Wheat quality traits and quality parameters of cooked dry white Chinese

Original articleEffect of microwave heating of wheat grains on the browningof dough and quality of chapattisDeep Narayan Yadav,*Prakash Eknathrao Patki,Gopal Kumar Sharma&Amarinder Singh BawaDefence Food Research Laboratory Siddarthanagar,Mysore570011,India(Received4December2006;Accepted in revised form9March2007)Summary Studies were conducted to evaluate the effect of microwave(900W,2450MHz)heating of wheat grains conditioned to different moisture levels on the activity of polyphenol oxidase(PPO)and subsequent colourchanges during storage of wheat dough.The results showed that microwave heating of wheat grains for80sdecreased the PPO activity significantly(P£0.05)with an increase in moisture level from12to18%.Wholewheatflour milled from microwave treated wheat grains(80s,18%MC)had93.39%less activity of PPO.The dough balls(40g),pressed and rolled into circular form(150.00mm diameter and2.00mm thickness)and stored at5–6°C for72h.The colour offlattened circular dough was measured using Hunter ColourMeter and it was found that L-value(lightness)decreased from64.21to60.23in treated and from64.79to47.93in control samples after72h of storage.The results showed that the microwave heating effectivelycontrolled the enzymatic browning in dough and improved the consumer acceptability of chapattis preparedfrom the same during refrigerated(5–6°C)storage for72h.Keywords Colour value,dough,microwave,polyphenol oxidase.IntroductionChapati,aflat unleavened hot plate baked product prepared from whole wheatflour(locally known as atta),is the staple food of a majority of the population in many regions of the Indian subcontinent.About 75%of the total wheat production of India is used for the preparation of chapati and other traditional foods. In India,generally chapattis are prepared from fresh dough as stored dough develops surface browning even after storage for3–4h at ambient or refrigerated temperature.Polyphenol oxidase(PPO)has been implicated for enzymatic browning reactions in whole wheatflour used for making chapattis(Abrol et al., 1971;Singh&Sheoran,1972).Polyphenol oxidase is present in wheat as well(Milner&Gould,1951;Abrol &Uprety,1970;Tikoo et al.,1973;Taneja et al.,1974; Kruger,1976).Variations in PPO activity were corre-lated with quality characteristics(Hatcher&Kruger, 1997;Park et al.,1997),cultivars and growing locations (Lamkin et al.,1981;Baik et al.,1994;Park et al., 1997)as well as milling fractions(Marsh&Galliard, 1986;McCallum&Walker,1990;Hatcher&Kruger, 1997).PPO is a heat labile enzyme and is inactivated readily by a short heat treatment at70–90°C in fruits and vegetables tissues(Vamos-Vigyazo,1981).Heat treatment of wheat at13–17%moisture content(MC) in a screw conveyer at95–110°C for4–12min has been reported to inactivate lipolytic and oxidative enzymes without altering the physical and functional properties of theflour(Bookwalter,1985).Hot air drying of wheat and the baking quality of the resultingflour had been studied by several authors(Finney et al.,1962; Lupano&Anon,1987;Zamponi et al.,1990).Loaf volume,crumb grain,mixing time and protein solubil-ity were adversely affected at grain temperature above 71°C.Vadlamani&Seib(1996)studied the effect of heat at different moisture levels(13–19%)in a rotating drum at80and100°C for different timings(4–12min) on PPO inactivation and reported that the noodles dough made with theflour from heat and moisture treated wheat had improved brightness,but still turned brown upon storage,partly because of the Maillard reaction.Measurement of colour change resulting from PPO oxidation of a phenolic substrate by spectrophotometer and monitoring oxygen consumption during the oxida-tion process,have been used to assay PPO activity (Honald&Stahmann,1968;Lamkin et al.,1981; McCallum&Walker,1990;Hatcher&Kruger,1997; Park et al.,1997).In the present study PPO activity was*Correspondent:Fax:+918212473468;e-mail:dfrlmysore@sancharnet.inInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology2008,43,1217–12251217doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2007.01593.xÓ2007The Authors.Journal compilationÓ2007Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fundmeasured by spectrophotometer because of its high accuracy and ability to use smaller samples to measure the specific activity of the enzyme(Kotber et al.,2001). The objective of the investigation was to evaluate the efficacy of microwave heat treatment in the inactivation of PPO activity in wheat grains and to produceflour dough,which can be stored for longer periods with mini-mum browning infinished products such as chapattis. Materials and methodsWheat sampleIn the present study,commercial,medium hard variety (bansi wheat),grown in the state of Karnataka(2005) was procured from local market,manually cleaned and used in the investigation.All chemicals used in the investigation were of analytical grade and procured from M⁄S E-Merck,Mumbai,India.Wheat physical testTest weight of wheat samples was determined using the AACC approved method55–10(American Association of Cereal Chemist,1983).Results were recorded using 1.297as the factor to convert pounds per bushel to kilograms per hectoliter(Kg hL)1).Thousand kernel weight(g)was determined using a sample free of foreign material and broken kernels.The kernel length and width were determined by using digital vernier caliper (ESAL,Scientific Industries,New Delhi,India).The chemical parameters like protein,ash and wet and dry gluten contents were determined using American Association of Cereal Chemist(1983)methods.The MC of grains was recorded using Brabender Rapid-Moisture Meter(Duisburg,Type890100).Microwave heat treatment of wheat grainsWheat sample(600g)was placed in a small rotating drum(diameter=30cm,length=40cm)at25°C. Measured quantity of water(2.4–71mL)was added slowly to the tumbling grains.After tumbling for 10min,the moistened grains with12–21%MC(wet basis)were held in a sealed polyethylene bag at25°C for1h.The tempered wheat sample was placed in a 500mL Borosil glass beaker and treated(at full power,900W,2450MHz)in microwave oven(LG Electronics