外文翻译(1)

译文（一）THE ACCOUNTING REVIEWV ol. 83, No. 3 2008pp. 823–853市场参与者的杜邦分析的使用马克•t•Soliman华盛顿大学文摘:杜邦分析,一种常见的财务报表分析，依靠于净营业资产收益率的两个乘法组件:利润率和资产周转率。

这两个会计比率衡量不同的构造。

因此,有不同的属性。

之前的研究已经发现,资产周转率的变化是未来收益的变化正相关。

本文全面探讨了杜邦组件和沿着三个维度有助于文学。

首先,本文有助于财务报表分析文献,发现在这个会计信息信号实际上是增量学习会计信号在先前的研究在预测未来收益。

其次,它有助于文学在股票市场上使用的会计信息通过检查眼前和未来的股本回报投资者应对这些组件。

最后,它增加了分析师的文献处理会计信息的再次测试直接和延迟反应的分析师通过同期预测修正以及未来预测错误。

一致的跨市场加入者的两组,结果表明是有用的信息就是明证杜邦组件和股票收益之间的联系以及维度分析师预测。

然而,我发现预测未来预测错误和异常返回信息处理表明似乎没有完成。

平均水平,分析表明杜邦组件代表增量和可行的操作特征信息的公司。

关键词:财务报表分析、杜邦分析、市场回报、分析师预估。

数据可用性:在这项研究中使用的数据是公开的来源显示的文本。

在本文中,我分析杜邦分析中包含的信息是否与股市回报相关和分析师预测。

之前的研究文档组件从杜邦分析,分解的净营业资产收益率为利润率和资产周转率,有解释力对未来盈利能力的变化。

本文增加了文献综合研究投资者和分析师反应杜邦组件三个维度。

首先,它复制先前记录的预测能力和检查是否健壮和增量其他预测已经考虑在文学的存在。

其次,它探讨了使用这些组件的股市投资者通过观察同生和未来收益。

在同时代的长窗协会和短时期限信息测试,结果显示积极联系杜邦组件和股本回报率。

但小未来异常返回交易策略显示的信息可能不完整的处理。

最后,检查当前预测修正由卖方分析师和未来的预测错误。

外文翻译一：Excerptwords to more and more complex phrases. Children learn to listen and to talk long before they learn to read and write. The same sequence should be followed in classroom teaching. Extra difficulty would be created if one would try to develop English reading and writing skills before children can speak the language. In order to be able to speak the language, students need to know some vocabulary first. In this paper I will focus on how to teach vocabulary that enables students to construct a rich vocabulary bank. Guiding methods are introduced and sample activities are provided.II. Main Part1. The Importance of Teaching Vocabulary1.1. Vocabulary Development in the Primary GradesThe findings of the “National Reading Panel” indicate that vocab ulary instruction does lead to gains in comprehension, but that methods must be appropriate to the age and ability of the reader. Using both indirect and direct teaching methods to build students’ oral and reading vocabularies should be a part of a balanced reading program. Indirect methods would include read-alouds, shared reading and writing experiences, and independent reading. Direct teaching of vocabulary should respond to the needs of the students and should actively engage them in the process(National Reading Panel, 2000).All word learning tasks are not equal in difficulty. A child may understand the concept behind a word, but not know the word itself. For example, the word cease represents a known concept to most children; however, a young child has probably not heard this word used for stop.Learning a new word that represents a known concept is not as difficult as learning a new word that represents a new concept. Teachers in the primary grades introduce many new concepts, and direct instruction is necessary to build up the understanding of these concepts and the vocabulary words that represent them.When teaching vocabulary words that represent known concepts, the emphasis should always be on the context in which the word appears. Discussing the meaning2of the word from the context of the reading selection together with supplying a definition of the word will help to build meaning for students. If students are to acquire this word as part of their vocabulary, then they must be given repeated exposure of the word in a variety of contexts. They must also have opportunities to practise using the word in conversation and/or writing.By the time children enter second grade, they are likely to know between 2,000 and 5,000 vocabulary words. This amazing growth continues throughout the elementary years, as most children gain 3,000 - 4,000 new vocabulary words each year that they can read and understand ( Teaching Reading in the 21st Century, 2001). By encouraging independent reading and providing both indirect and direct instruction in vocabulary, students can be helped to develop the vocabulary knowledge they will need for effective comprehension.1.2. Educators View on Teaching Vocabulary"Teaching one word at a time out of context is the worst way of teaching vocabulary, with rapid forgetting almost guaranteed," asserts Frank Smith, author of "The Book of Learning and Forgetting" (1998), recently published by Teachers College Press. According to Smith, people assimilate new vocabulary words from context the first time they read them, "provided that the gist of the material being read is both interesting and comprehensible. Within five more encounters, the word and its conventional meaning are usually firmly established in the mind of the reader."Other educators who share this view add that when reading material isn't instantly interesting or comprehensible, it's the teacher's job to build context by activating students' prior knowledge of the topic. With regard to vocabulary, that means having students identify difficult words themselves and pool their knowledge to get the meaning. Ann Marie Longo, director of the Boys Town Reading Center, argues that teens can't use context effectively when their vocabularies are limited. Limited vocabulary is the most common problem among weak readers she's worked with. Longo begins