Transverse target-spin asymmetry associated with DVCS on the proton and a resulting model-d

ReviewThe tumor suppressor kinase LKB 1:lessons from mouse modelsSaara Ollila and Tomi P.Ma¨kela ¨*Institute of Biotechnology,University of Helsinki,Viikki Biocenter,Viikinkaari 9B,FIN-00014,Helsinki,Finland*Correspondence to:Tomi P.Ma¨kela ¨,E-mail:tomi.makela@helsinki.fiMutations in the tumor suppressor gene LKB 1are important in hereditary Peutz–Jeghers syndrome,as well as in sporadic cancersincluding lung and cervical cancer.LKB 1is a kinase-activating kinase,and a number of LKB 1-dependent phosphorylation cascades regulate fundamental cellular and organismal processes in at least metabolism,polarity,cytoskeleton organization,and prolifer-ation.Conditional targeting approaches are beginning to demonstrate the relevance and specificity of these signaling pathways in development and homeostasis of multiple organs.More than one of the pathways also appear to contribute to tumor growth fol-lowing Lkb 1deficiencies based on a number of mouse tumor models.Lkb 1-dependent activation of AMPK and subsequent inacti-vation of mammalian target of rapamycin signaling are implicated in several of the models,and other less well characterized pathways are also involved.Conditional targeting studies of Lkb 1also point an important role of LKB 1in epithelial–mesenchymal interactions,significantly expanding knowledge on the relevance of LKB 1in human disease.Keywords:LKB 1,tumor suppressor,mouse model,AMPKIntroductionCancer arises as a result of accumulating genetic and epige-netic changes,which compromise the cell’s ability to control its identity and proliferation.Many identified tumor suppressors play a well-established role in regulation of cell growth and div-ision (e.g.Rb,APC,p 21,PTEN)and genome maintenance (e.g.p 53,BRCA 1-2,ATM,ATR,MLH 1,MSH 2),providing a logical link between the loss of gene product and promotion of carcinogen-esis.An interesting exception is the serine /threonine kinase gene LKB 1(also known as STK 11),which has in recent years taken a prominent position among tumor suppressors.Heterozygous germline mutations in LKB 1predispose to Peutz–Jeghers syndrome (PJS)where patients develop benign polyps in the gastrointestinal (GI)tract and are in high risk of developing malignant tumors in GI tract,breast,and gyneco-logical organs (Giardiello et al .,2000).Importantly,somatic LKB 1mutations are found at least in lung (Ji et al.,2007)and cervical cancer (Wingo et al .,2009).Through phosphoryl-ation of several cellular kinases LKB 1has been implicated in control of cellular and organismal metabolism,cell polarity,and a variety of other functions ranging from proliferation and migration to senescence,apoptosis,DNA damage responseand differentiation (Vaahtomeri and Ma¨kela ¨,2011).Despite these many functions attributed to LKB 1,their specific contri-butions to the maintenance of tissue homeostasis in vivo and tumor growth are only sketchily appearing with thedevelopment of LKB 1mouse models.This work is important to enable rational treatment strategies to LKB 1-deficient tumors.The LKB 1kinase acts in a trimer with a pseudokinase STRAD and the scaffold protein MO 25to phosphorylate at least 14kinases with conserved activation sites (Katajisto et al.,2007).A well-known substrate of LKB 1is AMPK,which is the master reg-ulator of cellular and organismal metabolism,providing a putative downstream pathway to LKB 1-mediated tumor suppression (Shackelford and Shaw,2009).In mouse studies,AMPK requires LKB 1for activation in vivo in most tissues (Sakamoto et al .,2005;Shaw et al .,2005;Contreras et al .,2008;Hezel et al .,2008).AMPK senses the energy state of cells through monitoring AMP levels as a sensitive readout for ATP.AMPK is activated following exercise,hypoxia,or glucose deprivation,after which it phosphor-ylates multiple targets to increase energy uptake and catabolic processes such as glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation,and suppress anabolic processes such as lipogenesis and cholesterol synthesis (Hardie et al.,2003).AMPK is the potential candidate to mediate LKB 1’s effects in cell growth via the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)signal-ing (Corradetti et al .,2004;Shaw et al .,2004),which is the pathway monitoring the availability of nutrients in regulation of cell size and protein synthesis as well as proliferation (Zoncu et al.,2011).Increased mTOR signaling is common in cancer (Guertin and Sabatini,2007)and also present in at least some Lkb 1-deficient tumors (Shaw et al.,2004;Ji et al.,2007;Contreras et al.,2008;Hezel et al.,2008;Shackelford et al.,2009).An additional link between LKB 1and mTOR pathway#The Author (2011).Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Journal ofMolecular Cell Biology ,IBCB,SIBS,CAS.All rights reserved.doi:10.1093/jmcb /mjr 016Journal of Molecular Cell Biology (2011),Vol no.0,1–11|1Journal of Molecular Cell Biology Advance Access published September 15, 2011 at Shihezi University on September 27, 2011 Downloaded frommay lie in regulation of PI 3K-Akt pathway inhibitor PTEN by LKB 1(Mehenni et al .,2005).Loss of cell polarity is commonly noted in cancer,and LKB 1is an important factor for cell polarity in different organisms.In C.elegans ,the orthologs for LKB 1(par-4)and MARK s (par-1)were identified in a panel of six partitioning (par )mutants which disrupted the polarity of the early embryos (Kemphues et al.,1988).In Drosophila ,Lkb 1is required for proper oocyte polarity (Martin and St Johnston,2003).In mammalian cells,in both 2D and 3D cell culture models and in vivo ,LKB 1is known to regulate polarity (Baas et al .,2004;Partanen et al .,2007;Hezel et al .,2008).Polarity defects are,however,not seen in all Lkb 1-deficient tumors (Contreras et al.,2008,2010).Several of the LKB 1substrates have been reported to mediate the regulation of cell polarity through regulating the cytoskeleton and formation of cell–cell junctions.MARK kinases are implicated in the stability of microtubules by phosphorylating and thereby dissociation microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs),for example the tau protein,from microtubules (Drewes et al .,1997;Stoothoff and Johnson,2005).Neuronal polarity and axon formation are regu-lated by LKB 1at least partially via BRSK kinases (Kishi et al.,2005;Barnes et al.,2007).To what extent LKB 1acts as a polarity protein in mammalian non-neuronal cells still remains to be deter-mined,although at least in both exo-and endocrine pancreas Lkb 1loss leads to polarity defects in vivo (Hezel et al .,2008;Granot et al .,2009).As formation of stress fibers is essential incell contractility,recent studies associate LKB 1with cell motility via NUAK 1and NUAK 2,which have been implicated in regulation of myosin light chain phosphorylation (Vallenius et al.,2010;Zagorska et al.,2010).For detailed information of the molecular signaling pathways of Lkb 1,the reader is recommended recent reviews more focused on that topic (Katajisto et al.,2007;Hezel and Bardeesy,2008;Vaahtomeri and Ma¨kela ¨,2011).Role of Lkb 1in development and tissue homeostasis in miceAlthough LKB 1is a tumor suppressor,inactivation of Lkb 1through homologous recombination or ‘knock-out’(KO)does not always lead to tumors.This is due partly to essential functions of Lkb 1in development and partly demonstrates the tissue-specificity of Lkb 1functions,where in some cell types biallelic deletion is detrimental to cells or affects specific functions in metabolism as summarized in Figure 1and discussed below.Role of Lkb 1in embryogenesisGeneration of full KO revealed that Lkb 1is essential for embry-ogenesis;no viable Lkb 12/2embryos were seen after E 11.Analysis of the E 8.5–E 9.5embryos revealed severe developmen-tal defects including impaired neural tube closure and somitogen-esis,mesenchymal tissue cell death,and defective vasculature.The extra-embryonic tissues (yolk sac and placenta)were also deformed.VEGF signaling was highly upregulated in theKOFigure 1Non-tumorigenic phenotypes following Lkb 1targeting in mice.Phenotypes (green)are grouped according to tissue type,cell typeaffected /analyzed (blue),and alleles used for targeting.When appropriate,activator of deletor is indicated in purple.Noted signaling change(s)indicated in red.Alleles as displayed in original publications except for Lkb 1flox 2h /flox 2h hypomorphic Lkb 1(Sakamoto et al,2005).(1)Londesborough et al.,2008;(2)Ohashi et al.,2010;(3)Cao et al.,2010;Tamas et al.,2010;(4)Shorning et al.,2009;(5)Woods et al.,2011;(6)Shaw et al.,2005;(7)Sun et al.,2010a ;(8)Sun et al.,2011;(9)Granot et al.,2009;Fu et al.,2009;(10)Koh et al.,2006;(11)Sakamoto et al.,2005;(12)Sakamoto et al.,2006;Jessen,et al.,2010;(13)Ikeda et al.2009;(14)Gurumurthy et al.,2010;Nakada et al.,2010;(15)Gan et al.,2010;(16)Barnes et al.,2007;(17)Ylikorkala et al.,2001.tam,tamoxifen;b -NF,b -naphtoflavone;pIpC,polyinosinic–polycytidylic acid;iv,intravenous.2|Journal of Molecular Cell Biology Ollila and Ma¨kela ¨ at Shihezi University on September 27, 2011 Downloaded fromembryos,possibly relating to the vascular phenotype (Ylikorkala et al .,2001).Embryonic lethality,no embryonic turning,and small somites were also shown in another report of Lkb 1full KO (Jishage et al .,2002).The severe developmental defect was not a result of the abnormal extra-embryonic tissues,since epiblast-specific conditional inactivation of Lkb 1using Mox 1-Cre resulted in very similar embryonic lethal phenotype to full KO (Londesborough et al .,2008).The important role of Lkb 1in development and maintenance of neurons,mesenchymal cells,and vascularization has been recapitulated in tissue-specific Lkb 1KOs.Role of Lkb 1in angiogenesisLondesborough et al .