Difference Between Conservatives and Liberals

Conservatives and LiberalsRalph Waldo Emerson The two parties which divide the state, the party of Conservative and that of innovation, are very old, and have disputed the possession of the world ever since it was made. This quarrel is the subject of civil history. The conservative party established the reverend hierarchies and monarchies of the most ancient world. The battle of patrician and plebian, of parent state and colony, of old usage and accommodation to new facts, of the rich and , of the poor, reappears in all countries and times. The war rages not only in battlefields, in national councils, and ecclesiastical synods, but agitates every man’s bosom with opposing advantages every hour. On rolls the old world meantime, and now one, now the other gets the day, and still the fight renews itself as if for the first time, under new names and hot personalities.Such an irreconcilable antagonism, of course, must have a correspondent depth of seat in the human constitution. It is the opposition of Past and Future, of Memory and Hope, of the Understanding and Reason. It is the primal antagonism, the appearance in trifles of the two poles of nature.There is a fragment of old fable which seems somehow to have been dropped from the current mythologies, which may deserve attention, as it appears to relate to this subject.Saturn grew weary of sitting alone, or with none but the great Uranus or Heaven beholding him, and he created an oyster. Then he would act again, but he made nothing more, but went on creating the race of oysters. Then Uranus cried, “a new work, O Saturn! The old is not good again.”Saturn replied, “I fear. There is not only the alternative of making and not making, but also of unmaking. Seest thou the great sea, how it ebbs and flows? So is it with me; my power ebbs; and if I put forth my hands, I shall not do, but undo. Therefore I do what I have done; I hold what I have got; and so I resist Night and Chaos.”“O Saturn,” replied Uranus. “Thou canst not hold thine own, but by making more. Thy oysters are barnacles and cockles, and with the next flowing of the tide, they will be pebble and sea foam.”“I see,”rejoins Saturn, “thou art in league with Night, thou art become an evil eye: thou spakest from love; now thy words smite me with hatred. I appeal to Fate, must there not be rest?”---“I appeal to Fate also,” said Uranus, “must there not be motion?”--- But Saturn was silent and went on making oysters for a thousand years.After that the word of Uranus came into his mind like a ray of the sun, and he made Jupiter; and then he feared again; and nature froze, the things that were made went backward, and to save the world, Jupiter slew his father Saturn.This may stand for the earliest account of a conversation on politicsbetween a Conservative and a Radical, which has come down to us. It is ever thus. It is the counteraction of the centripetal and the centrifugal forces. Innovation is the salient energy; Conservatism the pause on the last movement. “That which is was made by God,” saith Conservatism. “He is leaving that, he is entering this other,” rejoins Innovation.There is always a certain meanness in the argument of conservatism, joined with a certain superiority in its fact. It affirms because it holds. Its fingers clutch the fact, and it will not open its eyes to see a better fact. The castle, which conservatism set to defend, is the actual state of things. Of course, conservatism always has the worst of the argument, is always apologizing, pleading a necessity, pleading that to change would be to deteriorate; it must saddle itself with the mountainous load of all the violence and vice of society, must deny the possibility of good, deny ideas, and suspect and stone the prophet; whilst innovation is always in the right, triumphant, attacking, and sure of final success. Conservatism stands on man’s incontestable limitations; reform on his indisputable infinitude; conservatism on circumstance; liberalism on power; one goes to make an adroit member of the social frame; the other to postpone all things to the man himself; conservatism is debonair and social; reform is individual and imperious. We are reformers in the spring and summer, in autumn and winter we stand by the old; reformers in the morning, conservers at night. Reform is affirmative, conservatism negative;conservatism goes for comfort, reform for truth. Conservatism is more candid to behold another’s worth; reform more disposed to maintain and increase its own. Conservatism makes no poetry, breathes no prayer, has no invention; it is all memory. Reform has no gratitude, no prudence, no husbandry. It makes a great difference to your figure and to your thought, whether your foot is advancing or receding. Conservatism never puts the foot forward; in the hour when it does that, it is not establishment, but reform. Conservatism tends to universal seeming and treachery, believes in a negative fate; believes that men’s temper governs them; that for me, it avails not to trust in principles; they will fail me; I must bend a little; it distrusts nature; it thinks there is a general law without a particular application, law for all that does not include any one. Reform in its antagonism inclines to asinine resistance, to kick with hoofs; it runs to egotism and bloated self-conceit; it runs to a bodiless pretension, to unnatural refining and elevation, which ends in hypocrisy and sensual reaction.And so whilst we do not go beyond general statements, it may be safely affirmed of these two metaphysical antagonists, that each is a good half, but an impossible whole. Each exposes the abuses of the other, but in a true society, in a true man, both must combine. Nature does not give the crown of its approbation, namely, beauty, to any action or emblem or actor but to one which combines both these elements; not to the rockwhich resists the waves from age to age, nor to the wave which lashes incessantly the rock, but the superior beauty is with the oak which stands with its hundred arms against the storms of a century and grows every year like a sapling; or the river which ever flowing, yet is found in the same bed from age to age; or, greatest of all, the man who has subsisted for years amid the changes of the nature, yet has distanced himself, so that when you remember what he was, and see what he is, you say, what strides! What a disparity is there!(1,132 words)【Text Analysis】This piece of analytic writing presents the reader with a sharp contrast between Conservatism and Liberalism, two most fundamental ways of thinking in human life. Being a great thinker and scholar, the author Ralph Waldo Emerson deals with the subject with penetrating insight and philosophical profundity. He not only outlines respectively the features of the two parties from a neutral stand, but also makes objective and dialectic comments on both. It is his sincere efforts that lead to his most enlightening conclusion: each is a good half but an impossible whole and in a true society, in a true man, both must combine.The whole piece can be divided into three parts. The first two paragraphs serve as the beginning, which points out the various forms aswell as the nature of the antagonism of the two. Paragraph 3 to 9 is the middle part, which contains a fable that illustrates in a vivid way the different thinking modes of the two types of people. Paragraph 10 and 11 constitute the last part of the article. Paragraph 10 is the most exciting part of the article, which provides the readers with a careful analysis of the major differences between the two ways of thinking in a highly condensed manner. In it, the ideas are closely knit and well developed, and certain rhetorical devices such as metaphor and parallelism are properly applied, making the whole paragraph both eloquent and convincing. Paragraph 11 is the ending. It is characterized by the skillful use of analogy, which renders the author’s idea both clear and artful. With the images of oak and river, Emerson succeeds in getting across to his readers the message that only when both the elements of conservatism and reform are combined can beauty, the crown of nature’s approbation, be achieved.【Difficult Sentences】1. On rolls the old world meantime, and now one, now the other gets the day, and still the fight renews itself as if for the first time, under new names and hot personalities.→The old world goes on along with the war between the conservatives and the liberals, during which on party prevails over theother by alternation. The fight between the two parties goes on endlessly and fiercely, under different names in different times, and abusive language is used in the course to attack each other.personalities → n. (archaic) disparaging remarks about an individual2. Such an irreconcilable antagonism, of course, must have a correspondent depth of seat in the human constitution.→ The conflict between the two parties is so heated and deep-rooted that it has to be accounted for in terms of human nature.3. It is the primal antagonism, the appearance in trifles of the two poles of nature.→It is the most important form of conflict. Though it takes the form of unimportant things, it reflects two opposing extremes in human nature.4. Thou canst not hold thine own, but by making more.→Making more things of the same kind, you would not be able to maintain what you possess at present.5. There is always a certain meanness in the argument of conservatism, joined with a certain superiority in its fact. It affirms because it holds.→Compared with the argument of Reform which tends to criticize the outdated and unreasonable things, the argument of Conservatism which tends to defend them is always placed at a disadvantage. However, in reality, it is often the Conservative force that takes a more advantageous position. The conservatives tend to assert a positive view of the present situation, because they strive to maintain the status quo.6. Conservatism stands on man’s incontestable limitations; reform on his indisputable infinitude; conservatism on circumstance; liberalism on power.→Conservatism refuses to change the current world drastically, so it would always take man’s limitations in consciousness or his capability as its ground of argument for the impossibility of such a change, and would insist that the limitations are absolute and beyond any argument; while reform, with the purpose of changing the current situation completely, would emphasize man’s infinitive power in creating miracles and deem such power as something above doubt. Also, in order to achieve their respective purposes mentioned above, conservatism would emphasize the objective difficulties, while reform would place stress on man’s subjective power.7. … one goes to make an adroit member of the social frame; the other topostpone all things to the man himself.→Conservatism respects the current social frame and wants to develop a system of skills that may help people to adapt well to society; while liberalism deems human beings as the most important element of the social system and all other things should be adjusted to satisfy their need.8. …conservatism is debonair and social; reform is individual and imperious.