with indirect instruction in words and their meanings and then provides high-interest opportunities to use the words. Vocabularyexpert Isabel Beck of the University of Pittsburgh embraces both approaches. For her, there are3four ways to learn vocabulary: wide reading, hearing unfamiliar words in speech, direct instruction in words and "gimmicks" to boost students' interest.Beck suggests teachers incorporate difficult words into their classroom routines and encourage students to look for the words in reading outside class. Longo agrees that students need to put new words to use in writing and conversation as well as reading. "For vocabulary instruction to increase comprehension," says Longo, "you have to see those words over and over again" ( When Adolescents Can´t Read: Methods and Materials that Work, 1999).1.3. Memory and Storage SystemsUnderstanding how our memory works might help us create more effective ways to teach vocabulary. Research in the area, cited by Gairns and Redman (1986) offers us some insights into this process. It seems that learning new items involve storing them first in our short-term memory, and afterwards in long-term memory. We do not control this process consciously but there seem to be some important clues to consider. First, retention in short-term memory is not effective if the number of chunks of information exceeds seven. Therefore, this suggests that in a given class we should not aim at teaching more than this number. However, our long-term memory can hold any amount of information.Research also suggests that our “mental lexicon” is highly organised and efficient, and that semantic related items are stored together. Word frequency is another factor that affects storage, as the most frequently used items are easier to retrieve. We can use this information to attempt to facilitate the learning process, by grouping items of vocabulary in semantic fields, such as topics (e.g. types of fruit). Oxford (1990) suggests memory strategies to aid learning, and these can be divided into creating mental linkages (grouping, associating, placing new words into a context), applying images and sounds (using imagery, semantic mapping, using keywords and representing sounds in memory), reviewing in a structured way and employing action (physical response or sensation, using mechanical techniques). The techniques just mentioned can be used to greater advantage if we can diagnose learning style preferences (visual, aural, kinesthetic, tactile) and make students aware of different memory strategies.4Meaningful tasks, however, seem to offer the best answer to vocabulary learning, as they rely on students’ experiences and reality to facilitate learning. More meaningful tasks also require learners to analyse and process language more deeply, which should help them retain information in long-term memory. Forgetting seems to be an inevitable process, unless learners regularly use items they have learnt. Therefore, recycling is vital, and ideally it should happen one or two days after the initial input. After that, weekly or monthly tests can check on previously taught items. The way students store the items learned can also contribute to their success or failure in retrieving them when needed. Most learners simply list the items learnt in chronological order, indicating meaning with translation. This system is far from helpful, as items arede-contextualised, encouraging students to over generalise their usage. It does not allow for additions and refinements nor does it indicate pronunciation. Teachers can encourage learners to use other methods, using topics and categories to organise a notebook, binder or index cards. Meaning should be stored using English as much as possible. Diagrams and word trees can also be used within this topic/categories organisation. The class as a whole can keep a vocabulary box with cards, which can be used for revision/recycling regularly.1.4. Why Vocabulary is ImportantTeachers may wonder why it is important to teach vocabulary. Well, there is a very clear answer to that question, namely that vocabulary is critical to reading success for three reasons, which I will explain now briefly. First of all, comprehension improves when you know what the words mean. Since comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading, you cannot overestimate the importance of vocabulary development. Secondly, words are the currency of communication. A robust vocabulary improves all areas of communication which are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Last but no least, when children and adolescents improve their vocabulary, their academic and social confidence and competence improve, too.In turn, a deficit in vocabulary knowledge causes comprehension problems, and comprehension problems prevent people from improving their vocabulary knowledge on their own. Intensive vocabulary instruction can be effective in turning this situation around. What is required, though, is a clear