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Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)1.What is morphology（形态学）?Morphology, as a branch of linguistics , is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.eg. Unfriendly → un + friend + ly2.Morphemes(词素、语素)A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.eg. Maps→(2 units)→map + s3.Types of morphemes:free morphemes(自由语素) and bound morphemes(黏着语素)1>Free morphemes(自由语素)A.Some morphemes can stand alone as words, such morphemes are called freemorphemes.B．Rooot(词根) & Stem(词干)❶Root：a root is the based form of a word which cannot be further analyzed . It may be a free morpheme(as black in blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith) as well as a bound morpheme( -ceive in perceive认识，deceive欺骗，receive).❷Stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added (friend in friends, friendship in friendships are both stem).C . Free Morphemes can be divided into two categories. They are:Closed Class & Opened Class(封闭词类和开放性词类)❶Closed Class（functional morphemes）: a closed class is one whose membership is principle fixed or limited. (封闭类：连介代冠conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, articles)❷Open Class( lexical morphemes): an open class is one whose membership is principle indefinite or unlimited. (包括：名动形副数叹noun, verbs, adjectives)2>Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)A.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)—>prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), infix(中缀).eg. dis- , un- , -ity, -al, -sB. Two Categories of Bound Morphemes:Derivational Morphemes(派生语素) & Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素)❶Derivational Morphemes(派生语素): ~~ are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.eg. nouns→ verbs/ adj. verbs→ nouns/ adj.friend→ unfriend解除朋友关系( noun→ verb)❷Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素):~~ are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.①plurality(复数): - s, - es, - ies……②tense(时态): - s, - ing, - en, - ed……③possessive case(所有格): ’s④comparative/ superlative degree(比较级/最高级): -er, - esteg. dislikes → dis + +3> free morphemes(自由语素) & bound morphemes(黏着语素)❶All monomorphemic(单词素/单语素) words are free morphemes;❷These polymorphemic words are either compounds( combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives(words derived from free morphemes).4.Morphs(形素) and Allomorphs（语素变体）Morphs: the phonological and orthographic forms which realize morphemes are termed ― morphs‖.(语素的语音及对应拼写法的体现叫形素)Most morphemesSome morphemesAllomorphs: an allomorph is any of the different form of the same morpheme( 语素变体是同一个语素的不同形式).eg. plurality ―- s‖: map→ maps; dog→ dogs; class→ classed; mouse→ mice; sheep→ sheep Complementary distribution(互补分布)：allomorph is a member of a set of morph;allomorph can’ t occur in the same environment .5> Types of Word Formation(构词法)❶Compounding(合成法)Words are formed by putting two words together, this way of building new words is called compounding.❷Derivation(派生法)Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.❸Conversion(转换法)Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun.❹Backformation(逆向构词法)As we have editor, we get edit by dropping – or . This process is called ~~❺Clipping(截短法)This process by cutting off part of word is called ~~❻Blending(混合法)A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms, this process iscalled ~~~❼Acronymization(缩略法)。
Chapter 3 Morphology形态学Nothing is more important to language than words.Words can carry meaning.Words are the fundamental building blocks of a language.So, is word the most basic or the minimal unit of meaning?If not, then what is?How words are formed?---morphology3.1 what is morphology?Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.3.2 Open class and closed class (开放词类和封闭词类)Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.New words can be added to open class words regularly with the development of human civilization.However, the number of closed class words is small and stable since few new words are added.3.3Morphemes--the minimal units of meaning（词素，最小的意义单位）Word is the smallest free from found in language.Word can be further divided into smaller meaningful units---morphemes.So, morpheme is---the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire2-morpheme boyish, desirable3-morpheme boyishness, desirability4-morpheme gentlemanliness,undesir(e)abl(e)ity5-morpheme ungentlemanliness6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismFree morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as ―-s‖ in ―dogs‖, ―al‖ in ―national‖, ―dis-‖ in ―disclose‖, ―ed‖ in ―recorded‖, AllomorphSome morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as ―dog, bark, cat‖,etc.In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme.the plural morpheme may be represented by:map----maps [s]dog----dogs [z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen [n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.3.4 Analyzing word structuresIdentify each of the major component morphemes.Classify these morphemes in terms of their contribution to the meaning and function of the larger word.Generally speaking, a complex word often consists of a root and one or more affixes.Root: constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.Roots typically belong to lexical categories such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and prepositions. Affix: is always a bound morpheme, and does not belong to a lexical category.Tree diagram (teach-er)NV Afteach er3.5 Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme 派生词素和屈折词素Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.when derivational morphemes are conjoined to other morphemes, a new word is derived or formed--- may change grammatical classeg. light –lighten; nasal –nasalize;eat—edible; grave--engrave--- may not change grammatical classeg. net---internet; happy—unhappy;national—multinational; terror-terroristMany prefixes and suffixes belong to derivational morphemeseg. tele-phone; music-ianConsider: is there any prefix or suffix which doesn’t fall into derivational morphemes? Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, person, mood, voice, case, number, aspect and degree;e.g.:1) number: tables apples cars2) tense: talk/talks/talking/talked3) case: John/John’s4) degree: large/larger/largestInflectional morphemes never change lexical category, never add any lexical meaning,Morphemefree morpheme bound morphemefree root affix bound root (-ceive)derivational morpheme inflectional morphemeprefix suffixproductive morphological rulesSome of the rules can be used quite freely to form new wordseg. un + derived words (adj.) = not ---adj. [un-Rule]unimaginable unthinkable; unmentionedunbrave (×)(un-rule more productive for adj. derived from verbs than for adj. of just one morpheme like sad---unsad??)eg. sincere---sincerity; scarce—scarcity [ity –Rule]fierce---fiercity (×)(ity-Rule becomes less productive than before)Word-formationDerivation派生: the most common word-formation process, by affixationeg. Derivational + free morphemesgirlish; reliableCompounding复合(stringing words together; juxtaposition of two or more than two words to form a new, composite one with distinct properties of its own)Adj. N. V. Prep. Adj. Bittersweet clearway whitewash blackoutN. Headstrong rainbow spoon-feed head-onV. Carryall pickpocket sleepwalk cutupPrep. Inborn off-licence undertake withoutSome points about compounds1) two words in the same grammatical category, compound in this category;eg. landlord; bedroom; icy-cold;2) two words in different categories, compound in the class of second or final word;eg. pickpocket; headstrong; blackboard; swearwordcompound with preposition, nonpreposition part decideseg. undertake; uplift; overtake; oversee; overdoseexceptions: blackout ( n.) ; head-on (adv.);3) compounds have different stress patterns from non-compounded word sequence;e.g. 'blackbird & black 'bird;'washing machine'greenhouse & green 'house;red 'coat &'redcoat4) meaning of a compound not necessarily the sum of the meaning of its partsmeaning of each compound includes at least to some extent the meaning of individual partseg. reading room; a falling star; a looking glass (窥镜)meanings of compounds do not relate to the meanings of the individual parts at alleg. bigwig(要人,大亨); greenhorns (生手,不懂世故的人)highbrow(知识分子,自命不凡的人)/lowbrow(教养浅薄的人);turncoat变节者Conversion 转类构词(a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of it)Eg. a walk---to walk; a play---to playincrease (n.)--- increase (v.)conduct (n.) --- conduct (v.)I have no knowledge of the political dos and don’tsBackformation 反向构词(a reverse process of affixation. The word is not formed by adding a morpheme to a stem but by assuming a part of the stem as a suffix and removing it)Eg. editor --- edit; beggar --- begtelevision – televise; enthusiasm--- enthuseBorrowing外来语构词(adopting foreign words)--- loan-words借词(retaining their original phonetic or even written forms)eg. bungalow (Hindi); spaghetti (Italian);veranda (Portuguese 阳台)bok choy (Chinese baice); alcohol (Arabic)--- loan-translation or calques(直译,译借) 仿造词( a direct translation of the foreign word into English)eg. superman ---Ubermensch (German)Kongfu (Chinese)Clipping缩略构词( a reduction process in which a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often used in informal speech)Eg. ad--- advertisement; lab---laboratoryfan---fanatic; flu---influenza;math---mathematicsBlending混合构词(join the beginning