→Conservatism is generally constructive, so it tends to maintain the current system as much as possible. Therefore, it would like to take lenient and inoffensive measures in dealing with social problems and would care more about the interests of society as a whole. Reform, at least at its beginning stage, is somewhat deconstructive, so it would easily ignore the stability of the whole system and cares more about the realization of individual’s intention. Accordingly, it would like to adopt drastic measures to change the current social system.9. Conservatism is more candid to behold another’s worth; reform more disposed to maintain and increase its own.→Conservatism, in its efforts to maintain the current social system, would be more likely to consider the worth of reform; while reform, more resolute and determined in achieving its own purpose, would be morelikely to pay exclusive attention to its own worth or benefits.10. Conservatism makes no poetry, breathes no prayer, has no invention; it is all memory. Reform has no gratitude, no prudence, no husbandry.→Conservatism has no romantic prospect of the future and does not want to do anything creative to change the status quo, whereas Reform deems the status quo a world of the past. Since no benefit has ever been gained from such a world, Reform bears no gratitude to it and does not think it is worth careful maintaining and operating.11. It makes a great difference to your figure and to your thought, whether your foot is advancing or receding.→Whether you take a conservative stand or a liberal one matters a lot to your social image and the way you think.12. Conservatism never puts the foot forward; in the hour when it does that, it is not establishment, but reform.→It would never be possible for Conservatism to take radical measures. Should it ever do so, it would no longer be what it is, but rather, turn quickly into Reform, its opposite.establishment →n. something established, as an arranged order or system13. Conservatism tends to universal seeming and treachery, believes in a negative fate.→What conservatism cares about is to keep the general appearance of society or maintain the existing framework. Drastic changes of form would undoubtedly meet with strong resistance. But this does not mean it would refuse to accept some mild revision. Therefore, it does not care to have some limited compromises which may cause inconsistency between the appearance and the substance. It believes that everything has been decided by fate, it would do nothing positive to change the status quo.seeming →n. outward appearance; semblancetreachery →n. inconsistency14….it thinks there is a general law without a particular application, law for all that does not include any one.→It believes that there can be a way to balance different benefits, yet no one will be satisfied by such an abstract and ideal law.15. Reform in its antagonism inclines to asinine resistance, to kick with hoofs; it runs to egotism and bloated self-conceit; it runs to a bodiless pretension, to unnatural refining and elevation, which ends in hypocrisy and sensual reaction.→In this long formed pattern of antagonism, Reform would have a lot of chances to turn itself into a stupid bigotry, the content of which is to resist any idea from the opposite party. Since it lays too much emphasis on the value of man and individual, it would easily go so far as to enter the territory of egoism and self-conceit. Sometimes its claims would become too ideal and empty, leaving no one to benefit substantially from it. Therefore, in the end, those high-sounding and apparently lofty words would be degraded into cheap and hollow slogans. If Reform goes to extremes, it would betray its intention and render itself hypocritical and unreasonable.16. And so whilst we do not go beyond general statements, it may be safely affirmed of these two metaphysical antagonists, that each is a good half, but an impossible whole.→If we can define the claims of the two within the bounds of reason and do not let either one go to extremes, then we can safely draw the conclusion that Conservatives and Liberals, the opposite parties at metaphysical level, have their respective rationality but neither should completely replace the other and become the only way of thinking for human beings.。

Conservatives and LiberalsRalph Waldo Emerson The two parties which divide the state, the party of Conservative and that of innovation, are very old, and have disputed the possession of the world ever since it was made. This quarrel is the subject of civil history. The conservative party established the reverend hierarchies and monarchies of the most ancient world. The battle of patrician and plebian, of parent state and colony, of old usage and accommodation to new facts, of the rich and , of the poor, reappears in all countries and times. The war rages not only in battlefields, in national councils, and ecclesiastical synods, but agitates every man’s bosom with opposing advantages every hour. On rolls the old world meantime, and now one, now the other gets the day, and still the fight renews itself as if for the first time, under new names and hot personalities.Such an irreconcilable antagonism, of course, must have a correspondent depth of seat in the human constitution. It is the opposition of Past and Future, of Memory and Hope, of the Understanding and Reason. It is the primal antagonism, the appearance in trifles of the two poles of nature.There is a fragment of old fable which seems somehow to have been dropped from the current mythologies, which may deserve attention, as it appears to relate to this subject.Saturn grew weary of sitting alone, or with none but the great Uranus or Heaven beholding him, and he created an oyster. Then he would act again, but he made nothing more, but went on creating the race of oysters. Then Uranus cried, “a new work, O Saturn! The old is not good again.”Saturn replied, “I fear. There is not only the alternative of making and not making, but also of unmaking. Seest thou the great sea, how it ebbs and flows? So is it with me; my power ebbs; and if I put forth my hands, I shall not do, but undo. Therefore I do what I have done; I hold what I have got; and so I resist Night and Chaos.”“O Saturn,” replied Uranus. “Thou canst not hold thine own, but by making more. Thy oysters are barnacles and cockles, and with the next flowing of the tide, they will be pebble and sea foam.”“I see,”rejoins Saturn, “thou art in league with Night, thou art become an evil eye: thou spakest from love; now thy words smite me with hatred. I appeal to Fate, must there not be rest?”---“I appeal to Fate also,” said Uranus, “must there not be motion?”--- But Saturn was silent and went on making oysters for a thousand years.After that the word of Uranus came into his mind like a ray of the sun, and he made Jupiter; and then he feared again; and nature froze, the things that were made went backward, and to save the world, Jupiter slew his father Saturn.This may stand for the earliest account of a conversation on politicsbetween a Conservative and a Radical, which has come down to us. It is ever thus. It is the counteraction of the centripetal and the centrifugal forces. Innovation is the salient energy; Conservatism the pause on the last movement. “That which is was made by God,” saith Conservatism. “He is leaving that, he is entering this other,” rejoins Innovation.There is always a certain meanness in the argument of conservatism, joined with a certain superiority in its fact. It affirms because it holds. Its fingers clutch the fact, and it will not open its eyes to see a better fact. The castle, which conservatism set to defend, is the actual state of things. Of course, conservatism always has the worst of the argument, is always apologizing, pleading a necessity, pleading that to change would be to deteriorate; it must saddle itself with the mountainous load of all the violence and vice of society, must deny the possibility of good, deny ideas, and suspect and stone the prophet; whilst innovation is always in the right, triumphant, attacking, and sure of final success. Conservatism stands on man’s incontestable limitations; reform on his indisputable infinitude; conservatism on circumstance; liberalism on power; one goes to make an adroit member of the social frame; the other to postpone all things to the man himself; conservatism is debonair and social; reform is individual and imperious. We are reformers in the spring and summer, in autumn and winter we stand by the old; reformers in the morning, conservers at night. Reform is affirmative, conservatism negative;conservatism goes for comfort, reform for truth. Conservatism is more candid to behold another’s worth; reform more disposed to maintain and increase its own. Conservatism makes no poetry, breathes no prayer, has no invention; it is all memory. Reform has no gratitude, no prudence, no husbandry. It makes a great difference to your figure and to your thought, whether your foot is advancing or receding. Conservatism never puts the foot forward; in the hour when it does that, it is not establishment, but reform. Conservatism tends to universal seeming and treachery, believes in a negative fate; believes that men’s temper governs them; that for me, it avails not to trust in principles; they will fail me; I must bend a little; it distrusts nature; it thinks there is a general law without a particular application, law for all that does not include any one. Reform in its antagonism inclines to asinine resistance, to kick with hoofs; it runs to egotism and bloated self-conceit; it runs to a bodiless pretension, to unnatural refining and elevation, which ends in hypocrisy and sensual reaction.And so whilst we do not go beyond general statements, it may be safely affirmed of these two metaphysical antagonists, that each is a good half, but an impossible whole. Each exposes the abuses of the other, but in a true society, in a true man, both must combine. Nature does not give the crown of its approbation, namely, beauty, to any action or emblem or actor but to one which combines both these elements; not to the rockwhich resists the waves from age to age, not to the wave which lashes incessantly the rock, but the superior beauty is with the oak which stands with its hundred arms against the storms of a century and grows every year like a sapling; or the river which ever flowing, yet is found in the same bed from age to age; or, greatest of all, the man who has subsisted for years amid the changes of the nature, yet has distanced himself, so that when you remember what he was, and see what he is, you say, what strides! What a disparity is there!(1,132 words)。

I. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only.1. Clear ［1］and dark [ł] are allophones of the same one phoneme /1/.They never take the same position in sound combinations, thus they are said to be in c omplementary distribution. (P24)2. M orphology is the smallest meaningful unit of language. (P32)3. Consonant sounds can be either voiceless or voiced, while all v owel sounds are voiced. (P16)4. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the C ooperative principle proposed by J. Grice. (P86-87)5. Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time is called a s ynchronic study of language. (P4)6. An essential difference between consonants and vowels is whether the air coming up from the lungs meets with any o bstruction when a sound is produced. (P18)7. XP may contain more than just X. For example, the NP “the boy who likes this puppy”consists of Det, N and S, with Det being the s pecifier, N the head and S the complement. (P46)9. While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an u tterance is concrete and context-dependent. (P70)11. P sycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when people use language. (P70)12. A d iachronic study of language is a historical study, it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (P70)13. Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower level, there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number of meaningful units at the higher level. This design feature is called d uality. (P70) 14. The articulatory apparatus of a human being is contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity, the o ral cavity and the nasal cavity. (P15)16. S uprasegmental features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence theinterpretation of meaning. (P70)18. H omonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (P70)19. The three branches of phonetics are labeled as a rticulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics respectively. (P15)21. S yntax_ studies the sentence structure of language. (P70)22. The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are h omonymy. (P70)23. S peech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. (P70)24. The modern linguistics is d escriptive, not prescriptive, and its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. (P70)25. Langue refers to the language system shared by a community of speaker while p arole contrasted with langue is the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker. (P70)26. In semantic triangle, the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct, and it is mediated by c oncept. (P70)27. H. Sweet made a distinction between narrow and b road transcription. (P70)28. In the cooperative principle, Grice introduced four categories of maxims. They are maxim of quality, maxim of quantity, maxim of r elation and maxim of manner. (P70)29. P ragmatics is the study of language in use. (P70)30. H istorical linguistics studies language change or historical development of language. (P70)II. Directions：Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.( T )1. Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.( T ) 2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.( T ) 3. Two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.( T ) 4. In modern linguistic studies, the spoken form of language is given more emphasis than the written form for a number of reasons.( F ) 5. The compound word “reading-room” is the place where a person can read books. This indicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meanings of its components.( T ) 6. Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implicatures arise.( T ) 7. In English, long vowels are also tense vowels because when we pronounce a long vowel such as /i:/,the larynx is in a state of tension.( T ) 8. An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in their study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the “best authors” for language usage.( T ) 9. The open-class words include prepositions.( T ) 10. According to semantic triangle, there is no direct link between a symbol and referent, i.e. between a word and a thing it refers to.( T ) 11. The relationship of “flower”, “violet”, “rose” and “tulip” is hyponymy.( F ) 12. Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. (sunrise)( T ) 13. Linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.( F ) 14. The conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.( F ) 15. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is a typical tone language.( F ) 16. When we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.( F ) 17. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences. For example, “Good morning！” can be restored to “I wish you a good morning.”( T ) 18. Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.( F ) 19. According to N. Chomsky, ”competence” is the actual realization of his knowledge in utterance.( F ) 20. The English spelling exactly represents its pronunciation.( F ) 21. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.( T ) 22. Pragmatics studies the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics. ( F ) 23. An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.( T ) 24. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. ( T ) 25. The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech; thus there are st ill many languages in today’s world that can only be spoken, but not written. ( F ) 26. In classifying the English consonants and vowels, the same criteria can be applied. ( F ) 27. Parole refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.( T ) 28. Conversational implicature is a kind of implied meaning, deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.( F ) 29. Pragmatic failure may occur in cross-cultural communication, i.e. between speakers of different cultural backgrounds, but not occur in intra-cultural communication i.e. between speakers of the same cultural background.( T ) 30. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning.III. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration when necessary.1. diachronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics,e.g. the study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present.2. synchronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language at one particular point of time, e.g. the study of the kind of English used during Shakespeare’s time.3. LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4. contextContext is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.5. blendingA process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words. E.g. smog--- smoke + fog.6. referenceReference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.7. broad transcriptionBroad transcription is the transcription with letter symbols only. It is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.8. a minimal pairA pair of sound combinations which are identical in every way except one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, e.g. /pit/ and /bit/.9. homonymyHomonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. eg. night / knight; lead v. / lead n.; fast adj. / fast v.10. hyponymyIt refers to meaning inclusiveness, that is, the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. e.g. The relationship of “flower”, “violet”, “rose” and “tulip” is hyponymy.11. cultural transmission (as a defining feature of human language)One of the major defining features of human language. Humans are born with the ability to acquire a language, but different from animals, the actual use of human language is not genetically transmitted, rather it is culturally transmitted, i.e. it has to be taught and learnt. 12. allophonesAllophones are the different phones that represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.13. morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.14. dualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower level, there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number of meaningful units at the higher level. This design feature is called duality.15. pragmaticsIt refers to the study of language in use.16. bound morphemeThe morphemes that do not occur alone.17. arbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.18. syntaxSyntax studies the sentence structure of language.IV. Answer the following questions.1. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle? （P86-87）According to Grice, there are four maxims under the cooperative principle:A. The maxim of quantity1) Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange) .2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.B. The maxim of quality1) Do not say what you believe to be false.2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.C. The maxim of relationBe relevant.D. The maxim of manner1) Avoid obscurity of expression.2) Avoid ambiguity.3) Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .4) Be orderly.2. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?(P79)The meaning of a sentence is abstract and de-contextualized, while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent. Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning, and it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.3. How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? What do they differ? ( P4-5)1) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2) Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study. Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguist should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, and the task of linguists is to discover and specify the rules of language.3) Two linguists differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view.4. What are the differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar? (P5-6)A. Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptiveB. Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.C. Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.5. What is the speech act theory advanced by John Austin? (P80-81)Speech act theory is the first major theory in the pragmatic study of language, which was originated with John Austin and aims to answer the question “Wh at do we do when using language”. First, he made a distinction between “constatives”（述事话语）and “performatives”（行事话语）. Later on, he set up another model to explain the way acts were performed by means of language. According to his new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: that is,The locutionary act（言内行为）----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.The illocutionary ac t（言外行为）----an act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.The perlocutionary act（言后行为）----an act performed by or resulting from saying something.6. Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following seemingly incoherent conversation between a couple:---- (the telephone rings)---- H: That’ the phone. (1)---- W: I’m in the bathroom. (2)---- H: Okay. (3)This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:(1) Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.(2) A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.(3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I’ll answer it.”7. What are the design features of language? What does each refer to? (P8-10)The most important five are: Arbitrariness; Productivity; Duality; Displacement; Cultural transmission.Each refers to the following respectively: ………………………(答案略，参见课本P8-10)8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme? (P23-24)A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent aphoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [ɫ], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.。

2024年人教版初二英语下册期中考试卷(附答案)一、选择题（每题1分，共5分）1. What does "What's your hob?" mean in Chinese?A. 你叫什么名字？B. 你喜欢什么？C. 你今天怎么样？D. 你多大了？2. Which of the following is a correct way to ask for someone's phone number?A. How old are you?B. What's your name?C. May I have your phone number?D. How do you do?3. What does "I like playing basketball." mean?A. 我喜欢打篮球。