and deliberate focus on facilitating students’ creation of meaning ful contexts for the word meanings they are learning,5and a frequent and consistent emphasis on helping them make connections to what they already know.1.5. Levels of Word Knowledge“Word knowledge” refers to how well you know the meaning of a word. Research shows that there are three kinds of word knowledge. Firstly, there is a lack of word knowledge where the meaning is completely unfamiliar. Secondly, there is acquired word knowledge where the basic meaning is recognized after some thought. And last, there is established word knowledge where the meaning is easily, rapidly and automatically recognized (Beck, McKeown, and Omanson, 1987). Words from the third category are already established in the personal vocabulary bank and are the words you would use in conversation and writing. Though it’s enough for students to have a surface understanding of some words in a selection, for most words students must have this same established level of knowledge if they are to understand what they are reading (Nagy, Herman, and Anderson, 1985).2. Teaching Vocabulary2.1. Which Words Should be TaughtWhen making instructional decisions as to which words to teach, it is helpful to have a framework for decision-making in this area. Knowing what words to teach is the first step in providing effective vocabulary practice. Graves and Prenn, for instance, classify the words that should be devided into three types, each requiring a higher investment of teacher and learner time for instruction. With words that are already in the student's oral vocabulary, the students need only to identify the written symbol for such a word. When the word is one for which the student has acquired no concept and it appears frequently in the context, the teacher must take time to develop the concept through instruction. When the word is in the student's listening vocabulary, it may be taught though writing experiences and activities. Focus should be on helping students become independent learners; they should be encouraged to become actively involved in selecting words.6I will shortly mention a practical guide that helps teachers to remember the types of words that they should teach explicitly. First of all, there are Type A Words.These words belong to academic language and thecontent areas.Academic language describes the language of schooling,words used across disciplines like genre and glossary. Content area words are specific to the discipline, words like organization in social studies and organism in science. Then there are Type B Words which arethe basics.There are hundreds of high-frequency words. The basics make up a large percentage of students´ reading and writing. Students must be able to read words like the, is, and, are, been and because.The so-called Type C Words are connectors and act as signal words. There may be some overlap with the basic words. Students need to understand the signals for cause and effect relationships, sequence and other important indicators of how text is organized. In Type D Words the D standsfor difficult- words with multiple meanings are a challenge for all students and may be especially so for learners of the English language.When considering words with multiple meanings teachers should also pay attention to the consonant-vowel-consonant words children encounter when first learning to read - for example words like jam and ham.These words have accessible meanings if you think of something you may eat with eggs in the morning (ham) or of the sweet, sticky stuff on toast (jam). But jam also describes a music playing session. So learning to decode should not be meaning-free, but should provide a good opportunity for teaching the meanings of words including multiple ones. This kind of experience with words improves comprehension.At last there are also Type X Words which are the extras. These are the words that will not be encountered frequently but in a certain story or context they are important for decoding meaning. A good example of this type of word is spindle in “Sleeping Beauty.” It is important to the fairy tale, but it is not a very high-utility word. I just tell kids what words like this mean without any special teaching.2.1.1. Basic Functional VocabularyIn order to understand, speak, read and write a language, the students must acquire the basic functional vocabulary. New words are carefully selected, gradually introduced, and graded to make language learning smooth and easy. The following77 of 27 pages - scroll topInformation on this eBookTitleThe Teaching of Vocabulary in the Primary School Foreign Language ClassroomAuthorDaniela PohlYear2003Pages27Archive No.V34883ISBN (eBook)978-3-638-34971-0ISBN (Book)978-3-640-44099-3DOI10.3239/9783638349710File size224 KBLanguageEnglishTagsTeachingVocabularyPrimarySchoolForeignLanguageClassroom翻译部分：国外小学词汇教学（The Teaching of Vocabulary in the Primary School Foreign Language Classroom）摘要：很多词语都变得越来越复杂，拥有很多的词组。