India Pvt Ltd,Delhi,India,Model MG 607APR)for40–100s.The treated wheat grains were removed from the microwave oven within10s and cooled immediately by spreading in aluminium tray at room temperature.A portion(25g)of the cooled wheat sample was sealed in a polyethylene(37.5l m) pouch with minimum head space and used to deter-mine the MC.The remainder of wheat was dried to 10±0.5%MC at ambient condition and packed in polyethylene pouches.Experiments were performed using a factorial design consisting of time(40,60,80and100s)and moisture (12,15,18and21%)levels.All the experiments were performed in triplicate.Analysis of variance was calcu-lated as per Snedecor&Cochran(1968)using statistica software version-7(State Soft Corporation,Tulsa,OK, USA).MillingWheat samples were grounded to400–500l m particle size in an emery disc mill(Model no.EGM-467K,Dia: 18in,Ganesha&Company,Chennai,India)to obtain whole wheatflour(100%),which is commonly used in households for chapati making.Quantitative PPO assayPolyphenol oxidase activity in the samples was meas-ured by a spectrophotometeric method(Bruiski& Dropkin,1973).The analytical accuracy of the proce-dure was assessed by multiple analysis of the stan-dard mushroom PPO(Sigma,St.Louis,MO,USA). This sample had a known PPO activity level (84000units mg)1solids)and was repeatedly analysed along with each sample set.The mean and coefficient of variation were74865units mg)1and 3.2%,respect-ively.According to the specification of enzyme purity prescribed by Sigma,the89.13%mean recovery obtained in the study lies within the acceptable level of at least60%recovery.For PPO assay,in samples(2g for grains and4g forflour)were ground in duplicate with20mL of sodium phosphate buffer solution(0.1m, pH6.5),using a mortar and pestle,followed by shaking using a wrist shaker at reduced speed(100rpm)for1h in a refrigerated room,and thenfiltered through muslin cloth followed by centrifugation at6250·g for15min. An aliquot of supernatant,which contained crude PPO extract,was heated in a water bath for3min at37°C and placed in crushed ice.A solution containing1mL of sodium phosphate buffer(0.5m,pH 6.5), 1.5mL distilled water,0.25mL catechol(0.5m)was placed in a quartz cuvette.Crude enzyme extract(0.25mL)was added and the contents were mixed immediately by inversion.Absorbance of the solution was recorded at 410nm with a UV–Visible spectrophotometer(SHIM-ADZU,UV1601,Kyoto,Japan)for3min to obtain the change in absorbance per minute.All results were corrected for substrate auto-oxidation,using a blank with no PPO added and reported on14%moisture basis.PPO activity was expressed in terms of units g)1 sample min)1.One unit of PPO activity was defined as the amount of the enzyme giving a change in absorbance of0.001unit min)1as described above.Effect of micro wave heating of wheat grains on the browning of dough D.N.Yadav et al.1218International Journal of Food Science and Technology2008Ó2007The Authors.Journal compilationÓ2007Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust FundColour valuesThe colour values in terms of L,a and b for grains,flour and unbaked and baked chapattis were measured using a Hunter Colour Meter(Data Lab,Silvasa,Gujarat, India)with illuminant D65and100observer.L-value expressed the whiteness of the sample with100as perfect white and0as black.A higher L-value indicated a brighter or whiter sample.Values of a and b indicated the red-green and yellow-blue chromaticity,respectively. Mixograph analysisThe whole wheatflour samples obtained from the wheat grain samples treated for different time intervals in microwave as well as control(without microwave heat treatment)were analysed for their mixing characteristics using the10g moving mixograph(National Mfg,Divi-sion,TMCO,Lincoln,USA).Water absorption level used in the mixograph analysis was selected based on moisture and protein content of the sample,which was given in mixograph handbook(first edition1997,p.13). Both midline and envelope(curves defining the centre top and bottom of the mixogram)analyses were produced. The peak time and height,ascending and descending slopes and work function(integral of percent torque·time,min)were recorded from the midline analysis. RVA analysisPasting properties offlours were measured using a Rapid Visco-Analyser4D(Newport Scientific Pvt Ltd, Warie Wood,Australia).Flour sample(3.5g on14% moisture basis)was dispersed in25mL of distilled water.The rotating speed of paddle was160rev min)1 except forfirst10s(960rev min)1).The suspension was equilibrated at50°C for1min and heated at the rate of 12°C min)1to95°C and then held at95°C for 2.5min.The sample was then cooled to50°C at the rate of12°C min)1and then held for3min at50°C. Parameters such as peak viscosity(PV),break down viscosity(BD),set back viscosity(SB),pasting tempera-ture,Hot paste viscosity(HPV,minimum viscosity at 95°C),Cool paste viscosity(CPV,final viscosity at 50°C)were recorded.Break down(BD)=PV)HPV, Set Back(SB)=CPV)HPV.All measurements were carried out in triplicate and parameters recorded in terms of Rapid Viscosity Units(RVUs)(1RVU= 12cp).Flattened circular dough preparationDough from the treated and control wheatflours were prepared by mixing in Hobart dough kneader(HL 120Hz50⁄60,Hobart,Troy,OH,USA)for10min, adding68%water.The dough was allowed to rest for 15min and divided into40g pieces.Each dough piece was formed into round shape,placed in a polyethylene pouch and pressed using a manual chapati pressing machine into aflattened circular dough sheet(Diameter 150.00mm and thickness2.00mm).The polyethylene pouches were heat-sealed and stored under refrigeration conditions(5–6°C).Preparation of chapattisTheflattened circular dough sheets were baked on a hot plate at230±5°C for1–2min on either side with the application of hydrogenated vegetable oil.The sensory characteristics of the chapattis were evaluated on a9-point hedonic scale by a10member trained taste panel drawn from the staffmembers of DFRL.The baked chapattis were evaluated for sensory parameters such as colour,texture,mouth feel,flavour and overall acceptability.Results and discussionThe medium hard wheat variety(bansi wheat)pur-chased from the local market was analysed for its physical characteristics.Its test weight,thousand kernel weight,average grain length,average grain width were 76.8±0.7kg hL)1,38.6±0.4g, 6.4±0.02mm, 3.3±0.01mm,respectively.The wheat sample was also analysed for its moisture,gluten,protein,fat,total carbohydrates and ash contents and the corresponding values were11.65±0.15%,8.92±0.02%, 12.2±0.1%, 1.3±0.03%,74.65±0.8%and 1.6±0.06%respectively.The PPO activity in wheat grains was found to be560±15units g min)1,while, whole wheatflour milled from the same had 167±8units g min)1.About30%retention of PPO activity was found in whole wheatflour(100%extrac-tion),whereas Baik et al.