B. 我喜欢打羽毛球。

C. 我喜欢打乒乓球。

D. 我喜欢打网球。

4. Which of the following is a correct way to say "I don't like math."?A. I like math.B. I don't like math.C. I like English.D. I don't like English.5. What does "Can you help me?" mean?A. 你能帮我吗？B. 你需要帮忙吗？C. 你能帮我吗？D. 你能帮我吗？二、判断题（每题1分，共5分）1. "What's your name?" means "你叫什么名字？" ( )2. "How old are you?" means "你多大了？" ( )3. "I like playing basketball." means "我喜欢打篮球。

社会⼯作专业英语讲义Introduction to social work and social welfareChapter2Social work values and ethicsChapter3Empowerment and human diversityChapter4The process of generalist practiceChapter5Practice settingsChapter6An overview of social welfare and social work history Chapter7Policy and policy advocacyChapter8Poverty problemsChapter9Social work and social services for children and families Chapter10Social work and social services for older adultsChapter11Social work and social services for people with disabilities Chapter12Social work and social services in health careChapter13Social work and social services in mental healthChapter14Social work and substance use, abuse, and dependence Chapter15Social work and social services for youth and in the schools Chapter16Social work and social services in the criminal justice systemIntroduction to social work and social welfareCase AKeywords: adopt, family service, paperwork, family life planningCase B:Keywords: group session and group work; mental health; self-help group; mutual-help group Case C:Keywords: Sexual Assault, match, funding-raisingWhat is Social work?Social work is the professional activity of help individuals, groups, or communities enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and creating societal conditions favorable to this goal. Social work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, and techniques to one or more of the following ends:Helping people obtain tangible servicesProviding counseling and psychotherapy with individuals, families and groups. Helping communities or groups provide or improve social and health services Participating in relevant legislative processesFive themes:Social work concerns helping individuals, groups, or communities.Social work entails a solid foundation of values and principles.A firm basis of techniques and skills provides directions.Social works need to link people to recourses or advocate for service development for clients.Social workers participate legislative process to promote positive social changes.What is social welfare?Social welfare is a nation's system of programs, benefits, and services that help people meet those social, economic, educational, and health needs that are fundamental to the maintenance of society.Two Dimensions:What people get from society (programs, benefits and services?)How well their needs (social, economic, educational, and health) are being met How are social welfare and social work related?Debates on social welfare:Individual responsibility: you get you deserveSociety responsibilityWho should assume responsibility for people's social welfare?Residual, institutional, and developmental perspectives on social welfare.1. Residual ModelSocial welfare benefit and service should be supplied only when people fail to provide adequately for themselves.Blame the victim (fault and failure)For instance: social assistanceFamilies in need receive limited and temporary financial assistance until they can get back on their feet.2. Institutional modelPeople have a right to get benefit and service.For instance: public education, fire and police protectionEvery one can get these services.3. Developmental modelThis approach seeks to identify social interventions that have a positive impact on economic development.(1) Invest in education, nutrition and health care(2) In vest in physical facilities(3) help people in need engage in productive employment and self-employment.Political ideology: conservatives, liberalism and radicalismConservatism is the philosophy that individuals are responsible for themselves, government should provide minimal interference in people's lives, and change is generally unnecessary.Liberalism is the philosophy that government should be involved in the social, political and economic structure so that all people's rights and privileges are protected in the name of social justice.Radicalism is the philosophy that the social and political system as it stands is not structurally capable of truly providing social justice. The fundamental changes are necessary in the basic social and political structure to achieve truly fair and equal treatment.Fields of practice in social workWork with people in needs (children, youth, old people, the disable etc.)Work with some occupationThe continuum of social work careersDegree in social workBSW: prepare for the entry-level social workMSW: receive more specialized trainingDSW: teach at the college level or conduct researchSocial work builds on many disciplinespsychologysociologypolitical scienceeconomicsbiologypsychiatrycouncilcultural anthropologysocial workSocial workers demonstrate competenciesCompetencies are measurable practice behaviors that are comprised ofsufficient knowledge, skills, and values" and have the goal of practicing effective social work.Competency 1: identification as a professional social workerCompetency 2: the application of social work ethical principles to guide practice Competency 3: the application of critical thinking to inform professional judgmentsCompetency 4: engagement of diversity in practiceCompetency 5: the advancement of human rights and social economic justice. Competency 6: engagement in research-informed practiceEvidence-based practiceCompetency 7: application of knowledge of human behavior and the social environmentCompetency 8: engagement in policy proactive to advance social and economic well-beingCompetency 9: responsiveness to contexts that shape practiceCompetency 10: engagement, assessment, intervention, and evaluation with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.Chapter 2 social work values and ethics1. Value and ethicsSocial worker is value-based profession.What is value?Value involves what you do and do not consider important and worthwhile, and also involve judgments and decisions about relative worth.What is Ethics?Ethics involve principles that specify what is good and what is bad. They clarify what should and should not be done Difference between value and ethics:Value determine what beliefs are appropriate. Ethics address what to do with or how to apply those beliefs to do the right thing.The importance of ethics2. Value and ethics for social workersSix core values for social workers:(1) Service(2) Social justice(3) Dignity and worth of the person(4) Importance of human relationships(5) Integrity(6) CompetenceSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to clients:(1) Self-determinationPractitioners should nurture and support client self-extermination ：each individual's right to make his or her own decisions.(2)Privacy and confidentiality(3) Conflict of interest and Dual relationshipsThe clients' best interests must be protected to the maximum extent possible.(4) Sexual relationshipSocial workers’ Ethical responsibilities to colleagues(1) Respect(2) Referral for servicesSocial Workers’ Ethical responsibilities in Practice settingsSocial workers' ethical responsibilities as professionalscompetenceagainst discriminationhonestnot solicit clients for the purpose of personal gainsSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to the social work profession.IntegrityResearchEvaluationSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to the broader society(1) Advocate for people's welfare(2) Ensure fair and equal access to resources and opportunities.(3) Respect cultural diversity.(4) Prevent discrimination against or exploiting peopleTranslation exercisesSocial workers must uphold client privacy and confidentiality. Privacy is the condition of being free from unauthorized observation or intrusion.We have established that confidentiality is the ethical principle that workers should not share information provided by a client or about a client unless they have the client's explicit permission to do so. There is more to confidentiality than may be immediately apparent.Confidentiality means more that not revealing information about clients to others. It also involves not asking for more information than is necessary, as well as informing clients about the limitations of confidentiality within the agency setting. Chapter 3 Empowerment and Human DiversityStereotype!Women are too emotional to make good supervisorsElderly people can't think well.Gay and lesbian people really want to be opposite gender.People with physical disabilities are unemployable.Discrimination, oppression, marginalization, alienation, stereotypes, and prejudiceDiscrimination is the act of treating people differently based on the fact that they belong to some group rather than on merit. Oppression involves putting extreme limitations and constraints on some person, group, or larger system. Marginalization is the condition of having less power and being viewed as less important than others in the society because of belonging to some group or having some characteristic.Alienation, related to marginalization, is the feeling that you don't fit in or aren't treated as well as others in the mainstream of society.A stereotype is a fixed mental picture of member of some specified group based on some attribute or attributes that reflect an overly simplified view of that group, without consideration or appreciation of individual differences.Prejudice is an opinion or prejudgment about an individual, group, or issue that is not based on fact.A major social work value involves the importance of people being treated fairly and equally.Populations-at-risk and social economic justiceDiversity emphasizes the similarity and dissimilarity between numerousgroups in society that have distinguishing characteristics.Populations-at-risk are people at greater risk of deprivation and unfair treatment because they share some identifiable characteristic that places them in diverse group.Factors: gender, age, religion, culture, disability, class, immigration statusSocial and economic justiceEmpowerment and a Strengths perspectiveEmpowerment is the process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individuals can take action to improve their life situations.A strengths perspective:1. Every individual, group, family and community has strengths.2. Trauma and abuse, illness and struggle may be injurious but they may also be sources of challenge and opportunity.3. Social workers should assume that they do not know the upper limits of the capacity to grow and change and take individual, group, and community aspirations seriously.4. Social workers best serve clients by collaborating with when.5. Every environment is full of resources.Resiliency: seeking strength amid adversityThe ability of an individual, family, group, community, or organization to recover from adversity and resume functioning even when suffering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship.Resiliency involves two dimensions: risk factors and protective factors.Risk factors involve stressful life events or adverse environmental conditions that increase the vulnerability of individuals or other systems.Protective factors involve buffer, moderate, and protect against those vulnerabilities.Human DiversityRace and EthnicityRace implies a greater genetic determinant, whereas ethnicity often relates to cultural or national heritage.Culture and cultural competenceCulture is the sum total of life patterns passed on from generation to generation within a group of people and includes institutions, language, religious ideals, habits of thinking, and patterns of social and interpersonal relationships. Social workers need to have cultural competence to address the cultural needs of individuals, families, groups, and communities.