因为学校对毕业论文中的外文翻译并无规定，为统一起见,特做以下要求：1、每篇字数为1500字左右，共两篇；2、每篇由两部分组成:译文+原文.3 附件中是一篇范本，具体字号、字体已标注。

外文翻译（包含原文)(宋体四号加粗）外文翻译一（宋体四号加粗）作者：(宋体小四号加粗）Kim Mee Hyun Director, Policy Research & Development Team，Korean Film Council（小四号）出处：(宋体小四号加粗)Korean Cinema from Origins to Renaissance(P358～P340) 韩国电影的发展及前景（标题：宋体四号加粗）1996～现在数量上的增长(正文:宋体小四）在过去的十年间，韩国电影经历了难以置信的增长。

上个世纪60年代，韩国电影迅速崛起，然而很快便陷入停滞状态,直到90年代以后，韩国电影又重新进入繁盛时期。

在这个时期，韩国电影在数量上并没有大幅的增长，但多部电影的观影人数达到了上千万人次。

1996年，韩国本土电影的市场占有量只有23.1%。

但是到了1998年，市场占有量增长到35。

8%，到2001年更是达到了50%。

虽然从1996年开始，韩国电影一直处在不断上升的过程中，但是直到1999年姜帝圭导演的《生死谍变》的成功才诞生了韩国电影的又一个高峰。

虽然《生死谍变》创造了韩国电影史上的最高电影票房纪录，但是1999年以后最高票房纪录几乎每年都会被刷新。

当人们都在津津乐道所谓的“韩国大片”时，2000年朴赞郁导演的《共同警备区JSA》和2001年郭暻泽导演的《朋友》均成功刷新了韩国电影最高票房纪录.2003年康佑硕导演的《实尾岛》和2004年姜帝圭导演的又一部力作《太极旗飘扬》开创了观影人数上千万人次的时代。

姜帝圭和康佑硕导演在韩国电影票房史上扮演了十分重要的角色。

从1993年的《特警冤家》到2003年的《实尾岛》，康佑硕导演了多部成功的电影。

本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学（贸易方向）年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文（一）中国银行业的改革和盈利能力（第1、2、4部分） (1)2 外文文献原文（一）CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY（Part 1、2、4） (9)1概述世界银行（1997年）曾声称，中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。

当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候，金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要（Lardy，1998年，Prasad，2007年）。

事实上，不久前，中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”，它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。

但是，在银行改革开展以来，最近，强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。

但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路，它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。

此外，其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲，但不可持续增长。

随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化，银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。

本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响，这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。

相反，我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略，并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现，但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。

本文有三个部分。

在第二节中，我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略，以及其执行情况，这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。

第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行：中国工商银行（工商银行），中国建设银行（建行），对中国银行（中银）和交通银行（交通银行）。

引人注目的是中国农业银行，它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。

第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。

太阳能蒸馏：一种有前途的供水代替技术，它使用免费的能源，技术简单，清洁Hassan E.S.Fath埃及，亚历山大，亚历山大大学机械学院工程系摘要：太阳能蒸馏为盐水淡化提供了一种替代技术，它使用免费的能源、技术简单、清洁，为人类提供所需的部分淡水。