(2008)further dissected the role of Lkb 1in endothelia by deleting Lkb 1in vascular endothelial cells using Tie 1-Cre (Figure 1).The mice died at E 12.5and displayed dilated embryonic vessels and pericardial swelling.The vessels were irre-gular and distorted and suffered from inadequate supportive vas-cular smooth muscle cell layer.Since Tgf b signaling was reduced both in Lkb 1-deficient mouse yolk sacs and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)where LKB 1expression was silenced by siRNA,the vascular phenotype was suggested to result from a loss of supporting vascular smooth muscle cells as a conse-quence of attenuated Tgf b signaling from endothelial cells (Londesborough et al .,2008).Another report also described mice lacking Lkb 1in endothelial cells,deleted using Tie 2-Cre driver (Ohashi et al.,2010)(Figure 1).This study repeated the finding that endothelial Lkb 1is essential for proper embryonic development and no homozygous mutants were born.Analysis of heterozygous Tie 2-Cre;Lkb 1flox /+mice revealed that the mice,including vasculature,seemed phenotypically normal,but displayed reduced revascularization after hind-limb ischemia.Studies in mouse tissues,primary mouse endothelial cells,and HUVECs implemented that the phenotype was mediated via AMPK (Ohashi et al.,2010).In this study,the authors did not address the contribution of Tgf b signaling to the observed phenotype.In the Tie 2-Cre model,Lkb 1–AMPK axis seemed to mediate proangiogenetic signaling as Lkb 1heterozygosity resulted in reduction of revascularization in adult mice (Ohashi et al.,2010).In developing embryo,increased VEGF signaling upon Lkb 1loss would suggest the opposite,antiangiogenic role for Lkb 1(Ylikorkala et al .,2001).Also in the context of PJS polyps where a loss of Lkb 1leads to increased HIF 1a and vasculature,Lkb 1seems to be rather antiangiogenic (Shackelford et al .,2009).However,reduced capillary density was reported in mice where Lkb 1was conditionally deleted from the heart (Ikeda et al .,2009).In 3D culture system where endothelial cells are embedded in Matrigel,both over-expression (Xie et al .,2009)and inhibition (Ohashi et al.,2010)of Lkb 1have been reported to inhibit network formation,suggesting proper expression of LKB 1is essential for angiogenesis.Thus,the precise role of Lkb 1in angiogenesis seems to be dependent on the tissue type and /or the developmental phase,varying from inhibition to promotion.Role of Lkb 1in liverThe finding that Lkb 1functions upstream of AMPK (Shaw et al .,2004)led to interest to study its effects in liver,where many path-ways of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism,including glycogen-esis,glycogenolysis,gluconeogenesis,lipogenesis,and cholesterol synthesis take place.Tail-vain injection of Adeno-Cre to mice carrying conditional Lkb 1allele led to hepatocyte-specific Lkb 1deletion since Adeno-Cre has high tropism for hepatocytes (Shaw et al .,2005)(Figure 1).Lkb 1loss resulted in nearly complete abolishment of AMPK activation in liver,and the glucose metabolism of the mice was impaired demonstrated by elevated blood glucose.CRTC 2phosphorylation was reduced in the livers of the mice,leading to elevated CREB-mediated transcription,including expression of PGC 1a and other gluconeogenetic genes.Also lipogenetic genes were over-expressed.Metformin,the diabetes drug which reduces blood glucose levels via AMPK pathway (Zhou et al .,2001),did not lower blood glucose in the liver-specific Lkb 1KO mice,demonstrating that AMPK activity induced by Lkb 1in liver is required for the effects of metformin in vivo .In another report of liver-specific Lkb 1knockout using Alb-Cre driver,Woods et al.(2011)reported defective bile ducts in liver,leading to accumulation of bile in liver and serum (Figure 1).Bile salt export pump was not located in canalicular membrane of the bile canaliculi,indicating possible defects in cell polarity.The mice also suffered from cholestasis (Woods et al.,2011).These reports of liver-targeted deletions of Lkb 1demonstrate the critical requirement of Lkb 1in glucose,lipid,bile,and cholesterol metab-olism.Furthermore,they show that in liver,Lkb 1is the main acti-vator of AMPK,and its activity is required for the AMPK-mediated suppression of lipogenesis and gluconeogenesis to take place.Role of Lkb 1in muscleMuscles are highly energy-consuming tissues whose glucose homeostasis needs to be regulated both in response to insulin after blood sugar increase,and to exercise-mediated deficiency of glucose storage.Sakamoto et al.