of the first word to the end of the other words)Eg. smog (smoke + fog)brunch (breakfast + lunch)motel (motor + hotel)telecast (television + broadcast)Acronym首字构词(string together the initial letters of the words in a phrase, typically the names of technical apparatus and institutions, sometimes, the phrasal origin is lost )Eg. radar (radio detecting and ranging)AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation)UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization)Coinage 创新构词(invention of totally new terms, least common, often brand names)eg. xerox; nylon; kleenex(面巾纸)ConclusionsMorphological rules provide means for forming new words, or coin new words (eg. hair spray, tea ceremony, space walk, etc.)Morphological rules may be productive or less productive (un-Rule) ;may become less productive with the passage of time (ity-Rule)。
Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。
The aim of morphology is to find out these rules。
形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。
Morphology is divided into two sub-branches：inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学).前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。
2.Morpheme 词素2.1Morpheme： the smallest meaningful unit of language词素:语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology。
正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样,词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
Monomorphemic words 单词素单词2.2Types of morphemes 词素的类型2.2.1Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes。
Such as help, table，room, mate, quick， able。
这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位,所以它们就被称作自由词素。
2.2.2Bound morphemes 黏着词素Bound morphemes cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently。
黏着词素是不能够独立使用，而只能与其他词素结合起来才能构成能独立使用的单词。
Bound morphemes include two types：roots and affixes.黏着词素包括两类：词根和词缀。
Roots 词根A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear， definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word。
词根经常被看成是单词的一部分，尽管它具有比较清晰、确切的意思,却不能够独立存在，它必须和其他词根或词缀一起才能构成一个单词。
For example, ⑴ the root “geo—”—-“the earth"the root “—ology”—-“a branch of learning”“geo—”+“-ology”——geology “the study of the earth’s structure。
”⑵ the root “tele—”——“distant, far”the free morpheme“vision”——“seeing, sight”“tele—"+“vision”——televisionRoots：“aqu”——“water” : aquarium , aquatic“—loqu—”——“speech”: eloquent ， loquacious , soliloquy“manu—”-—“hand" : manuscript , manual ， manufacture“-path”——“emotion”： sympathy ， empathy Affixes：词缀Affixes are of two types：inflectional and derivational.词缀有两种：屈折词缀和派生词缀。
Inflectional affixes：屈折词缀Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes indicate the grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense，degree, and case.屈折词缀(也叫屈折词素）表现的是如数、时态、级、格这样的语法关系或语法范畴.Derivational affixes：派生词缀Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.派生词缀是为了构成新的单词而附加在已有单词上面的词缀。
This is a very common way to create new words in English.这是英语中最常见的创造新词的方法。
Derivation 派生法 derivative 派生词Stem 词干A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added.被附加上派生词缀的那个业已存在的单词叫词干。
A stem can be a bound root， a free morpheme, or a derived form itself。
词干可以是一个黏着性词根,一个自由词素，也可能本身就是一个派生形式. Affixes are divided into two kinds： prefixes and suffixes。
词缀分为：前缀和后缀.Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word。
前缀会对词根的意思有所修改，但却不致改变原来单词的词类。
Exceptions: “be—”, and “en（m）-”.Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs, e.g. little—belittle.例外：“be—”, and “en（m）-”，当它们被附加在形容词或名词上面的时候，会把相关的词改变成动词词类。
Suffixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech。
后缀也修改原有单词的词义，而且在很多情况下会使原有单词的词类发生变化。
2.2.3Morphological rules 形态学规则Morphological rules are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word。
形态学规则决定着一些词缀究竟应该和哪一类词根相结合。
pounding 复合法Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English.同派生法一样，复合法也是英语中相当普遍和极其重要的一种构词法。
In terms of morphemic analysis， derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words， and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words。
从形态学的角度来分析，派生法是把词缀附加到词根上以构成新的单词,而复合法则是把两个、甚至经常是两个以上的单词组合在一起构成新单词的方法。
3.1Types of compound words 复合词的类型3.2Features of compounds 复合词的特征1.Orthographically 从正字法上来看e。
g。
armchair, follow-up， thunder birdhow a compound is written is simply a matter of convention.关于复合词的写法纯粹是习惯上的问题，在这种情况上，习惯总是要一如既往地得以尊重。
2.Syntactically 从句法上来讲The part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element, e。
g。
， icy—cold adj。
head —strong adj。
greenhouse n。
复合词的词类一般都是由单词中第二个成分所决定的。
Exceptions: especially with those compounds ending with a verb or an adverb or a preposition。
For example, follow-up， crackdown, kick-off are all nouns instead of adverbs， and toothpick， snowfall， and facelift are nouns instead of verbs.例外：尤其是当这些复合词是以一个动词或副词或者是介词结尾的时候。