太阳能蒸馏系统的发展已经证明：当天气情况良好，并且需求不太大时，比如少于200立方米／天，它在海水淡化过程中有一定的适用性。

太阳能蒸馏器的产量低这个问题迫使科学家研究许多提高蒸馏器产量和热效率，以此来降低产水的费用。

本文对许多最新发展的单效和多效太阳能蒸馏器进行了整体评论和技术评估。

同时，对蒸馏器构造的发展、各部件在运行过程中出现的问题、对环境的影响也进行了阐述。

关键词：太阳能;海水淡化1.简介在淡水需求超出了淡水资源所能满足的量的地方，对低质量的水进行去盐处理是一种合适的淡水来源途径。

对盐水或海水脱盐处理取得淡水满足了社会基本的需求。

一般说来，它不会对环境造成严重的损害作用。

因此，进行海水淡化的工序和工厂在数量上和能力上都有了巨大的进步。

许多不同的海水淡化技术被用来从盐水中分离淡水，包括有：多级闪蒸（MSF）、多效（ME）、蒸汽压缩(VC)、反渗透（RO）、离子交换、电渗析、相变和溶剂萃取。

但是，这些技术只能产生少量的淡水，因而是昂贵的。

另一方面，用来驱动这些技术的传统能源也会对环境产生消极的作用。

而太阳能蒸馏为盐水淡化技术提供了一种有前途的替代处理过程，它使用免费的能源，技术简单，清洁，并能为人类提供所需的部分淡水。

太阳能蒸馏系统的发展已经证明：当天气情况良好，并且需求不太大时，比如少于200立方米／天，它在海水淡化过程中有一定的适用性。

太阳能蒸馏器的产量和热效率，以此来最小化产水费用。

这些方法中包括被动的和主动的单效蒸馏器。

一些工作者也曾试图都产生的水蒸气在外部凝结（在额外的凝结表面上）。

另一方面，浪费的凝结潜热也被利用，从而增加馏出水的产量和提高效率。

注：红色字体表示语句不明白的地方，请求学姐帮忙。

聚亚烷基二醇的化学结构和它们在含水环境中的好氧生物降解性之间的关系简要：使用一组聚合流体，其中包括聚乙二醇、聚丙二烯（PPG）、不同EO/PO 比率的环氧乙烷（EO）的无规共聚物和环氧丙烷（PO），对聚亚烷基醇（PAG）的化学结构和它们的生物降解性之间的关系进行研究以及用PAG的醚和酰基部分封端。

被测试的PAG中有一个均分子量范围在350-3600Da，它们的差异是由其聚合物主链的直链（二醇型）或支链（三元醇型）分子。

PAG的最终生物降解能力是根据ISO14593（CO2顶空试验）用非预曝光（如在OECD310试验）和预曝光（改编）接种物来确定。

带有PPG结构和二元醇或三元醇的EO/PO共聚物，均分子量不超过1000沓的PAG，被认为是易于生物降解的。

他们的最终生物降解可超过60％的限制（根据OECD310测试标准）。

具有共聚结构并且MW值在1000-3600之间的PAG不易生物降解，但它们可以被看做是那些固有的最终降解物。

在PAG结构中EO含量的增长和末端羟基的酰化与羧酸基团有利地影响了他们的生物降解性。

含末端醚基团封端的PAG似乎是耐生物降解的。

关键词生物降解、聚亚烷基二醇、PAG、PPG、封顶PAG、ISO14593。

引言：术语中的聚亚烷基二醇-PAG，以及在相关文献中的PAG，例如，聚乙二醇，聚醚和聚（烯化氧）中使用的PAG术语都是带有环氧化物结构烯化氧聚合得到的化合物。

PAG主要是通过使用乙烯和丙烯的氧化物合成的，不常使用丁二醇和更高的烯烃氧化物。

PAG类化合物（不同的分子量，性能和应用）最常用的包括氧化乙烯或丙烯均聚物氧化物以及乙烯和丙烯氧化物的无规或嵌段共聚物。

PAG的分子结构不仅取决于种类和亚烷基氧化物的比例，而且还取决于用于聚合反应的引发剂分子的类型（单-，二-或多官能分子具有2个以上活泼氢原子）。

引发剂影响PAG分子的末端羟基基团和聚合物链的类型，其可以是线性的（单醇及二醇型）或支链的（多元醇的数类型）。

一曲人性美的田园牧歌———《边城》之美摘要: 沈从文以乡下人的主体视角审视城乡对峙的现状, 热情讴歌了湘西人民的人性美, 描绘了一个瑰丽而温馨的边城世界, 展现出一个诗意的自然环境: 精致柔美而宁静, 远离都市的喧嚣与浮华。