(2005)provided the first genetic evidence that Lkb 1is required for AMPK activation in vivo in skeletal muscle.They generated conditional Lkb 1mice in which cDNA of Lkb 1exons 5–7fused with neomycin resistance cassette,surrounded by loxP sites,was inserted between exons 4and 8in the genomic Lkb 1locus.The resulting mice were hypomorphic and expressed only 10%–20%of normal levels of Lkb 1in the absence of Cre -mediated ing MCK-Cre driver to create muscle-specific Lkb 1KO,they found that AMPK a 2(one of the two alternative catalytic subunits of AMPK)activation either by the AMP analog AICAR,muscle con-traction or phenformin,a similar blood glucose lowering drug to metformin,was lost and AMPK a 1activation greatly reduced.Upon contraction,glucose transport to muscle cells was abol-ished (Sakamoto et al.,2005).In another study using the same muscle-specific MCK-Cre with another (non-hypomorphic)con-ditional Lkb 1line,effects of Lkb 1loss in muscle to levels of blood glucose were investigated (Koh et al.,2006)(Figure 1).Interestingly,glucose metabolism seemed to be enhanced in these mice,demonstrated by reduced fasting blood glucose and blood insulin concentrations,improved glucose tolerance,and increased muscle glucose uptake.This phenotype,indicating that Lkb 1in muscle functions as a negative regulator of glucose metabolism,was suggested to be resulting from improved muscle glucose uptake,mediated by increased phosphorylation of Akt and reduced the gene expression of the Akt inhibitor TRB 3.Lkb 1loss abolished the activity of AMPK a 2,but notLessons from LKB 1mouse modelsJournal of Molecular Cell Biology |3at Shihezi University on September 27, 2011 Downloaded fromAMPK a 1in muscle cells.Also MARK 4,but not MARK 2/3activitywas significantly reduced.Based on this study,the metabolic effects mediated by Lkb 1in muscle seem to oppose those of the liver,at least in terms of blood glucose levels (Koh et al.,2006).Recently,the Lkb 1substrate NUAK 2was proposed to be a mediator of contraction-stimulated glucose transport by skel-etal muscle (Koh et al.,2010).Also cardiac muscle lacking Lkb 1has been investigated.Sakamoto et al.(2006)studied the effect of Lkb 1deficiency in heart using the MCK-Cre driver,which deletes Lkb 1in both skel-etal and cardiac myocytes and found that Lkb 1inactivation did not lead to overt cardiac dysfunction,although the weight of the heart was reduced and the atria enlarged;however,the study revealed that cardiac Lkb 1is required for activation of AMPK a 2both in basal conditions and in response to ischemia (Figure 1).Also Jessen et al.(2010)used the MCK-Cre driver but the Lkb 1allele was not hypomorphic as in the Sakamoto et al.(2006)study.They showed that ablation of Lkb 1in heart leads to impaired cardiac function both in basic conditions and post-ischemia and suggested that failure to downregulate mTOR sig-naling by AMPK a 2activation underlined the phenotypes.Ikeda et al.(2009)used a -MHC-Cre to delete Lkb 1specifically from the heart,and a more severe phenotype was observed:the mice displayed hypertrophy and impaired function of the heart,reduction of cardiac capillary density,and increased fibrosis and collagen content and died by 6months of age.The differ-ences between these phenotypes may reflect differences in the timing of Cre activity,specificity of the Cre recombination,and /or the conditional Lkb 1allele used.However,it seems clear that Lkb 1is needed for the normal function of heart both in basal and ischemic conditions.Role of Lkb 1in pancreasPancreatic b -cells secrete insulin and are thus important mediators of whole-body glucose metabolism.As Lkb 1–AMPK axis is important in regulation of liver metabolism and muscle glucose homeostasis,it is of interest to study whether Lkb 1has an effect on the insulin release.Granot et al.(2009)used the Pdx 1-CreER driver to delete pancreatic Lkb 1in 6-week-old mice by tamoxifen injection (Figure 1).In response to glucose injection,the mutant mice secreted more insulin than control mice,which carried the conditional Lkb 1allele but were not subjected to tamoxifen injection.Deletion of Lkb 1led to increased size of b -cells together with disrupted polarity.Increased mTOR signal-ing seemed to mediate the cell size increase,while the polarity defect took place at least partially through MARK 2.Increased insulin secretion was partially dependent on AMPK (Granot et al .,2009).Fu et al .(2009)used the same Pdx 1-CreER system to delete Lkb 1in adult b -cells and also found that the mice showed improved glucose tolerance,b -cells mass had increased,and mTOR pathway was activated (Figure 1).These results place Lkb 1as an important regulator of pancreatic b -cell size,polarity,and function,further highlighting its essence in regulation of organismal metabolism.Sun et al.