(1994)had reported only3% retention of PPO activity in refined wheatflour(60%or less extraction).Higher retention of PPO inflour samples is the result of the presence of higher percentage of bran fraction.It is known that most of the PPO activity of wheat grain is concentrated in the bran fraction.Vadlamani&Seib(1996)reported that PPO activity in milled bran was six times higher than the level of milledflour.Microwave heating of previously tempered wheat for 1h at25°C to12–21%moisture for40,60,80and 100s resulted in reduction of PPO activity by72.32to 95.89%in milledflour(Table1).A significant (P£0.05)correlation(+0.79)was found between moisture level and reduction in PPO activity.This showed that the moisture level had a significant effect on reduction in PPO activity.For a given heating period (40s),wheat moisture had a little effect on inactivation of PPO activity.Inactivation of PPO in treated wheatEffect of micro wave heating of wheat grains on the browning of dough D.N.Yadav et al.1219Ó2007The Authors.Journal compilationÓ2007Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology2008was greater and more variable in grains treated for more than 60s,and as the moisture in the wheat was varied,the loss of PPO proceeded through a maximum for each heating period (Table 1,Fig.1).The maximum losses were 75.18%,82.5%,93.39%and 95.89%at 18%MC after heating for 40,60,80and 100s,respectively.Thelow inactivation of PPO in wheat at 12%MC may be because of less generation of heat on account of low polar water molecules whereas;at 21%MC the inacti-vation of PPO was almost the same as compared with 18%MC.This may be because of evaporative cooling in the grains on account of increased heat capacity.Water evaporated from the grains at all heating conditions,but evaporative cooling was especially higher at 21%MC for different durations of heat treatment especially more than 80s.Moisture level of 18%appeared to be optimum to reduce PPO activity in wheat grains on heating in microwave for 80s.Maximum reduction of 95.89%of PPO activity was observed in whole wheat flour obtained from the wheat grains conditioned to 18%MC and heated for 100s.The deterioration in dough properties was the result of denaturation of proteins as shown in mixograph (Fig.2c).However,wheat grains conditioned to 18%MC and heated for 80s resulted in flour with 93.39%less PPO activity with minimum destruction in dough properties (Fig.2b).The optimum conditions for inactivation of PPO were found to be 18%MC and 80s of microwave heating.Bookwalter (1985)reported that conductive heat treat-ment of wheat at 13–17%moisture and 95–110°C for 4–12min inactivated lipolytic and oxidative enzymes without altering the physical and functional properties of flour.The factors limiting the inactivation of PPO in the heat treated wheat without affecting the vitality of gluten in the endosperm is not known.Abbreviated tempering of the wheat should add moisture predomin-antly to the kernels pericarp and aleurone layer (Moss,1977).Rapid increase in the surface temperature of tempered wheat may cause heat to be conducted first into the aleurone layer,where PPO is located,and following rapid cooling of the hot and moist kernels,could minimize protein damage in the internal zone.Based on the inactivation of PPO activity,moisture level of 18%was selected for studying the effect of microwave heat treatment on mixing and pasting properties of wheat flour.Mixing propertiesTheflours from microwave treated wheat for 40,60,80,100s at 18%MC and the control wheat flour contained 27.58±0.08,27.32±0.09,26.82±0.10,22.12±0.12and 27.62±0.12%wet gluten respect-ively,while the dry gluten contents were 8.90±0.01,8.85±0.02,8.65±0.02,7.08±0.02and 8.92±0.02%respectively.There was no significant (P £0.05)reduction in gluten content on heating up to 80s at 18%MC,while 100s resulted in a significant (P £0.05)reduction in gluten yield,indicating that heating the wheat grain up to 80s caused only limited damage to gluten while 100s heating resulted in a significant (P £0.05)damage to the gluten.Table 1Effect of microwave heat treatment and moisture content onPPO activity of wheat flourTime(Seconds)Moisture content of grain (%)Grain moisture loss (%)Flour PPO activity(Units g min )1)Loss of PPO activity in flour (%)40120.3415572.32150.4314773.75180.7913975.1821 1.0914274.6460120.5812976.96150.8411479.6418 1.109882.521 1.4710681.0780120.85889.6415 1.104991.2518 1.423793.3921 1.984591.26100120.964891.4315 1.624092.8618 2.472395.89213.573493.93CD (P £0.05)a 0.05 2.670.31b 0.05 2.640.31a ·b 0.09 5.350.56SEM ±a 0.020.930.10b 0.020.950.09a ·b0.031.860.20CD,critical difference;SEM,standard error of mean.Effect of micro wave heating of wheat grains on the browning of dough D.N.Yadav et al.1220International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2008Ó2007The Authors.Journal compilation Ó2007Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust FundThe flours of treated wheat samples were analysed for mixing characteristics using mixograph and the data has been presented in Table 2.The peak value decreasedwith an increase in the duration of microwave heating.It showed that degradation occurred in gluten with increase in heating time.Control wheat flour had a peak value (60.4,%torque)and differ significantly (P £0.05)from the value (54.21,%torque)obtained for the flour from treated wheat grains (80s at 18%MC).However,chapattis prepared from both the samples remained acceptable with respect to sensory quality.The flour obtained from the wheat grains (18%MC)treated up to 100s showed sharp decrease in peak value (38.11,%torque),which resulted poor dough quality as also indicated by ascending and descending slopes (%min).These parameters confirmed that the gluten had been affected in treated wheat grains,while up to 80s the changes in mixograph properties were less.It was concluded that excessive microwave heat treatment of the wheat grains yielded flour,which gave essentially a flat mixograph (Fig.2c).Finney et al.