叮叮⼩⽂库National Origin and immigration statusFour experiences which newcomer faced:Social isolationCultural shockCultural changeGoal-strivingclass or social classpolitical ideologygender, gender identity, and gender expressionSexual orientationHomosexual or heterosexual (bisexual)AgeDisabilityReligion and spiritualityChapter 4: Generalist practiceConcepts in the definition of generalist practice1. Acquiring an eclectic knowledge baseA. systems theoryB. ecological perspectiveC. Curriculum content areas1) Values and ethics2) Diversity3) populations-at-risk and social and economic justice4) Human behavior and the social environment5) Social welfare policy and services6) Social work practice7) Research8) Field educationD. Fields of practice2. Emphasizing client empowerment3. Using professional valuesA. social works code of ethicsB. application of professional values to solve ethical dilemma4. Applying a wide range of skillsA. microB. mezzoC. macro5. T argeting any size systemA. microB. mezzoC. Marco6. Working in an organizational structure7. Using supervision appropriately8. Assuming a wide range of professional roles9. Following the principles of evidence-based practice10. Employing critical thinking skills11. Using a planned-change processA. engagementB. assessmentC. planningD. implementationE. evaluationF. terminationG. follow-upWorking in an organizational structure under supervisionWhat is organizational structureOrganizational structure is the formal or informal manner in which tasks and responsibilities, lines of authority, channels of communication, and dimensions of power are established and coordinated within an organization.What is supervisionSupervision is the process by which a designated supervisor watches over a workers’ performance.A wide range of rolescounseloreducatorbrokercase managermobilizermediatorfacilitatoradvocatesupervisorsmanagers3 skills (technical, people and conceptual)Evidence-based practiceEvidence-based practice is a process in which practitioners make practice decisions in light of the best research evidence available.Tools, models, methods and policies must be validated by research and consequence evaluation also should use scientific research methodsCritical thinking skillsAvoiding the fallacy trap1. Relying on case examples2. being vague3. Being biased or not objective4. Believing that if it’s writ ten down it must be rightasking questionsassessing factasserting a conclusionPlanned-change processPlanned change and problem-solvingStep1 engagementStep2 assessmentStep3 planningStep4 implementationStep5 evaluationStep6 terminationEngagement: social workers begin to establish communication and a relationship with others and orient themselves to the problems.skillsVerbal communication and nonverbal communication (cultural variations) Conveying warmth, empathy, and genuineness Alleviating initial client anxiety and introducing the worker's purpose and roleAssessment: gather and analyze information to provide a concise picture of the client and his or her needs and strengths. skillsLooking beyond individual and examine other factors in their environment Finding strengthsPaying attention human diversityPlanning: what should be doneAlternatives and consequencesimplementation: following the plans to achieve the goalsEvaluation: determine whether a given change effort was worthwhile.termination: the end of the professional social work-client relationship types:Natural, forced, and unplannedskillsAppropriate timingChapter 5: Practice SettingSetting in Social Work Practice: Organizations and Communities ?Organizations are entities made up of people that have rules and structure to achieve specified goals.Social services in the context of social agencies.Social services include the wide range of activities that social workers perform to help people solve problems and improve their personal well-being.A social agency is an organization providing social services that typically employs social workers in addition to office staff, and sometimes volunteers. Forms:Public or private;Nonprofit or proprietary (for profit)Social work practice in the context of communitiesA community is “a number of people who have something in summon with one another that connects them in some way and that distinguishes them from others.Some mutual characteristic, such as "location, interest, identification, culture, and activities"Types:Locality-based community;Non geographic communityThe special circumstances of social work practice in rural communities.Low population densitySocial problems faced by rural residents:poverty, lack of transportation, inadequate child care, unemployment, substandard housing, and insufficient health care and so on.Four special issues for rural social workers:(1)true gene lists(work with different level case systems and use a wide of skills)(2) Interagency cooperation.(3) The importance of understanding the community, knowing its values and developing relationships with rural residents (informal relationship)(4) Emphasizing strengths inherent in rural communities. (Informal supporting system)Urban social workUrban social work is practice within the context of large cities, with their vast array of social problems, exceptional diversity, and potential range of resources. Five problems in urban areas:(1)Social problems occur with greater frequency and therefore are more visible(2) Widespread occurrence of discriminatory behavior.(3) Migration problems.(4) Financial shortfalls or unavailability of resources.(5)Greater amount of psychological stressSkills necessary for urban social work(1) Paying attention to human diversity(2) Understanding their agency environment(3) Seeking resources in the external urban environment(4) Using advocacyMicro practice: social work with individualscounseloreducatorbrokerfacilitatoradvocateMicro/mezzo practice: social work with familiesThe primary purpose of family social work is to help families learn to function more competently while meeting the development and emotional needs of all members.The task of family social workers(1) Be responsive to the styles and values of families from other special populations.(2) Break complex tasks into smaller specific steps.(3) Assess the key skills needed for less stressful family interaction.(4) Explain and model appropriate skills.(5) Assess individual learning styles and ways to teach adults and children(6) Establish homework and other means of ensuring generalization of skills from one setting to another.(7) Promote and reward skill acquisition.(8) Emphasize strategies that help develop the strengths of family members(9) Motivate the family to stay involved even when faced with challenges and setback.The importance of social networks for families.Social network: the structure and number of people and groups with whom you have contact or consider yourself to be in contact.Emotional support, instrumental support, informational support and appraisal supportMezzo practice: social work with groupTreatment groupMacro practice: social work with organizations and communities ?social actionsocial planninglocality developmentMacro skills(1) Agency or public social policies may require change.(2) Entail initiating and conducting projects within agency or community contexts(3) Planning and implementing new social service programs within an agency or community.Chapter 6: An overview of social welfare and social work historyEarly European Approaches to Social WelfareFeudalismLands owner vs. landless serfMedieval hospitalChurchPeople have little mobility, free choice, potential for change.Judeo-Christian thought: "Good deeds, love of one's enemies, and entry into heaven through mercy and charity". England after feudalism's demisePeople gained mobility and independence but lost much of the safety and security the old feudal system had provided. Government regains social control by passing some statute, such as: Keeping people from moving;Forbidding able-bodied people from begging.The English Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601Recipients are categorized into:1. Dependent children2. Impotent poor3. The able-bodied poor1662 Law of settlement established a new principle of social welfare provision: residency requirement.The Speenhamland SystemThe first Minimum income maintenance systemThe English Poor Law reforms of 1834Government would not provide outdoor relief for able-bodied people.Blame the victimU. S. Social welfare History: Early Colonization to the mid-1800s ?Services reflected a mix of public and private collaboration.Government assumed responsibility of administration aid but often called upon local churches for help.Residency requirement was established.Focus on Mental Health and Mental illnessMoral treatment: humane treatment in structured institutional settingsThe Civil War EraFreeman Bureau: the first federal welfare agency1870-1900Two trends:Industrialization;UrbanizationFocus on children: early policiesInstitutional care: almshouse and orphanageFoster careSettlement House, Charity Organization Societies, and Generalist social workSettlement House were places where ministers, students, or humanitarians 'settle' to interact with poor slum dwellers with the purpose of alleviating the condition of capitalism.Characters1. Settle house approach address the problems in the context of environment.2. Emphasize on advocacy3. Emphasize on empowerment of peopleCharity Organization SocietiesFriendly visitorEstablish a base of scientific knowledge and apply it to the helping process Focus on curing individualThe Progressive period: 1900 to 1930The Great Depression and the 1930sThe Great Depression and New DealCash reliefShort-term work relief,Expansion of employmentThe Social Security Act of 1935Social insurance (for old age, disability, death of a breadwinner, unemployment, and work-related injury and sickness) Public Assistance (old people, children and blind people)The 1960s and the War on PovertyMore people of color are in poverty than white people.Public assistance roll were escalating even unemployment decreased.the public welfare amendments of 1962Supportive social service to help welfare recipients to self-supporting.War on povertyHead Start; Volunteers in Service to AmericaA Return to Conservatism in the 1970sConservative extremes in the 1980s and early 1990s.TranslationSocial Workers have difficulties with empowerment strategies because their agencies are part of a social system which routinely devalues certain minority groups. Making equal responses to all people who come to an agency may reduce discrimination. Since negative valuations are so widespread, agencies may unthinkingly implement them. Consequently, we discourage