(2010a)investigated pancreatic b -cells with the Rip 2-Cre driver,which activates Cre -mediated recombination in pancreatic b -cells and some hypothalamic neurons,and found that the mice displayed diminished food intake and weight gain,enhanced insulin secretion,and improved glucose tolerance (Figure 1).Also here,mTOR pathway was activated.However,the study by the same group where both AMPK a subunits were deleted in b -cells using the same Rip 2-Cre showed decreased insulin secretion (Sun et al.,2010b ).This suggests that Lkb 1loss regulates mTOR signaling in b -cells partially independent of AMPK,or that the hypothalamic Lkb 1and AMPK have different functions,impacting the feeding behavior and hormonal balance.Role of Lkb 1in immune systemThree recent studies elegantly demonstrated that Lkb 1regu-lates the quiescence and maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)using conditional Lkb 1alleles with Mx 1-Cre followed by injections of polyinosinic–polycytidylic acid (pIpC),or Rosa 26-CreERt 2followed by tamoxifen injections (Gan et al.,2010;Gurumurthy et al.,2010;Nakada et al.,2010)(Figure 1).Both approaches resulted in a similar phenotype:increased pro-liferation followed soon by decline in HSC number,resulting in loss of all immune cell types (pancytopenia)and death.Transplantation experiments demonstrated that Lkb 1-deficient HSCs were not able to reconstitute the bone marrow of irradiated wild-type (wt)mice,nor were they able to compete with wt donor cells,demonstrating that the effect was cell-autonomous;mito-chondrial defects and decreased ATP levels,as well as altered long-chain fatty acid and nucleotide metabolite levels suggested metabolic defects to underlie the phenotypes noted (Gan et al.,2010;Gurumurthy et al.,2010;Nakada et al.,2010).Interestingly,only minor similarities in mitochondrial phenotypes were found when mice defective for both AMPK a subunits were compared with Lkb 1KO mice (Nakada et al.,2010),implicating other Lkb 1substrates in these phenotypes.Consistent with this,rapamycin or AMPK activators AICAR and A 769662did not rescue the phenotype in any of the studies.Immune cell apopto-sis was increased,and Lkb 1-deficient HSCs also demonstrated increased autophagy in bone marrow,and inhibiting this further decreased immune cell survival (Gan et al.,2010;Gurumurthy et al.,2010;Nakada et al.,2010).This would suggest that Lkb 1in this context is suppressing autophagy,whereas previously it has been reported to activate it following elevation of reactive oxygen species (Alexander et al.,2010).Yet another phenotype potentially decreasing HSC viability was the noted increase in supernumerary centrosomes,aberrant mitotic spindles,and aneuploidy (Nakada et al.,2010),which could be due to compro-mised BRSK 2activity (Alvarado-Kristensson et al.,2009).Recently,two groups generated mice where Lkb 1expression is specifically abolished in the T cell progenitors using the proximal p 56lck-Cre promoter.The studies demonstrate severe deficiency in survival and proliferation of T cell progenitors and mature T cells in the absence of Lkb 1(Cao et al.,2010;Tamas et al.,2010)(Figure 1).Also the survival of isolated peripheral T cells in vitro was dependent on Lkb 1(Tamas et al.,2010).Transfection of thymo-cytes with constitutively active AMPK a 2partially rescued the thy-mocytes from cell death,indicating that thymocyte survival is mediated at least via AMPK pathway (Cao et al.,2010).Thus,the common hematopoietic cell precursors and T cell precursors seem to have different requirement for AMPK signaling,although cell sur-vival is defective in both cell types in the absence of Lkb 1.The studies in hematopoietic cells have revealed an interesting aspect4|Journal of Molecular Cell Biology Ollila and Ma¨kela ¨ at Shihezi University on September 27, 2011 Downloaded fromof Lkb 1biology:although being a tumor suppressor in some tissues,in others Lkb 1is required for survival.Role of Lkb 1in nervous systemLkb 1KO embryos exhibit severe deficiencies in development of neuronal tissues (Ylikorkala et al .,2001).Since LKB 1orthologs in nematodes and fruit flies have been identified through their indis-pensable role in establishing polarity (Kemphues et al .,1988;Martin and St Johnston,2003)and LKB 1regulates polarity also in some mammalian cells (Baas et al .,2004;Partanen et al .,2007),it was of interest to generate models which would reveal the in vivo relevance of Lkb 1in establishing the axon-dendrite polarity in neuronal cells.Barnes et al.(2007)deleted Lkb 1in cer-ebral cortex of developing mice using Emx-Cre driver and showed that Lkb 1and its substrates BRSK 1and BRSK 2are required for axon specification in the studied neurons.This finding confirmed the previously described role of BRSK kinases in neuronal polar-ization (Kishi et al .,2005),and placed Lkb 1as the upstream kinase required for the polarization to take place.Lkb 1-activated BRSKs were shown to modify the cytoskeleton by phosphorylating MAPs (Barnes et al.,2007).Studies in rat hip-pocampal neurons in vitro and developing rat cortical neurons in vivo agreed with the finding that Lkb 1is essential in establishing neuronal polarity;there,lack of either Lkb 1or STRAD prevented axon differentiation (Shelly et al.,2007).Interestingly,over-expression of Lkb 1and STRAD resulted in formation of multiple axons.PKA-mediated phosphorylation of Lkb 1Ser 431was shown to be required for the axon specification (Barnes et al.,2007;Shelly et al.,2007).Thus,Lkb 1activity is modulated by upstream factors in a tissue-and context-specific manner.Not only axon specification but also maintenance seems to be regulated via Lkb 1in some systems.Sun et al.