sound.14 Consonant sounds can be either ___ or ___, while all vowel sounds are ___.The shape of the ___ and ___ cavities can be changed, and each change produces a different sound.1 The differences between the vowel in the word tea and the vowel in the word two is that the first is made with the lips ___ and the front of the tongue humped, and the second is made with the lips ___ and the back of the tongue humped.2 In the case of vowel sounds, the pharynx and the mouth cavities are changed by the shape and position of the ___ and the ___.3 The sounds t, d, p, and b are made when the ___ in the mouth is suddenly opened and the air allowed to escape in a little puff or explosion.4 Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing___.5 The sounds f and v are the result of air escaping under friction between the lower ___ and upper ___.6 All English sounds except me, n, and ny are made with the soft palate ___.7 When the ___ is raised, the air cannot escape through the nose and the sounds ma, n, and ng cannot be made.8 ___ sounds are produced by a radical constriction at some point in the vocal tract.9 ___ sounds are produced by lowering the velum.10 ___ sounds are produced by vibrating the vocal cords.11 ___ sounds are produced by increasing the muscular effort in the lower jaw.12 ___ sounds are produced b y maintaining the airflow in the vocal cavity (but not in the nasal cavity).1 The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the ___ and the lips.2 ___ sounds are produced by retracting the body of the tongue from the neutral position.3 Vowels can be described by referring to the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. If the front of the tongue is at the highest point near the hard palate, a ___ vowel is produced. If the back of the tongue is at the highest point near the soft palate, a ___ vowel is produced.4 V owels produced between the positions for a front vowel and a back vowel are called ___ vowel.5 One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the ___ to which that part of the tongue is raised.6 If the tongue is raised as high as possible in the mouth, without causing friction, the vowel which results is a ___ vowel.7 If the tongue is placed as low as possible in the mouth, the vowel which results is an ___ vowel.8 The position of the lips also has an effect on vowel quality. If the lips are drawn together so that the opening between them is round, we have a ___ vowel. If the lips are not drawn together, the vowel is ___.9 If, in making a vowel sound, the organs of speech remain in one position without moving to another, the result is a ___ vowel. If the organs of speech start in the position for one vowel and then immed8iately glide to the position of another, the result is a ___.10 A single impulse of breath from the lungs accompanied by voicing is known as a ___.11 Diphthongs are represented by two symbols in phonetic transcription, the first shows the position of the organs of speech at the ___ of the glide, and the second shows their approximate position at the ___ of the glide.1 If the tongue produces a diphthong by moving from a more open position to a more closed position in the mouth, the diphthong is known as ___ diphthong.2 If the movement of the tongue in making a closing diphthong is small, the diphthong which results is called a ___ diphthong.3 In the case of closing diphthongs the ___ letter indicates the point towards which the glide is made. The point towards which the glide is made is ___ necessarily reached. Such diphthongs sound quite ___ if the organs of speech perform only part of the maximum permissible movement.4 The diphthongs made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as ___ diphthongs.5 Consonants are characterized in pronunciation by ___ of the air-stream in the vocal tract.6 Labial refers to the use of the ___ in the process of articulating a sound.7 Alveolar refers to the ___ behind the top teeth.8 Palatals are sounds articulated by the ___ of the tongue against the ___ palate.9 Velars are sounds articulated by the ___ of the tongue against the ___ palate.10 A nasal is produced by the release of air through the ___.11 A stop with a fricative release is called ___.12 A ___ is formed by an obstacle placed in the middle of the mouth, the air being free to escape。