从而提出了他的人与自然和谐共存, 本于自然, 回归自然的哲学。

关键词: 人性美; 田园牧歌; 桃源仙境《边城》是沈从文的代表作, 也是中国现代文学史上优秀的中篇小说之一, 被人们誉为中国现代文学牧歌传说中的顶峰一颗千古不磨的珠玉。

20世纪20年代初, “京派”文人作家群的首席小说家、“乡下人”，沈从文, 从湘西地区的灵山秀水中走出, 以其30年复杂的人生阅历为基础, 通过老船夫、翠翠等人物形象的描绘, 对人类生命与人性的释放形式及其原因进行了探究、认知与感慨, 热情讴歌了湘西人民的人性美。

可以说, 《边城》是沈从文理想人生的缩影, 是一首作家写给故乡的赞美诗, 是作者远离边城而作于都市的梦, 是一曲优美动人的湘西人性美的颂歌。

施蛰存说: “从文处于苗汉杂居的湘西, 他最熟悉的是这一地区的风土人情。

非但熟悉, 而且热爱”。

在沈从文童年记忆中, 存储着一幅理想世界中美丽湘西地域风俗画: 那里的男人豪爽仗义, 刚健顽强; 那里的女人纯朴善良, 热情厚道。

他们重承诺, 守信义, 敢爱敢恨, 对爱情忠贞不渝。

这些普通的山民村妇、痴男怨女和他们的动人故事与美好人性, 便成了沈从文永远的生命崇拜图腾。

由此, 沈从文怀着探究人生“生命的形式”, 抨击否定虚伪人性, 赞美宣示美好人性的初衷, 创作了《边城》。

“有一小溪, 溪边有座白色小塔, 塔下住了一户单独的人家。

这人家只一个老人, 一个女孩子, 一只黄狗。

小溪流下去, 绕山岨流, 约三里便汇入茶峒的大河。

人若过溪越小山走去, 则只一里路就到了茶峒城边。

溪流如弓, 山路如弦, 故远近有了小小差异。

小溪宽约二十丈, 河床为大片石头作成。

静静的水即或深到一篙不能落底, 却依然清澈透明, 河中游鱼来去皆可以计数。

The platform can be distributed using various networks, independent video collection point for networking,different industries providing a unified multi-regional access, distributed memory,hierarchical management, video consultations,multi-mode alarm,resouce sharing video monitoring service. A new generation of remote video monitoring system network is able to meet the operator requirements of multimedia value-added core business platform. It can bulid various modules and subsystems through operating-type video surveillance platform for buliding ,security-based video surveillance platform，the implementation of video surveillance system project。

Keyword video surveillance system ；system design ；platform access；service processIntroductionWith the county’s “ Green City ” project continue to rise ，increaseing The number of video surveillance systems。

外文文献翻译译稿1可用性和期望值来自Willliam S.Green, Patrick W.Jordan.产品的愉悦：超越可用性根据人机工程学会（HFES）的观点，人机工程学着眼于“发现和共享可用于各种系统和设备设计的、关于人的特点的知识”。