potential clients from using the agency and they do not receive the equal treatment available.Chapter 7: Policy, Policy Analysis, Policy Practice, and Policy Advocacy Social welfare policyPolicy: rules that govern people's lives and dictate expectations for behavior.Social Welfare Policy: Laws and regulations that govern which social welfare programs exist, what categories of clients are served, and who qualifies for a given program.Agency Policy: standards adopted by organizations and programs that provide services.Social Welfare Policy Developmentphase 1Recognizing society's values about what is considered important or worthwhile.Phase 2Identifying problems and needs that require attention.Phase 3Identification of public opinion about an identified problem and people's related needs.Normative orientationphase 4Legislators confronted with a problem or need and swamped with public opinion undertake the complicated formulation of social welfare policy to address the issues.Phase 5Implementation through a social welfare program.Phase 6Social services are delivered by social workers and other staff in the context of social services agencies.Structural components of social welfare programs1. What are people's needs and program goals?I.e. the food stamp program2. What kinds of benefits are provided?Cash and in-kind3. What are the eligibility criteria for the program?Means test4. Who pays for the programs?General tax, state lottery, social security tax; private agency; client5. How is the program administered and run?National, state, or local?Value perspectives and political ideology: effects on social responsibility and social welfare program developmentThe conservative-liberal continuumradicalismresidual and institutional perspectives on social welfare policy and program developmentuniversal versus selective service provisionFive-E ApproachHow effective is the policyHow efficient is the policyIs the policy ethically soundWhat does evaluation of potential alternative policies revealWhat recommendations can be established for positive changes Policy Practice and Policy AdvocacyChapter 8: Social work and services in health careHealth problemsFactors causing health problems:1. Unhealthful lifestyles2. Physical injured3. Enviromental factors4. Poverty5. ContagiousSocial Work Roles in Health Care：medical social workerSocial work roles in direct health care practice1. Hospital, medical clinics and so on(1) Help patients understand and interpret technical medical jargon(2) Offer emotional support(3) Help terminally ill people deal with their feelings and make end-of-life plans.(4) Help patient’s adjust their lives and lifestyles to accommodate to new conditions when they return home after medical treatment(5) Help parents of children who have serious illnesses or disabilities cope with these conditions and respond to children's needs.(6) Serve as brokers who link patients with necessary supportive resources andservices after leaving the medical facility.(7) Help patients make financial arrangements to pay hospital and other medical bills.(8) Provide health education aimed at establishing a healthful lifestyle and preventing illness.2. Public Health Departments and other health care contexts(1) Preventing diseases(2) Prolonging life(3) Promoting health and efficiency through organized community effort3. Managed care settingsTraditional healthy insurance (fee-for-service basis)Assessment to determine whether patients are eligible for benefits and which are most appropriate.Macro Practice in Health care: seeking empowermentAdvocating for health coverage and health care legislation, policies and resourcesHealth Care policy and problems in the macro environmentThe escalating cost of health care1. The rapid acceleration of technological advances has increased the types of services, drugs, and testing available.2. The population is aging.Unequal access to health careNational health insurance vs. contribution-based health insuranceProblems in managed careCapitationCost and health-care outcomeCultural competenceAPI cultural:Filial pietyCollective versus individual decision makingEmphasis on Harmony versus conflictNonverbal communicationsFatalismShame at asking for helpInternational perspectives: AIDS-A Global CrisisAIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndromeHIV: human immunodeficiency virusEmpowerment for people living with AIDS victims vs. People living with AIDS Social work roles and empowerment for people living with AIDS Counseling;Educator;Crisis intervention;Empowerment and reconnection (support system);Family counseling;。

The difference between beliefs and values①What is the difference between a value and a belief? This is a question that I am often asked. Many people seem to lump the beliefs and values into the same definition. But, while both are related, there are actually some not-so-subtle（微妙的）differences between the two.What are values?②Values are the basis for our behavior and motivation. Values are abstract, hierarchical（分层的）and dynamic（动态的）concepts that essentially describe what we desire or seek to achieve. We may hold values such as “loyalty”, “truthfulness”, “charity”, “service” and many others.③When we say we hold a value, what we are really saying is that we aspire to something, or we feel that value is worth something to us. So, if we say that we hold “charity” as a value we are saying that we aspire to be charitable, even at personal cost.④However, as I mentioned, values are abstract. You may have a very good idea of what it means to be charitable. But my idea of charity may be very different than yours. This is where the notion of criteria come in.⑤Criteria define our values or give them specific meaning to us. For instance, when I think of charity, I assign criteria that defines charity. The criteria I use include, helping others to be self-reliant, empowering others, helping others meet challenges. My value of charity, and the criteria I use to define charity, will influence how I may react to someone who is in need. Since my criteria and your criteria may be different, you may react in a different way. What are beliefs?⑥Beliefs are judgments about ourselves and the world around us. They are usually generalizations. A typical belief may be “killing is bad.” Notice that the belief includes not only an action or thing⑦Sometimes beliefs become very strongly entrenched（根深蒂固的）or emotional. In this way, beliefs can influence our behaviors, even our thoughts, in very powerful ways. If you truly believe that eating fish will give you eternal happiness, and you desire eternal happiness, then you will probably eat a lot of fish. More tragically（不幸地）, if you believe that you doing God’s will, and will be rewarded in heaven, by blowing yourself up and killing dozens of others in the process, you will blow yourself up. This is the power of belief.⑧Beliefs also literally shape your map of reality. I have written articles in the past about how information received through your senses is passed through filters to create a map ofreality. Beliefs are those filters. This is why 10 people can sit through（耐着性子做完……）the same experience and have 10 different views (or realities) of what happened.How are beliefs and values related?⑨Beliefs and values (and criteria) are closely related. In fact, they are interdependent. That is, they cannot be separated from each other. In essence, beliefs provide context for our experiences, and connect our experiences to our values and criteria.⑩Let’s say that I am walking down the street and see a beggar sitting on a bench. I have a value of being charitable, and my criteria define that value as helping others in need.I also have other values, such as protecting myself and my family, and criteria that define those values.⑪How would I respond to this situation? Would I invite the beggar into my home? Probably not, because I do not know this person, and would not want to endanger my family by inviting a stranger home. Would I simply walk by? Probably not, because I have a value of being charitable and helping others in need. Most likely I would give the homeless person a blanket to keep warm, maybe something to eat, and perhaps even walk him to a shelter if there was one nearby.⑫Walking through this scenario, I would make several judgments about this situation, which would connect my values and criteria to my experience. I would first judge whether or not the person was in need, then if he was dangerous to me, or potentially to my family. I would also judge whether or not my actions of giving him a blanket, food, or other assistance satisfies my value of charity. All of these judgments, which create my beliefs about the situation, will affect my behaviors and attitudes towards this person and situation.Beliefs and values are different⑬Hopefully, you can see how beliefs and values are different. To sum it up, values represent our aims, desires, and goals. They are usually abstract and are further defined by criteria. Beliefs are judgments that connect our values and criteria to our experiences. They give our experiences meaning and provide context for our values.⑭Both values and beliefs shape the way we view ourselves and the world around us. They act as filters for our perceptions, and actually create our maps of reality. They literally make our reality and make us who we are.1. What kind of writing is this? How do you know? (Expository, Persuasive, Narrative, Descriptive)2. What is the purpose of this writing?3. What is the tone of this writing?4. What is the writer`s thesis (if they have one)?5. According to the article, what are values?6. According to the article, what are beliefs?7. According to the article, the author doesn`t think values and beliefs are independent. (Ture of false)8. According to the article, values and beliefs, which some are closer to the reality?9. Write a summary of the article (at least 5 sentences).X. Based on the article, try to explain the reason why the author was willing to offer supply to the beggar instead of inviting him home (at least 5 sentences).。