(2011)reported,using the pancreatic and hypothalamic Rip 2-Cre ,that the mice developed hind-limb paralysis due to axon degeneration in thor-acic spinal cord neurons at about 7–8weeks of age (Figure 1).The Rip 2-Cre was found to be active also in spinal cord,especially in the thoracic segments.Deleting both AMPK a subunits did not result in axon degeneration or paralysis,and the authors specu-lated that in the absence of Lkb 1,the neuronal polarization and axon degeneration defects might be mediated by BRSK kinase pathways (Sun et al.,2011).PJS and its mouse modelsLKB 1was linked to human disease when its mutations were found to be causative for PJS (Hemminki et al .,1998;Jenne et al .,1998).A major manifestation in PJS is the appearance of large occluding hamartomatous polyps in the GI tract (Giardiello and Trimbath,2006).Mice carrying one inactivated allele of Lkb 1(Lkb 1+/2)recapitulate PJS by developing hamartomatous GI polyps which are indistinguishable from PJS patient polyps (Bardeesy et al .,2002;Jishage et al .,2002;Miyoshi et al .,2002;Rossi et al .,2002)(Figure 2),although in mice polyps appear more in the stomach and less in the small intestine.Polyps appear at 4–6months (Udd et al.,2010),and lead to lethality at an average age of 11months due primarily to obstructions.Biallelic loss of wt Lkb 1is not a prerequisite for polyp formation,indicating that Lkb 1is a haploinsufficient tumor suppressor at least in the context of PJS polyps (Jishage et al .,2002;Miyoshiet al .,2002;Rossi et al .,2002).Strong up-regulation of COX 2has been identified in the mouse and also PJS patient polyps (Rossi et al .,2002),and COX 2inhibitors have been shown to be efficient suppressors of PJS polyps (Udd et al .,2004).PJS is associated with elevated risk of cancer,especially in the GI tract,and also in breast,pancreas and gynecological cancers (Giardiello and Trimbath,2006;Hearle et al .,2006;Mehenni et al .,2006).Lkb 1+/2mice in turn have been reported to have increased frequency of cancer in liver (Nakau et al .,2002),bones (Robinson et al .,2008),and endometrium (Contreras et al .,2008)(Figure 2).Polyposis in Lkb 1+/2mice is accelerated in a p 53-deficient background (our unpublished data)(Wei et al .,2005;Takeda et al .,2006)(Figure 2),and p 53mutations are detected in the GI cancers of PJS patients (Miyaki et al .,2000).Despite these observations,progression of the benign hamarto-matous polyps to dysplasia or carcinoma is not clearly estab-lished possibly due to the rapid growth of the hamartomatous polyps leading to GI occlusions.As haploinsufficiency of Lkb 1is sufficient for polyp initiation (Jishage et al .,2002;Miyoshi et al .,2002;Rossi et al .,2002)though biallelic loss has been noted (Bardeesy et al .,2002),loss of the remaining allele of Lkb 1may represent a progression step,although it has also been suggested that the loss of Lkb 1is associated with the resist-ance to progression in this context (Bardeesy et al.,2002).Mesenchymal Lkb 1loss leads to PJS-type polyposis in mice PJS polyps are classified as hamartomatous polyps thought to contain all the cell types of the surrounding tissue.However,it was recently noted that epithelial differentiation is disrupted in gastric and small intestinal polyps in Lkb 1+/2mice (Udd et al.,2010),but the model did not enable distinguishing whether this was a cell autonomous function of Lkb 1in epithelial cells.Biallelic disruption of Lkb 1in GI epithelia lead to imbalanced differentiation and positioning of epithelial cells (Shorning et al .,2009)(Figure 1),but was not reported to be associated with tumorigenesis.Polyps in both PJS patients and Lkb 1+/2mice harbor a large component of smooth muscle tissue.Remarkably,in a mouse model,where Lkb 1deficiency was restricted to the smooth muscle lineage by using a tamoxifen-inducible SM 22-CreERt 2line,PJS type polyps appeared in stomachs of the mice with the hetero-and homozygous Lkb 1mutants (Katajisto et al .,2008)(Figure 2).The polyps appeared later than those in the Lkb 1+/2mice,suggesting either that tamoxifen-induced Lkb 1loss at 6weeks of age delayed the poly-posis,or that mesenchymal loss of Lkb 1signaling is sufficient to drive hyperproliferation of epithelial tissue,but that coexisting epithelial mutations accelerate the process.This interesting aspect of Lkb 1signaling in tissue interactions is discussed later.Other Lkb 1tumor mouse modelsInactivating LKB 1mutations are associated with the develop-ment of cancer in several tissues.Various strategies of targeted inactivation of Lkb 1in mice,sometimes in combination of other tumorigenic mutations,have led to the development of various types and grades of tumors in multiple tissues,sometimes mod-eling human cancers in very useful ways as discussed below and summarized in Figure 2.Lessons from LKB 1mouse modelsJournal of Molecular Cell Biology |5at Shihezi University on September 27, 2011 Downloaded from。