(1962)harvested wheat at high moisture levels and studied the effect of drying temperature (forced convection oven)on the baking properties of the flours.It was found that drying wheat at more than 70°C caused gluten damage when wheat MC was between 15and 27%.Further,it was concluded that the peak time of flour dough always increased when its gluten was heat damaged.Pasting propertiesThe pasting properties of the wheat flour samples obtained from microwave treated wheat grains at 18%MC for different intervals were measured using RVA and the data are presented in Table 3.The control flour had a peak viscosity of 194.83RVU,the increase in duration of microwave heat treatment from 40to 100s significantly (P £0.05)decreased the peak viscosity from 194.83to 158.19RVU.Reduction in peak viscosity may be because of partial gelatinization of starch and denaturation of proteins.The HPV and CPV also decreased from 116.83to 95.67and 196.42to 161.27RVU,respectively.The pasting properties are depend-ant on the rigidity of starch potential and amount of amylose leached out in the solution (Morris,1990).HPV is influenced by the rate of amylose exudation,amylose–lipid complex formation,granule swelling and compe-tition between exudated amylose in remaining granules for free water,as CPV is determined largely by the tendency of the soluble amylose upon cooling (Olkku &Rha,1978).A high HPV generally represents low cooking loss whereas high CPV relates to higher resistance to shear (Jin et al.,1994).The break down and set back value also decreased from 78to 62.52and 79.58to 65.60RVU,respectively.The amylose content is believed to have a marked influence on breakdown viscosity,which is a measure of susceptibility of cooked starch granules to disintegration and set back viscosity,(c)(b)(a)908070605040302010Min 12ML TLTPMPMRTRTXTT3456789Min 12ML TLTLTPMP MRTR TXTT3456789Min 12ML TPMP MRTR TXTT3456789test run 07-20-2006 16:34:19test run 07-20-2006 12:11:52test run 07-20-2006 15:06:55908070605040302010908070605040302010Figure 2(a)Mixograph of flour milled from an untreated wheat grains (control)with 59.8%absorption.(b)Mixograph of flour milled from microwave heat treated wheat grains at 18%MC for 80s (60.9%absorption).(c)Mixograph of flour milled from microwave heat treated wheat grains at 18%MC for 100s (60.9%absorption).Effect of micro wave heating of wheat grains on the browning of dough D.N.Yadav et al.1221Ó2007The Authors.Journal compilation Ó2007Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust FundInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology 2008which is a measure of recrystallisation of gelatinised starch during cooking (Lee et al.,1995).The set back has been reported to be the result of aggregation of amylose fractions,which leads to the reinforcement of swollen granules and fragments by the formation of bonds between and within them (Dengate &Meredith,1984).Colour values of treated and control wheat grains and their flourIn order to assess the effect of heat and moisture treatment on the changes in colour values of grains as well as the flour,the colour values of treated and control wheat grains and their flour were recorded using Hunter Colour Meter and the results are given in Table 4.There was no significant (P £0.05)difference among thecolour values of control and treated wheat grains or the flour obtained from the same.Changes in colour values of stored flattened circular doughThe changes in colour of the microwave treated flattened circular dough pieces stored at 5–6°C for 72h are shown in Fig.3a–c.To avoid differences in brightness caused by varying water absorption,both the wheat flour samples were made into dough at the same water absorption (68%).Visual differences in brightness are generally ascertained when L -value differs by 0.5units.Brightness (L)value decreased continuously with storage under refrigeration (5–6°C)temperature in both control and microwave treated (80s,18%MC)flattened circular dough.The decrease in brightness in treated samples was very slow as compared with theTable 2Effect of microwave heat treatmenton mixograph properties of wheat flour (18%MC)Time (s)Peak time (min)Peak value(%torque)Ascending slope (%⁄min)Descending slope (%⁄min)Integral at peak(%torque ·min)0 2.4260.424.54-5.1290.4340 2.4858.7022.32-5.0292.7260 2.5856.3718.39-4.7396.3980 2.8254.2110.08-4.27102.821005.5038.11 1.16-0.32215.28CD (P £0.05)0.08 2.170.150.07 2.70SEM ±0.030.070.050.020.86CD,critical difference;SEM,standard error of mean.Table 3Effect of microwave heat treatmentof grains (18%moisture)on pasting prop-erties of wheat flourTime (sec)Peak viscosity (RVU)Hot paste viscosity (RVU)Cool paste viscosity (RVU)Break down (RVU)Set back (RVU)Pastingtemperature (°C)0194.83116.83196.4278.0079.5868.6540192.34115.25195.3277.0980.0768.6560188.59114.21190.1974.3875.9868.6580185.89113.64187.2372.2573.5968.70100158.1995.67161.2762.5265.6068.60CD(P £0.05) 3.16 2.78 5.23 2.72 3.250.10SEM ±0.350.210.320.180.140.02CD,critical difference;SEM,standard error of mean.Table 4Colour values (L ,a and b )of micro-wave treated (80s,18%moisture)and con-trol wheat grains and their flourColourparameters GrainsFlourTreated Control CD(P £0.05)SEM ±Treated Control CD(P £0.05)SEM ±L 58.0358.580.130.0385.9686.03 1.590.41a 5.64 5.620.060.02 1.72 1.740.040.009b15.0415.050.100.0310.2510.280.090.02CD,critical difference;SEM,standard error of mean.Effect of micro wave heating of wheat grains on the browning of dough D.N.Yadav et al.1222International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2008Ó2007The Authors.Journal compilation Ó2007Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fundcontrol one(Fig.3a).By visual observation,just after 24h of storage,the change in colour was found to be undesirable in control samples,whereas,in the treated ones,the colour remained in acceptable range up to72h of storage investigation.The decrease in brightness with time in control samples was caused by PPO activity. Kruger et al.