The Differences between Chinese Value and Western ValueValue is a criterion which can help people to distinguish good and bad, beauty and ugliness, right and wrong and true and false. Value varies from different counties, which is the main cause of the conflict and misunderstanding in communication between China and western countries. It is of great significance to know and learn the cultural differences in cross-cultural communication. Therefore, I want to introduce the reasons why these differences are formed and then explain them in several aspects.Reasons With the emergence and development of different countries and cultures, two main reasons affect the formation of value: 1. Development of history 2. Thinking patternChina has a long history and the rule of the feudal class has dominated China for about two thousand years, which has direct influence on our value system in the modern society. Modern Chinese people are still compliant to authorities, respect the senior and emphasize the state of “keeping your place”. On the contrary, in the 1800s, the British bourgeoisie overthrew the feudal rule and established a capitalist society. What’s more, the industrial revolution greatly enhanced people's material standard of living and liberated people’s mind s completely. The democracy of capitalism gradually prevailed in western societies. Westerners advocate individualism, longs for liberty and equality. These differences in historical environment make Chinese and western perceptions of individual differ greatly from each other.Thinking patterns are dominated by national philosophy. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism have great influence on the thinking patterns of Chinese people. Since these three kinds of philosophy all attach great significance to perception, Chinese people are implicit and euphemistic. On this point, westerners are just the other way around. The backgrounds of philosophy in western countries are Aristotelian formal logic and rationalism which has been prevalent in Europe from the 1700s to the 1900s. Rationalism pays special attention to formal discussion, so westerners areoutgoing and logical.Value In the process of development, China and western countries form different values, which are reflected in many aspects.Thinking Patterns Western value stresses individualism. As John Locke said, each individual is unique, special, and completely different from all other individuals. This kind of thinking pattern premises on gaining personal interests and guarding personal dignity. Most Americans believe that each person has his or her own separate identity, which should be recognized and reinforced. From Americans’ strong belief in democracy to the ease with which they go to war to preserve freedom, we can see that individualism dominates western culture.However, we Chinese gradually develop another kind of value through thousands of years—collectivism. Collectivism insists the unity of nation, which is largely a criterion to judge whether a person’s behavior is good. Collectivism also tells us that we must subordinate our personal interests to those of the collective.Family Values According to western thinking patterns, westerners pay great attention to personal interests, so their family value is very weak. Family is a highly private place and is protected by law. On this point, we Chinese are completely different from westerners. Chinese people think kinship is precious and warm and we Chinese tend to tell everything to our family members. We are compliant to our parents and like to be together with each other now and then, especially during festival.Interpersonal Relationship Interpersonal relationship differs in different cultures. Chinese people place great value to relationship, while westerners tend to be more realistic. Affected by Confucianism, we Chinese emphasize social standards and emotion. We think about seniority and friendship in communication, and depend on our family members and friends to satisfy our need from material to emotion. So in problem-solving, we Chinese make no difference between public and private, and mix personal relations and public relations together.But in western interpersonal relationships, everyone is equal and everybody has the same opportunities. According to their historical background, westerners areoutgoing, independent, disengaged and equivalent. So westerners seldom put personal emotions into work and they hold on to individualism, equality and fair trading in business.Money A s a result of different cultural backgrounds, Chinese and westerners have distinct perceptions of money. In China, the majority of people are saving money to buy house, buy car, pay their children’s tuition and some of them even save money to buy house for their children. So we Chinese tend to provide for the future. On the contrary, westerners are always pursuing the state of “carpe diem”. If they earn more, they spend more, and if they earn less, they spend less. For instance, most Americans buy their houses and cars on credit, without thinking whether they can pay the money back.Value is progressed in history, so every country and nation has their own distinctive values and these values cannot be changed easily in a short time. In general, Chinese value emphasizes more on collectivism, while western values pay more attention to individualism. With the progress of globalization and the rapid development of China, it is of great significance for us to learn the different values between China and western countries, which can help us to avoid conflict and help to promote understanding between cultures.生命列车。

Unit 5 Conservatives and Liberals3. Text explanations1) Questions:(1) What are the major concerns of conservatism?According to the author, conservatism emphasizes tradition, authority, law and order, and the impossibility of achieving anything Utopian which romantics long for.(2) Do conservative and liberal ways of thinking invariably fall into two definitely different categories of thought patterns different people might have?No. They might coexist in one person at different stages of his life. Therefore, the author says, "We are reformers in spring and summer, in autumn and winter we stand by the old; reformers in the morning, conservers at night."(3) According to the author, will the so-called "irreconcilable antagonism" inevitably lead to disastrous consequences?Not necessarily so. As soon as people establish the idea in their mind that both elements should be combined, they might work out a way to strike a balance between the two. To realize that there exists the possibility of a solution and the necessity of mutual understanding may well be the first step people take on their long way to success.2) Text interpretationThis piece of analytic writing presents the readers with a sharp contrast between Conservatism and Liberalism, two most fundamental ways of thinking in human life. Being a great thinker and scholar, the author Ralph Waldo Emerson deals with the subject with penetrating insight and philosophical profundity. He not only outlines respectively the features of the two parties from a neutral stand, but also makes objective and dialectic comments on both. It is his sincere efforts that lead to his most enlightening conclusion: each is a good half but an impossible whole and in a true society, in a true man, both must combine.The whole piece can be divided into three parts. The first two paragraphs serve as the beginning, which points out the various forms as well as the nature of the antagonism of the two. Paragraph 3 to Paragraph 9is the middle part, which contains a fable that illustrates in a vivid way the different thinking modes of the two types of people. Paragraphs 10 and 11constitute the last part of the article. Paragraph 10 is the most exciting part of the article, which provides the readers with a careful analysis of the major differences between the two ways of thinking in a highly condensed manner. In it, the ideas are closely knit and well developed, and certain rhetorical devices such as metaphor and parallelism are properly applied, making the whole paragraph both eloquent and convincing. Paragraph 11 is the ending. It is characterized by the skillful use of analogy, which renders the author's idea both clear and artful. With the images of oak and river, Emerson succeeds in getting across to his readers the message that only when both the elements of conservatism and reform are combined can beauty, the crown of nature's approbation, be achieved.4. Structural AnalysisPart I (Paragraph 1-2) constitutes the beginning of the article, which offers the readers a roughdescription of the antagonism between the party of Conservatism and that of Innovation.The author also points out the essence of the antagonism, which is the reflection of the two poles of human nature. These two paragraphs fulfill the task of telling the readers the subject of the article.Part II ( Paragraphs3-9) contain "a fragment of old fable" which vividly and clearly illustrates the different ways of thinking of the two parties. Saturn's stands for the conservative way of thinking, characterized by its emphasis on maintaining the status quo, and Uranus' the liberal, characterized by its emphasis on hoping for a better future. The act of Jupiter's killing his father Saturn is of a typically radical style.QuestionWhat is such a fable intended for?The author's intention of telling the fable is to echo the statement in Paragraph 2 that theconflict between the conservative and the liberal can betraced back to ancient times even before human beings were created. Even thoseimmortal gods were also subject to these two opposing ways of dealing with things.Therefore we can see how prevalent and powerful the two opposites are.Part III (Paragraphs 10-11)The language adopted in Paragraph 10 is generally abstract and philosophical, while that in Paragraph 11 is vivid and literary. The alternative use of two different dictions shows the author's great skill in making his ideas clear, impressive and convincing. Paragraph 10 presents a sharp contrast between Conservatism and Reform.One thing the readers should pay great attention to is the author's attitude expressed between the lines. Since there have been many simplified, therefore dangerous, understandings towards these two concepts, it is quite difficult for the author to stick to a neutral stand. It is as if he were walking in a forest of misunderstanding, carefully evading the interference of wrong ideas and elbowing out a way to the other side where bright space awaits. The march is difficult, yet he manages to arrive at the destination.One of the features we can see very clearly in this paragraph is the power of his language.Compared with the power in Paragraph 10, the last paragraph is characterized by gentle emotion, just as the rainbow makes its appearance after a tempest. With the terse expression of philosophical ideas, a literary image emerges to serve as the conclusion as well as the epilogue of the article. It is this calm and translucent ending that saves the author from being an astute winner of a shallow quarrel, and makes him a humble but wise man gently telling a noble truth.Step III. Detail Study of the Text1. rage + v. to spread or prevail forcefully(p1)The plague raged for months.2.On rolls the old world meantime, and now one, now the other gets the day, and still the fightrenews itself as if for the first time, under new names and hot personalities. (p1)The old world goes on along with the war between the conservatives and the liberals, during which one party prevails over the other by alternation. The fight between the two parties goes on endlessly and fiercely, under different names in different times, and abusive language is used in the course to attack each other.personalities + n. (archaic) disparaging remarks about an individual3. Such an irreconcilable antagonism, of course, must have a correspondent depth of seat in the human constitution. (p2)The conflict between the two parties is so heated and deep-rooted that it has to be accounted for in terms of human nature.4. It is the primal antagonism, the appearance in trifles of the two poles of nature. (p2)It is the most important form of conflict. Though it takes the form of unimportant things, it reflects two opposing extremes in human nature.5. Thou canst not hold thine own, but by making more. (p6)Making more things of the same kind, you would not be able to maintain what you possess at present.6. There is always a certain meanness in the argument of