人们通常只是把它作为生物力学和人体测量所关注的内容，实际上它是从更广泛的意义上的一种对人（产品用户）的全面和综合的理解。

HFES从二战中有军方从事的系统分析中发展而来。

其中的三种主要研究的是人体测量、复杂信息的解释和管理，以及在部队和装备调配中应用的系统分析。

系统分析在尺度和复杂性方面跨度很大，大的系统分析有类似于诺曼底登陆准备的大型系统规划，小到去理解如何从合理性和规模的角度才最佳的布置和装备人员。

诺曼底登陆是20世纪最复杂的事件之一。

他要求建立一个在战斗开始之前还不确定的庞大的人员和物资的合理分配系统。

在更小的规模上，装备和军事人物的布置意味着如何去组织、训练和安排战士，最大限度的发挥他们的长处。

士兵必须迅速地接受训练，并且能够有效地使用和维护在二战中发展起来的一系列技术装备。

其中，对于飞行员、潜艇人员和坦克驾驶员有神采的限制。

复杂的新装备的开发要求找到最好的税收、密码便医院、破译人员、雷达和声纳操作员、轰炸机驾驶员和机组人员。

在战后，随着公司及其产品在尺度、领域和复杂性方面的增长，很多系统分析人员在商用领域找到了发展机会。

尽管是战后的发展才导致了1957年人机工程协会（HFES）的建立，但人机研究的起源可以追溯到大批量生产方式的成型阶段，是当时提高生产效率的要求。

随着工作方式从手工生产和农业生产中的转移，新的工厂工作的概念逐步发展起来。

福特的流水生产线和泰勒的效率理论开始对生产的规划和教育产生影响。

即使在家庭生活中，妇女们也开始接受了现代家庭管理理论，并运用这些理论来组织和规划家庭。

在20世纪末，一种涵盖面更广的人机工程正在发展之中。

新的人机工程学是为了适应已经被广泛意识到的对用户行为模式更深入的需求而诞生的，它开始应用定型研究方法，并探索人的情感和认知因素。

UnitKeyboard:An Easily Configurable Compact ClavierY oshinari TAKEGAWA Kobe University,Japan take@eedept.kobe-u.ac.jpTsutomu TERADAKobe University,Japantsutomu@eedept.kobe-u.ac.jpMasahiko TSUKAMOTOKobe University,Japantuka@kobe-u.ac.jpABSTRACTMusical keyboard instruments have a long history,which resulted in many kinds of keyboards(claviers)today.Since the hardware of conventional musical keyboards cannot be changed,such as the number of keys,musicians have to carry these large keyboards for playing music that requires only a small diapason.To solve this problem,the goal of our study is to construct UnitKeyboard,which has only12 keys(7white keys and5black keys)and connectors for docking with other UnitKeyboards.We can build various kinds of musical keyboard configurations by connecting one UnitKeyboard to others,since they have automatic settings for multiple keyboard instruments.We discuss the usability of the UnitKeyboard from reviews by several amateur and professional pianists who used the UnitKeyboard. KeywordsPortable keyboard instruments,block interface,Automatic settings1.INTRODUCTIONMusical keyboard instrument has a long history,resulting in many kinds of keyboards today(ex.piano,choir organ, and accordion).Moreover,there are many kinds of musical forms in classical piano performance:solo,which is played by one performer,piano duet,which is a performance by two performers with a single piano,piano duo,which is a per-formance by two performers with two pianos,and ensemble, which is a performance by multiple groups that consist of two or more musicians.At the same time,various kinds of electronic musical in-struments have been developed.These instruments have many kinds of functions,such as diapason change and tone change.Since conventional musical keyboards cannot change their hardware configuration,such as the number of keys, musicians have to carry large keyboards for playing music that requires only a small diapason.Moreover,it is difficult to adjust to various kinds of keyboard instruments.For ex-ample,musicians cannot play music for the organ with a digital piano with88keys.The goal of our study is to construct UnitKeyboard,which has only12keys(7white keys and5black keys)and4con-nectors for docking with other UnitKeyboards.With these Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on thefirst page.To copy otherwise,to republish,to post on servers or to redistribute to lists,requires prior specific permission and/or a fee.NIME08,June5-8,2007,Genova,ItalyCopyright2008Copyright remains with the author(s).(a)(b)(c)than that of the BaseUnitthan that of the BaseUnit2 octaves higher diapasonthan that of the BaseUnit Figure1:Combination examples of UnitKeyboard keyboards,we can build various kinds of keyboard config-urations by connecting a UnitKeyboard to other UnitKey-boards.Since they have automatic settings considering the relationship among UnitKeyboards,and intuitive controls using sensors and actuators.Because of these special func-tions,UnitKeyboard is aflexibly instrument for playing mu-sic.2.DESIGNA UnitKeyboard is a keyboard equipped with12keys and also4connectors for connecting to other UnitKeyboards. Also various kinds of keyboards can be simulated with them. For example,we can construct a keyboard of two octaves by connecting two UnitKeyboards horizontally,as shown in Figure1-(a).Moreover,we can construct an organ that has two manuals by connecting two UnitKeyboards vertically as shown in Figure1-(b).We can also increase the diapason by connecting an EnhancedUnit,which has various kinds of functions,between UnitKeyboards as shown in Figure 1-(c).2.1Characteristics of UnitKeyboard2.1.1Automatic SettingsWe can build various kinds of keyboard instruments