(1992)&Baik et al.(1995)demonstrated that the rate of changes in brightness was correlated with level of PPO activity as well as various phenolic compounds in dough.The change in redness during storage has been illustrated in Fig.3b.It can be observed that redness increased in both the samples during storage but the changes were not significant(P£0.05).Yellowness values(b)decreased in both the samples and rate of decrease was significantly(P£0.05)higher in control than the treated ones.This indicated that microwave heat treatment effectively controlled the change in colour as a result of enzymatic browning during storage offlattened circular dough.The effect on colour of baked chapattis has been indicated in Fig.4a–c.A similar trend was found in baked chapattis also.Baked chapattis prepared from the controlflour dough was not acceptable even after24h of storage in terms of itsEffect of micro wave heating of wheat grains on the browning of dough D.N.Yadav et al.1223Ó2007The Authors.Journal compilationÓ2007Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology2008colour,while the chapattis prepared from treated dough retained excellent colour even after 72h of storage.Sensory data for baked chapattis are given in Table 5.A significant (P £0.05)correlation (+0.82)was found between PPO activity of flour and colour scores of the chapattis made from stored dough samples.The colour and overall acceptability scores were significantly (P £0.05)affected by the storage period in case of control samples.While colour and overall acceptability scores of those obtained from treated flour dough were not significantly (P £0.05)affected even after 72h of storage under 5–6°C temperature conditions.This indicated that the PPO activity of wheat grains was responsible for the colour changes in dough during storage as well as the colour and overall acceptability of chapattis obtained from the stored dough.ConclusionsIt was concluded that microwave heat treatment of wheat grains was effective in controlling the PPO activity.However,the effect was significantly (P £0.05)correla-ted to the MC of wheat grains and duration of heating.A 93.39%reduction in PPO activity could be achieved in the whole wheat flour by microwave heating of wheat grains for 80s at 18%MC.Dough of the flour from the microwave treated wheat can be stored at refrigeration temperature for 72h with minimum changes in colour value as well as quality of chapattis.The acceptability of chapattis was comparable in terms of sensory attributes to a chapatti prepared from fresh dough.AcknowledgmentsThe authors express their thanks to the Head of the Fruits and Vegetable Section for the help extended in the use of Hunter Colour Meter.ReferencesAbrol,Y.P.&Uprety,D.C.(1970).Studies on darkening of whole wheat meal dough.Current Science ,40,421–422.Abrol,Y.P.,Uprety,D.C.,Ram,A.&Tikoo,S.(1971).Phenol colour reaction as an indicator of chapatti quality 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,53,201–213.Table 5Changes in sensory characteristics (on nine-point hedonic scale)of baked chapattis prepared from stored flattened circular dough atrefrigeration temperature (5–6°C)Time (h)ColourTexture Mouth feel Flavour OverallacceptabilityT C T C T C T C T C 08.88.78.68.58.58.58.48.48.58.4248.57.88.48.38.38.48.38.38.47.8488.2 6.98.38.38.18.28.38.28.27.0728.0 6.08.38.28.28.38.28.28.2 6.1CD (P £0.05)a 0.110.070.080.100.10b 0.080.050.160.070.07a ·b 0.150.090.040.140.15SEM ±a 0.040.020.030.030.04b 0.030.020.050.020.03a ·b0.050.030.050.050.06a,storage time;b ,treatments;T,treated;C,control;CD,critical difference;SEM,standard error of mean.Effect of micro wave heating of wheat grains on the browning of dough D.N.Yadav et al.1224International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2008Ó2007The Authors.Journal compilation Ó2007Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund。

小麦质量指标英文版英文回答：Wheat Quality Parameters.Wheat quality is a complex trait that is determined by a number of factors, including genetics, environmental conditions, and crop management practices. The most important quality parameters for wheat are:Protein content: Protein content is a key determinant of wheat quality, as it affects the baking properties of the flour. High-protein wheat flour produces bread with a strong, elastic texture, while low-protein wheat flour produces bread with a weak, crumbly texture.Gluten strength: Gluten is a protein complex that gives wheat dough its elasticity and strength. Strong gluten is essential for producing bread with a good rise and volume.Falling number: Falling number is a measure of the alpha-amylase activity in wheat flour. High alpha-amylase activity can lead to dough that is sticky and difficult to handle, resulting in bread with a poor texture.Test weight: Test weight is a measure of the density of wheat kernels. High test weight wheat kernels are plump and have a high proportion of starch, which is important for producing flour with a high yield.Moisture content: Moisture content is important for wheat storage and milling. Wheat with a high moisture content is more susceptible to spoilage and can bedifficult to mill.Ash content: Ash content is a measure of the mineral content of wheat flour. High ash content can lead to flour with a dark color and a bitter taste.Color: Color is an important quality parameter for wheat flour, as it affects the appearance of baked goods.High-quality wheat flour should be bright and white in color.Milling yield: Milling yield is a measure of the amount of flour that can be produced from a given quantity of wheat. High milling yield is important for maximizing the efficiency of wheat processing.In addition to these key parameters, there are a number of other factors that can affect wheat quality, including:Kernel size and shape: Kernel size and shape canaffect the efficiency of wheat milling and the quality of the flour.Hardness: Hardness is a measure of the resistance of wheat kernels to grinding. Hard wheat kernels are more difficult to grind, but they produce flour with a higher protein content and stronger gluten.Disease resistance: Disease resistance is importantfor protecting wheat crops from diseases that can reduceyield and quality.中文回答：小麦品质指标。