conservatism, joined with a certain superiority in its fact. It affirms because it holds. (p10)Compared with the argument of Reform which tends to criticize the outdated and unreasonable things, the argument of Conservatism which tends to defend them is always placed at a disadvantage. However, in reality, it is often the Conservative force that takes a more advantageous position. The conservatives tend to assert a positive view of the present situation, because they strive to maintain the status quo.7. Conservatism stands on man's incontestable limitations; reform on his indisputable infinitude; conservatism on circumstance; liberalism on power; (p10)Conservatism refuses to change the current world drastically, so it would always take man's limitations in consciousness or his capability as its ground of argument for the impossibility of such a change, and would insist that the limitations are absolute and beyond any argument; while reform, with the purpose of changing the current situation completely, would emphasize man's infinitive power in creating miracles and deem such power as something beyond doubt. Also, in order to achieve their respective purposes mentioned above, conservatism would emphasize the objective difficulties, while reform would place stress on man's subjective power.8. ... one goes to make an adroit member of the social frame; the other to postpone all things to the man himself; (p10)Conservatism respects the current social frame and wants to develop a system of skills that may help people to adapt well to society; while liberalism deems human beings as the most important element of the social system and all other things should be adjusted to satisfy their need.9. ... conservatism is debonair and social; reform is individual and imperious. (p10) Conservatism is generally constructive, so it tends to maintain the current system as much as possible. Therefore, it would like to take lenient and inoffensive measures in dealing with social problems and would care more about the interests of society as a whole. Reform, at least at its beginning stage, is somewhat deconstructive, so it would easily ignore the stability of the whole system and cares more about the realization of individuals' intention. Accordingly, it would like to adopt drastic measures to change the current social system.10. Conservatism is more candid to behold another's worth; reform more disposed to maintain and increase its own. (p10)Conservatism, in its efforts to maintain the current social system, would be more likely to consider the worth of reform; while reform, more resolute and determined in achieving its own purpose, would be more likely to pay exclusive attention to its own worth or benefits.11. Conservatism makes no poetry, breathes no prayer, has no invention; it is all memory.Reform has no gratitude, no prudence, no husbandry. (p1o)Conservatism has no romantic prospect of the future and does not want to do anything creative to change the status quo, whereas Reform deems the status quo a world of the past. Since no benefit has ever been gained from such a world, Reform bears no gratitude to it and does not think it is worth careful maintaining and operating.12. It makes a great difference to your figure and to your thought, whether your foot is advancing or receding. (p10)Whether you take a conservative stand or a liberal one matters a lot to your social image and the way you think.13. Conservatism never puts the foot forward; in the hour when it does that, it is not establishment, but reform. (p10)It would never be possible for Conservatism to take radical measures. Should it ever do so, it would no longer be what it is, but rather, turn quickly into Reform, its opposite.establishment + n. something established, as an arranged order or system14. Conservatism tends to universal seeming and treachery, believes in a negative fate;What conservatism cares about is to keep the general appearance of society or maintain the existing framework. Drastic changes of form would undoubtedly meet with strong resistance. But this does not mean it would refuse to accept some mild revision. Therefore, it does not care to have some limited compromises which may cause inconsistency between the appearance and the substance. It believes that everything has been decided by fate, so it would do nothing positive to change the status quo.seeming + n. outward appearance; semblancetreachery + n. inconsistency15. ... it thinks there is a general law without a particular application, law for all that does not include any one. (p10)It believes that there can be a way to balance different benefits, yet no one will be satisfied by such an abstract and ideal law.16. Reform in its antagonism inclines to asinine resistance, to kick with hoofs; it runs to egotism and bloated self-conceit; it runs to a bodiless pretension, to unnatural refining and elevation, which ends in hypocrisy and sensual reaction. (p10)In this long formed pattern of antagonism, Reform would have a lot of chances to turn itself into a stupid bigotry, the content of which is to resist any ideas from the opposite party. Since it lays too much emphasis on the value of man or individual, it would easily go so far as to enter the territory of egoism and self-conceit. Sometimes its claims would become too ideal and empty, leaving no one to benefit substantially from it. Therefore, in the end, those high-sounding and apparently lofty words would be degraded into cheap and hollow slogans. If Reform goes to extremes, it would betray its intention and render itself hypocritical and unreasonable.17. And so whilst we do not go beyond general statements, it may be safely affirmed of these two metaphysical antagonists, that each is a good half, but an impossible whole. (p11)If we can define the claims of the two within the bounds of reason and do not let either one go to extremes, then we can safely draw the conclusion that Conservatives and Liberals, the two opposite parties at metaphysical level, have their respective rationality but neither should completely replace the other and become the only way of thinking for human beings.Step V. KEY TO EXERCISESText ComprehensionI. Decide which of the following best states the author's purpose.DII. Judge, according to the text, whether the following statements are true or false.1. T. Refer to Paragraph 1.2. F. Refer to Paragraph 8. After that, the word of Uranus came into his mind like a ray of the sun, and he made Jupiter ...3. T. Refer to Paragraph 9.4. F. Refer to Paragraph 10. The castle, which conservatism is set to defend, is the actual state of things, good and bad.5. T. Refer to Paragraph 10.6. T. Refer to Paragraph 11.III. Answer the following questions.1. (Paragraphs 4 to 7) Saturn kept on performing the same action of making oysters while Uranus urged him to change and demanded a new work, which Saturn refused. The tenet of Saturn was to hold what he had got. Both of them appealed to Fate, but their appeals were different in that Saturn appealed for rest while Uranus appealed for motion.2. (Paragraphs 4 to 7) Saturn had a fear of unmaking, or undoing what he had done. Even if the impulse of doing something new gave him some ideas of very inspiring prospects, his fear overcame his positive impulse. That is the kind of fear characteristic of conservatives.3. (Paragraph 9) Conservatives believe that the existent world, whether good or bad, was created by God, and the duty of human beings is to uphold His creation. On the other hand, liberals argue that God has left the old world and adopted the new world, and it is His will to change.4. (Paragraph 10) Conservatives have the worst of the argument, as they are always on the defensive, trying to defend the actual and the existent and denying the possibility of the good and the future. For the purpose of maintaining the current state of things, they have to accommodate all the violence and vice of society, which liberals are able to attack in a triumphant way.5. (Paragraph 11) Emerson believes that a true society demands combination of the elements, in particular advantages, of both conservatives and liberals, and that a true man changes with the time although he may not necessarily commit himself to the changes.IV. Explain in your own words the following sentences taken from the text.1. The argument of conservatism has a certain disadvantage but it is also advantageous over liberals for it depends on the actual state of things.2. Conservatives do not have a romantic vision, or request for the better, or the urge to be creative. What they tend to do is to maintain the status quo. On the other hand, liberals are not satisfied with the status quo, so they won't treat things with caution to keep them intact, or make efforts to conserve the resources or assets already existent.3. It is certain that conservatives and liberals, representing two opposite ideals, have their respective advantages, but they both are limited in some way.Text appreciation .1) It is the counteraction of the centripetal and the centrifugal forces. (Paragraph 9)2) The castle, which conservatism is set to defend, is the actual state of things, good and bad. The project of innovation is the best possible state of things. (Paragraph 10)3) We are reformers in spring and summer, in autumn and winter we stand by the old; reformers in the morning, conservers at night. (Paragraph 10)Language workI. Explain the italicized part in each sentence in your own words.1. spreads or prevails forcefullybenefits or profits; gains2. wins; prevails3. be equally deep-rooted in human nature4. depends onstate or quality of being unlimited5. pays attention to6. the best it has to offerII. Choose a word or phrase that best completes each of the following sentences.1. A2. C3. B4. B5. C6. A7. D8. D9. A 10. DIII. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate forms of the given words.1. ragefully2. incontestable3. emblematic4. irreconcilably5. hierarchized6. unseemly7. treacherous8. MountaineeringV.改错1.Nationally---internationally2.^as..such3.\for4.does---done5.^other..than6.that---what7.few-fewer8.\the9.amount---number10.\inTransitionThe former are complacent with the established hierarchies while the latter strive for a new cosmos order which they believe will be superior to the previous one. /They each give priorities to totally different things. The former emphasize brilliant past glories while the latter are chiefly concerned about the rosy future. / The former based their views on man’s inco ntestable limitations while the latter stand on his indisputable infinitude of possibilities in improving and perfecting themselves./ If the former go too far, they may display some nostalgia for a largely nonexistent past, which may handicap the pursuit of a still better future./ If the latter goes too far, they tend to cherish some dreams too romantic to be practical./ If human life consists of spring, summer, autumn and winter, we are inclined to be liberals in spring and summer, but there is every likelihood that we may turn ourselves into conservatives by degrees in autumn and winter./ For example, the famous modernist poet Elliot explored in his early poetry various aspects of decay of civilization in the modern Western world, but he attached much importance to stability and order in his later works.。