Theoretical And Applied Fracture Mechanics, 1992-1993 Bound Issues By G. C. SihIf you are searched for the ebook Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 1992-1993 Bound Issues in pdf format, then you have come on tofaithful site. We presented complete variation of this ebook in doc, PDF, ePub, txt, DjVu forms. You may readTheoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 1992-1993 Bound Issues online theoretical-and-applied-fracture-mechanics-1992-1993-bound-issues.pdf either load. Withal, on oursite you may reading guides and other artistic eBooks online, or downloading their. We will invite attention thatour website not store the eBook itself, but we give reference to website where you can load either reading online.If you have must to downloading pdf Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 1992-1993 Bound Issues, then you have come on to correctsite. We have Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 1992-1993 Bound Issues DjVu, doc, PDF, txt, ePub forms. 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Sih, Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, problems of fracture mechanics.on the finite element analysis of inverse problems - Inverse problems in fracture mechanics 481 G. (1993), Propagation and fracture energy of interface Sih, G.C. (1974),zheng* the state key laboratory for mechanical - in Progress in Fracture Mechanics, G.C. Sih and Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 18 (1993) Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 17 (1992)verification of brittle fracture criteria for - Computational Methods in Fracture Mechanics, Acta Mechanica et Automatica, Sih G.C. (1965), Plane Problems of Cracks in Dissimilar Media.: g. c. sih: books, biogs, audiobooks, - Visit 's G. C. Sih Page and shop for all G. C. Sih books. Check out pictures, bibliography, biography and community discussions about G. C. Sihjournal " mechanics of solids" - archive of issues - "Fracture mechanics applied to glass fibre/epoxy matrix interface characterization No. 3, pp. 423-459, 1992. 233. G. C. Papanicolaou and D G. C. Sihtheoretical and applied fracture mechanics | vol - Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics Volume 75, Pages 1-160 (February 2015)citeulike: theoretical and applied fracture - Articles from the last few issues of Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics Elsevier. Search Export Show Details Hide Detailstheoretical and applied fracture mechanics - Theoretical and applied fracture mechanics. Home. WorldCat Home About WorldCat Help Feedback. Search. Search for Library Items Search for Lists Search formathematical research in materials science: - Fluid Mech. 22:13 34. Denn, M. M. 1992. Pp. 45 49 in Theoretical and Applied of Fracture Mechanics in Modern Technology. G. C problems in materialsrigid-plastic and damage behavior in metal - Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 18 G.C. Sih, Mechanics of Fracture Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 18 (1) 31-45 (1992). [21] G.C. Sihfinite element analysis of sheet forming processes - H. D. (1990), Finite element analysis of sheet forming Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 1993, Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics,theoretical and applied fracture mechanics | - Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics: Aims & Scopes. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics' aims & scopes have been re-designed to cover both the theoretical and applied fracture mechanics, 1992- - Not 0.0/5. Retrouvez Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 1992-1993 Bound Issues et des millions de livres en stock sur Amazon.fr. Achetez neuf ou d'occasionjournal of applied mathematics - J. R. Rice and G. C. Sih, Plane problems of cracks in dissimilar media, Journal of Applied Mechanics I and mode II, Engineering Fracture Mechanics,publications | multi-scale mechanics of materials - The Multi-Scale Mechanics of Materials Group focuses on the following: Publications; You are here. Home , ,influence of material ductility and crack surface - Gol'dshtein R V and Mosolov A B 1992 J Paris P C and Sih G C 1965 Fracture Sih G C 1964 Proc. 2nd Conf. on Theoretical and Applied Mechanicsjames d. lee - faculty in the department of civil - with application to crack growth problems , Theoretical and Applied Fracture Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, by G. C. Sih),journal of theoretical and applied mechanics - Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. Evaluation of fracture parameters for crack problems in fgm by a meshless method Sih G.C., Paris P.C.,m. konsta personal website! - - China, June 13-16, 2000, edited by G.C. Sih, the Solution of Fracture Mechanics Problems Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanicselectroelastic fracture mechanics of piezoelectric - This paper develops a theoretical electroelastic fracture mechanics For applied stress, fracture mechanics J.R. 1992. Fracture Mechanics fortheoretical and applied fracture mechanics - Genre/Form: Periodicals P riodiques: Additional Physical Format: Online version: Theoretical and applied fracture mechanics (Online) (DLC) 2006233281the effect of matrix microcracks on the - Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 25: 771-778 . (1993). An Analytical Model Asymptotic Approximations to Crack Problems. In: Sih, C.G. (ed.), Mechanics ofrecent developments of fracture mechanics in - G.C. Sih and E.E. Gdoutos (eds), Mechanics and Physics of Energy Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 17 Recent developments of fracture mechanics in Greece experimental and theoretical fracture mechanics - Experimental and theoretical fracture mechanics applied to fracture only provides lower bound fracture of Crack Problems, edited by G. C. Sih,energy density theory formulation and - The factor S can increase or decrease depending on the direction of the applied theory formulation and interpretation of Mechanics of Fracture, vols - Sihtheoretical and applied fracture mechanics - Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics. The Mechanics and Physics of Fracture part encourages publication of original research on Material damage leading to: g. c. sih: books, biography, blog, - Visit 's G. C. Sih Page and shop for all G. C. Sih books and other G. C. Sih related products (DVD, CDs, Apparel). Check out pictures, bibliography,theor appl fract mech means theoretical and - Theor Appl Fract Mech is the abbreviation for Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanicsa micromechanical analysis of the fracture - fracture problems are common and important, Fracture Mechanics: Fundamentals and M., Chen, C. A micromechanical analysis of the fracture properties oftaylor & francis online :: effect of residual - A. N. 1992. Nonclassical Problems of Fracture Mechanics, Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 48: M. K. and Sih, G. C. 1975. Mechanics of Fracture.computational methods for fracture in brittle and - Analysis of three-dimensional fracture mechanics problems: , Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, G. C. Sih, Strain-energytheoretical and applied fracture mechanics - - The online version of Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics at ScienceDirect Finite fracture mechanics is applied to predicting the reduction in foam| | | - Theoretical & Applied Fracture Mechanics Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 19, 1993, G.C. Sih, Th.B. Kermanidis andtheoretical and applied fracture mechanics, 1987 - Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 1987 Bound Issues [G. C. Sih] on . *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers.journal of theoretical and applied mechanics - - Topical problems of composite fracture mechanics are formulated. Sih, G. C., P. C. Paris, G. 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vasa基因编码蛋白的结构特征和应用展望
周倩如;邵明瑜;张志峰
【期刊名称】《海洋湖沼通报》
【年(卷),期】2007()4
【摘要】vasa基因编码的蛋白是DEAD-box家族的一种RNA解旋酶,该基因最先在果蝇中发现,其同源基因在许多动物中都已经克隆得到,vasa基因在生殖细胞系中特异性表达,研究显示其在配子发生和胚胎发育过程中发挥重要作用。