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Agricultural Sciences in China 2009, 8(9): 1039-1045September 2009© 2009, CAAS. All rights reserved. Published by Elsevier Ltd.Detection of QTLs with Additive Effects, Epistatic Effects, and QTL ×Environment Interactions for Zeleny Sedimentation Value Using a Doubled Haploid Population in Cultivated WheatZHAO Liang, LIU Bin, ZHANG Kun-pu, TIAN Ji-chun and DENG Zhi-yingState Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Group of Quality Wheat Breeding, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an 271018, P.R.ChinaAbstractIn order to understand the genetic basis for Zeleny sedimentation value (ZSV) of wheat, a doubled haploid (DH) population Huapei 3×Yumai 57 (Yumai 57 is superior to Huapei 3 for ZSV), and a linkage map consisting of 323 marker loci were used to search QTLs for ZSV. This program was based on mixed linear models and allowed simultaneous mapping of additive effect QTLs, epistatic QTLs, and QTL×environment interactions (QEs). The DH population and the parents were evaluated for ZSV in three field trials. Mapping analysis produced a total of 8 QTLs and 2 QEs for ZSV with a single QTL explaining 0.64-14.39% of phenotypic variations. Four additive QTLs, 4 pairs of epistatic QTLs, and two QEs collectively explained 46.11% of the phenotypic variation (PVE). This study provided a precise location of ZSV gene within the Xwmc 93 and GluD1 interval, which was designated as Qzsv-1D. The information obtained in this study should be useful for manipulating the QTLs for ZSV by marker assisted selection (MAS) in wheat breeding programs.Key words: doubled haploid population, Zeleny sedimentation value, quantitative trait loci (QTLs), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)INTRODUCTIONThe Zeleny sedimentation value (ZSV) has been provento be useful in wheat breeding programs for the esti-mation of wheat eating and cooking quality (Mesdag1964; Kne et al. 1993; Liu et al. 2003; He et al.2004; Zhang et al. 2005; Özberk et al. 2006; Ozturket al. 2008). There is a positive correlation betweensedimentation volume and gluten strength or loaf volume.The ZSV method is often used as a screening test inwheat breeding. Mesdag (1964) showed that the valueof ZSV is a measure for the quantity and quality of thegluten. Because the baking value of wheat flour is largelydetermined by these components, the ZSV is also con-sidered as a useful predictor for the baking value. LiuReceived 3 December, 2008 Accepted 9 April, 2009Correspondence TIAN Ji-chun, Professor, Tel/Fax: +86-538-8242040, E-mail: jctian9666@et al. (2003) detected that the associations betweenZSV and DWCN’s (dry white Chinese noodle) appear-ance and taste also fit quadratic regression modelsignificantly. The gluten quality-related parameter ofsedimentation value was significantly associated withpan bread quality score (He et al. 2004). Özberk et al.(2006) found that the only quality analyses showingsignificant correlations with market price were Zelenysedimentation value and hectolitre weights (kg hL-1).Ozturk et al. (2008) reported that the cookie diametergave highly significant correlations with ZSV.The advent and utilization of molecular markers hasprovided powerful tools for elucidating the genetic ba-sis of quantitatively inherited traits. However, only afew studies have reported genetic loci that influenceZSV in wheat (Rousset et al. 2001; Kunert et al. 2007;1040ZHAO Liang et al.Sun et al. 2008). Rousset et al. (2001) reported that one strong QTL for ZSV was mapped on the long arm of chromosome 1A around Glu-A1. A distally located QTL for ZSV was mapped on chromosome arm 1BS, centered on the Gli-B1/Glu-B3 region. And a major QTL for ZSV, clearly corresponding to the Glu-D1 locus, was detected on chromosome arm 1DL. Kunert et al. (2007) found four putative QTLs for ZSV. Sun et al. (2008) identified three QTLs for ZSV in a F14 RIL derived from the cross between Chuan 35050 and Shannong 483.Additive effect QTLs were first identified and epi-static interactions among these additive effect QTLs were then estimated (Zanetti et al. 2001). However, this approach usually leaves out many QTLs that may have no additive effects but influence the trait only through epistatic interactions or QTL×environment in-teractions (QEs) (Ma et al. 2005, 2007; Rebetzke et al. 2007). Additive effect QTLs, epistatic QTLs, and QEs were detected using two-locus analyses in both the populations (Kulwal et al. 2005). Sometimes QTLs involved in such interactions contribute substantially to the total variation of a quantitative trait, and therefore should not be ignored. Further experimentation is needed to clarify whether the traits are also affected by epistatic and environment, and to dissect the genotype ×environment interaction effects at the molecular level. In this study, QTLs for ZSV were investigated based on the mixed linear model in a DH population across environments. The objective of this study was to com-prehensively characterize the genetic basis for ZSV of wheat in order to facilitate the future breeding of high-quality wheat varieties.MATERIALS AND METHODSMaterialsA population of 168 DH lines was produced from the cross between two Chinese wheat cultivars Huapei 3 (Hp3)/Yumai 57 (Ym57) and was used for the con-struction of a linkage map. The DH population and parents were kindly provided by Professor Yanhai, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, China. Hp3 and Ym57 were registered by Henan Prov-ince of China in 2006 (Hai and Kang 2007) and by the state (China) in 2003 (Guo et al. 2004), respectively. The parents, planted over a large area in the Huang-Huai wheat region in China, differ in several agronomi-cally important traits as well as baking quality traits (Guo et al. 2004; Hai and Kang 2007).The field trials were conducted in three environments, at Tai’an (36.18°N, 117.13°E), Shandong Province, China, in 2005 and 2006, and at Suzhou (31.32°N, 120.62°E), Anhui Province, China, in 2006. The ex-perimental design followed a completely randomized block design with two replications at each location. In autumn 2005, all lines and parental lines were grown in 2 m long by three-row plots (25 cm apart); in autumn 2006, the lines were grown in 2 m long by four-row plots (25 cm apart). Suzhou and Tai’an differ in cli-mate and soil conditions. In Tai’an, there were differ-ences in temperature and soil conditions between the years 2005 and 2006. During the growing season, man-agement was in accordance with the local practice. The lines were harvested individually at maturity to prevent yield loss from over-ripening. Harvested grain samples were cleaned prior to conditioning and flour milling was performed in a mill (Quadrumat Senior, Brabender, Germany) to flour extraction rates of around 70%. Prior to milling, the hard, medium hard (mixtures of hard and soft wheat) and soft wheats were tempered to around 14, 15, and 16% moisture contents, respectively.Measurements of ZSVZeleny sedimentation volume was determined using AACC method 56-61A.Construction of the genetic linkage mapA genetic linkage map of DH population with 323 markers, including 284 SSR, 37 ESTs loci, 1 ISSR loci and 1 HMW-GS loci, was constructed. This linkage map covered a total length of 2485.7 cM with an aver-age distance of 7.67 cM between adjacent markers. Thirteen markers remained unlinked. These markers formed 24 linkage groups at LOD 4.0. The chromo-somal locations and the orders of the markers in the map were in accordance with the one reported for Triti-cum aestivum L. (Somers et al. 2004). The recom-mended map distance for genome wide QTL scanningDetection of QTLs with Additive Effects, Epistatic Effects, and QTL×Environment Interactions for Zeleny Sedimentation1041 was an interval length less than 10 cM (Doerge 2002).Thus the map was suitable for genome-wide QTL scan-ning in this study.Statistical analysisAnalysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out usingSPSS ver. 13.0 (SPSS, Chicago, USA). QTLs withadditive effects and epistatic effects as well as QEs inthe DH population were mapped by the softwareQTLNetwork ver. 2.0 (Yang and Zhu 2005) based on amixed linear model (Wang et al. 1999). Composite in-terval analysis was undertaken using forward-backwardstepwise multiple linear regression with a probabilityinto and out of the model of 0.05 and window size setat 10 cM. Significant thresholds for QTL detectionwere calculated for each data set using 1000 permuta-tions and a genome-wide error rate of 0.10 (suggestive)and 0.05 (significant). The final genetic model incor-porated significant additive effects and epistatic effectsas well as their environmental interactions.RESULTSPhenotypic variation for DH lines and parentsAs is shown in Fig.1, ZSV of Ym57 showed highervalues than ZSV of Hp3; the means of the ZSV fellbetween the two parent’s values. It expressed the ex-istence of the large transgressive segregation. ZSV seg-regated continuously and approximately fit normal dis-tributions with absolute values of both skewness andkurtosis less than 1.0, indicating that this trait was suit-able for QTL mapping.QTLs with additive effects and additive×environment (AE) interactionsFour QTLs with significant additive effects were iden-tified on chromosomes 1B, 1D, 5A, and 5D (Table 1and Fig.2). These QTLs explained from 2.66 to14.39% of the phenotypic variance. The Qzsv-1B had the most significant effect, accounting for 14.39% of the phenotypic variance. The Ym57 alleles at three loci, Qzsv-1B,Qzsv-1D, and Qzsv-5D, increased Fig. 1 Frequency distributions of ZSV in 168 DH lines derived from a cross of Hp3×Ym57 evaluated at three environments in the 2005 and 2006 cropping seasons. The means of trait values for the DH lines and both parents are indicated by arrows. Several statistics for the traits in the DH lines are shown on the right of each plot.Zeleny sedimentation volume (mL)2006 in SuzhouZeleny sedimentation volume (mL)2006 in Tai’anZeleny sedimentation volume (mL)2005 in Tai’anMean: 24.39SD: 5.45Range: 12.00-39.00Skewness: 0.171Kurtosis: -0.153 252015105No.ofDHlinesDH linesYm57Hp315.0020.0025.0030.0035.0040.00DH linesYm57Hp320.0030.0040.0050.0060.00252015105No.ofDHlines30DH linesYm57Hp320.0030.0040.002015105No.ofDHlinesMean: 24.39SD: 5.45Range: 12.00-39.00Skewness: 0.171Kurtosis: -0.153Mean: 24.39SD: 5.45Range: 12.00-39.00Skewness: 0.171Kurtosis: -0.1531042ZHAO Liang et al.Table 1 Estimated additive effects and additive ×environment (AE) interactions of QTLs for ZSV at three environments in the 2005 and 2006 cropping seasonsQTL Flanking-marker 1)Position (cM)2)F -value P A 3)H 2 (A, %)4)AE 1H 2 (AE 1, %)5)AE 2H 2 (AE 2, %)AE 3H 2 (AE 3, %)Qzsv -1B Xwmc412.2-Xcfe023.236.425.220.000-2.5214.39------Qzsv -1D Xwmc93-GluD161.915.910.000-1.988.93------Qzsv -5A Xbarc358.2-Xgwm18638.18.100.000 1.08 2.66------Qzsv -5DXcfd101-Xbarc32060.612.690.000-1.203.25---1.042.44--1)Flanking marker, the interval of F peak value for QTL. The same as below.2)Position, the location of F peak value for QTL in “Flanking marker”. The same as below.3)Additive effects, a positive value indicates that the allele from Hp3 increased ZSV, a negative value indicates that the allele from Ym57 increased ZSV.4)H 2(A, %) indicates the contribution explained by putative additive QTL.5)H 2(AE 1, %) indicates the contribution explained by additive QTL ×environment 1 interaction. E 1, Tai’an 2005; E 2, Tai’an 2006; E 3, Suzhou 2006.Fig. 2 A genetic linkage map of wheat showing mapping QTLs with additive effects, epistatic effects, AE, and AAE for ZSV.1A 1B 1D 2A 3A5A 5D 7A 7DLocus involved in AELocus involved in additive effects Locus involved in epistasisLocus involved in AAEDetection of QTLs with Additive Effects, Epistatic Effects, and QTL ×Environment Interactions for Zeleny Sedimentation 1043ZSV by 2.52, 1.98, and 1.20 mL, respectively, owing to additive