本文重点介绍其编码蛋白的结构特征和应用展望。

【总页数】6页(P129-134)
【关键词】vasa;Vasa蛋白;DEAD-box;原生殖细胞;生殖系
【作者】周倩如;邵明瑜;张志峰
【作者单位】中国海洋大学海洋生物遗传育种实验室
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】R282.77
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因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。

体细胞重编程星形胶质细胞的研究进展星形胶质细胞是中枢神经系统中最常见的非神经元细胞，被认为在维持神经回路功能和调节神经元活动中起着重要作用。

体细胞重编程是一种通过转录因子的介导，将成熟细胞重置为多能干细胞的方法。

近年来，研究人员开始探索体细胞重编程应用于星形胶质细胞的研究，以期能够利用这种转化能力为中枢神经系统疾病的治疗提供新策略。

本文将介绍体细胞重编程星形胶质细胞的研究进展。

体细胞重编程星形胶质细胞的方法有多种，其中最常用的是通过引入外源转录因子来实现。

最早的体细胞重编程方法是通过引入四种转录因子（Oct4、Sox2、Klf4和c-Myc）来重编程多能干细胞。

由于这种方法引起的基因表达改变较大，往往难以应用于治疗。

为了解决这个问题，研究人员开始尝试引入特定的转录因子组合，以实现对星形胶质细胞的重编程。

一项研究报道了使用三种转录因子（Oct4、Sox2和Klf4）成功将星形胶质细胞转化为多能干细胞，而不引入c-Myc。

这种方法避免了c-Myc对基因表达的广泛改变，提高了细胞转化的效率。

除了转录因子的改变，细胞的外界环境也对体细胞重编程起着重要的影响。

一项研究报道了通过将星形胶质细胞培养在类似胚胎干细胞的培养基中，可以促进细胞的重编程。

这是因为胚胎干细胞培养基中含有多种因子和信号分子，可以模拟出体内干细胞的生长环境，提高星形胶质细胞的多能性转化效率。

体细胞重编程星形胶质细胞的研究已经取得了一定的进展。

目前的研究还存在一些挑战，如细胞转化的效率和安全性等问题，需要进一步研究和改进。

未来的研究重点应该放在优化转录因子组合、改善基因编辑技术和优化培养条件等方面，以提高体细胞重编程星形胶质细胞的效率和应用前景。

希望通过这些努力，体细胞重编程可以成为治疗中枢神经系统疾病的重要策略之一。