effects. The Hp3 allele increased ZSV at the Qzsv -5A by 1.08 mL, accounting for 2.66% of the phe-notypic variance. This suggested that alleles, which increased ZSV, were dispersed within the two parents,resulting in small differences of phenotypic values be-tween the parents and transgressive segregants among the DH population. The total additive QTLs detected for ZSV accounted for 29.23% of the phenotypic variance.One additive effect was involved in AE interactions (Table 1 and Fig.2). The Ym57 alleles at one locus,Qzsv -5D , increased the ZSV by 1.04 mL with corre-spondingly contributing 2.44% of the phenotypic variance.QTLs with epistasis effects and epistasis ×environment (AAE) interactionsFour pairs of epistatic QTLs were identified for ZSV,and were located on chromosomes 1A, 2A, 3A, 7A and 7D (Table 2 and Fig.2). These QTLs had correspond-ing contributions ranging from 0.64 to 6.79%. One pair of epistasis, occurring between the loci Qzsv -2A /Qzsv -7A , had the largest effect, which contributed ZSV of 1.73 mL and accounted for 6.79% of the phenotypic variance. The four pairs of epistatic QTLs explained 12.11% of the phenotypic variance. All the epistatic effects were non-main-effect QTLs.One pair of epistatic QTL was detected in AAE in-teractions for ZSV (Table 2 and Fig.2). The AAE ef-fects explained 2.33% of the phenotypic variance and this QTL, Qzsv3A.2/Qzsv7D.1, increased ZSV by 1.01mL owing to AAE effects, simultaneously the positive value means that the parent-type effect is greater than the recombinant-type effect.DISCUSSIONEpistatic effects and QTL ×environment interactions were important genetic basis for ZSV in wheatEpistasis, as an important genetic basis for complex traits, has been well demonstrated in recent QTL map-ping studies (Cao et al . 2001; Fan et al . 2005; Ma et al .2005, 2007). Ma et al . (2005) provided a strong evi-dence for the presence of epistatic effects on dough rheological properties in a wheat DH population. In the present study, four pairs of QTLs with epistatic ef-fects were detected for ZSV in three environments (Table 2 and Fig.2). The four pairs of epistatic QTLs explained 12.11% of the phenotypic variance.ZSV was predominantly influenced by the effects of genotype (Zhang et al . 2004, 2005), and in the present study, only one AE interaction and one AAE interaction were found. It is suggested that QTL ×environment interactions just play a minor role, but QTL ×environment interactions should not be ignored.ZSV and subunits of high molecular weight gluteninsSubunits of high molecular weight glutenins strongly influence wheat bread making quality. This study pro-vided a precise location of ZSV gene within the Xwmc 93 and GluD1 interval, which was designated Qzsv -1D and was located in the central region of a 2 cM interval.Also Rousset et al . (2001) detected a major QTL for sedimentation volume on 1DL, clearly corresponding to the Glu -D1 locus. Kunert et al . (2007) found that the SSR marker Xgwm642 on 1DL identified a QTLTable 2 Estimated epistatic effects and epistasis ×environment (AAE) interactions of QTLs for ZSV at three environments in the 2005 and 2006 cropping seasonsPosition Position H 2H 2H 2H 2(cM)(cM)(AA, %)2)(AAE 1, %)3)(AAE 2, %)(AAE 3, %)Qzsv -1A Xwmc278-Xbarc120.156.3Qzsv -3A.1Xbarc1177-Xbarc276.2196.3-0.94 1.99------Qzsv -2A Xgwm636-Xcfe6729.1Qzsv -7A Xbarc259-Xwmc59653.7-1.73 6.79------Qzsv -3A.2Xcfa2193-Xgwm155152.7Qzsv -7D.1Xcfd175-Xwmc14181.5-1.09 2.69 1.01 2.33----Qzsv -3A.2Xcfa2193-Xgwm155152.7Qzsv -7D.2Xgdm67-Xwmc634161.5-0.530.64------1)The epistatic effect. A positive value means that the parent-type effect is greater than the recombinant-type effect, and the negative value means that the parent-type effect is less than the recombinant-type effect.2)H 2 (AA, %) indicates the contribution explained by putative epistatic QTL.3)H 2 (AAE 1, %) indicates the contribution explained by epistatic QTL ×environment 1 interaction. E 1, Tai’an 2005; E 2, Tai’an 2006; E 3, Suzhou 2006.QTL Flanking-marker QTL Flanking-markerAA 1)AAE 1AAE 2AAE 31044ZHAO Liang et al. for ZSV. The position indicates an influence of theGlu-D1 locus. And a major QTL, clearly correspond-ing to the Glu-D1 locus, was detected on chromosomearm 1DL. Correlation coefficient between Glu-1 scoreand sedimentation values was significant (r=0.553).There were significant correlations between sedimen-tation values and Glu-lAa,Glu-1Ac,Glu-Ba, and Glu-1Bcalleles, respectively (Kne et al. 1993). Thesedimentation values showed statistically significantassociations with the status of the Glu-A1 locus(Witkowski et al. 2008).In this study, the Qzsv-1D increased ZSV by 1.98mL, correspondingly contributing 8.93% of the pheno-typic variance. Barro et al. (2003) found that HMW-GS 1Ax1 increased the sedimentation value. In contrast,HMW-GS 1Dx5 drastically decreased in sedimentationvalue.In summary, four additive QTLs, four pairs of epi-static QTLs, and two QEs were detected for ZSV in168 DH lines derived from a cross Hp3×Ym57. Onemajor QTL,Qzsv-1B, was closely linked to Xwmc412.20.2cM and could account for 14.39% of the phenotypicvariation without any influence from the environment.Therefore, the Qzsv-1B could be used in MAS in wheatbreeding programs. The results showed that both ad-ditive and epistatic effects were important as a geneticbasis for ZSV, and were also sometimes subject to en-vironmental modifications.AcknowledgementsThis work was supported by the National Basic Re-search Program of China (2009CB118301), the NationalHigh-Tech Research and Development (863) Programof China (2006AA100101 and 2006AA10Z1E9), andthe Doctor Foundation of Shandong AgriculturalUniversity, China (23023). Thanks Prof. Chuck Walker,University of Kansas State University, USA, for hiskindly constructive advice on the language editing ofthe manuscript.ReferencesBarro F, Barceló P, Lazzeri P A, Shewry P R, Ballesteros J,Martín A. 2003. Functional properties of flours from fieldgrown transgenic wheat lines expressing the HMW gluteninsubunit 1Ax1 and 1Dx5 genes. Molecular Breeding,12,223-229.Cao G, Zhu J, He C, Gao Y, Yan J, Wu P. 2001. 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