by docking multiple UnitKeyboards.However,users need to configure various kinds of settings for each UnitKeyboard. To reduce the setting time,we propose an automatic setting algorithm.Connection position A UnitKeyboard is equipped with one connector on each side,left,right,top,and bottom, for connecting to other UnitKeyboards.Assignments of theSound GeneratorFigure2:System structuretone and the diapason for each UnitKeyboard depend on the configuration of the connections.Generally,single man-ual keyboards like the piano,have characteristics that the more left/right the position of a key,the lower/higher its pitch,and all of the keys have the same tone.Therefore,a UnitKeyboard horizontally connected to a BaseUnit,which controls the base settings such as the tone and the diapa-son,inherits the tone of the BaseUnit,and a diapason of the UnitKeyboard increases one octave based on the diapason of the BaseUnit as shown in Figure1.On the other hand,a UnitKeyboard vertically connected to the BaseUnit has the same diapason as that of the BaseUnit,and the tone of the UnitKeyboard is independent from that of the BaseUnit. Priority Between a BaseUnit and a non-BaseUnit,there is a hierarchical relationship,that is,the settings of the non-BaseUnit inherit those of the BaseUnit.We define this as priority.This is similar to an ensemble,where the mul-tiple sections have section leaders or there is a conductor of the entire ensemble.Our system automatically assigns UnitKeyboard as low priority based on settings of a high priority UnitKeyboard.2.1.2Real-Time reconfigurationSince there may be cases where the configurations and connection statuses of the UnitKeyboards should be changed during the performance,the system needs to detect them and reconfigures the settings of the UnitKeyboards in real-time.We discuss the system design for fast real-time processing from the views points of data management.Data management In a UnitKeyboard system,there are various kinds of system data:connection data to manage the connection relationships among UnitKeyboards,setting data for setting the diapason and the tone of each UnitKey-board,and keying data that is generated when keys of a UnitKeyboard are pressed/released.Ifeach UnitKeyboard manages its own settings,each UnitKeyboard sends a connection change message to all the UnitKeyboards.Because the CPU and memory in a UnitKeyboard is limited,it is difficult to do this in real-time.Therefore,we use a computer as the“host”to calculate the connection statuses,setting statuses for all UnitKey-boards in the system.3.PROTOTYPE SYSTEMFigure2shows the structure of the prototype system. It consists of a host,UnitKeyboards,and EnhancedUnits.Figure3:A snapshot of UnitKeyboard Figure3shows a snapshot of a UnitKeyboard.We im-plemented the system using Microsoft Visual C++.NET 2003,and we use a Sony Vaio VGN-S92PS,with the Win-dows XP platform as the host,Allow7UM-100as a wireless module,Roland SC-8820as a MIDI sound generator,and M-audio OXYGEN8as the keyboard.OXYGEN8has25 keys but we cut one in half to make the12-keys.We use a programmable integrated circuit(PIC)microcomputer (PIC16F873)to control the UnitKeyboard and Enhance-dUnit.The software on the PIC is programmed in C lan-guage on Microchip Technology’s MPLAB.3.1HostIn the prototype,we used a PC as the host.The functions of the host are as follows.Management of setting data The host manages the setting data of each Unit.Note that a Unit includes teh UnitKeyboard and the EnhancedUnit.Management of connection statuses The host directly manages the connection statuses of all the Units.Moreover, the host calculates the setting data of each Unit’s configu-ration from the connection data of all the Units.Process of sound generation The host generates a MIDI Note On/Offmessages based on the setting data of the Units and keying data sent from a UnitKeyboard. 3.2UnitKeyboardThe hardware structure of a Unit is shown in Figure4.A UnitKeyboard consists of a PIC,a12-key keyboard connec-tors on all four sides,and a wireless module to communicate to the host.A UnitKeyboard has the following functions.Connector(EnhancedUnit Only )Figure 4:The hardware of UnitEstablishing connection to the host A UnitKeyboard broadcasts a “New Entry”command after it is turned on,and when the UnitKeyboard receives acknowledgement from the host,it sends an “ID”and “connector data”,such as the number of connectors,to the host.Sending keying data A UnitKeyboard sends keying data to the host,when the status of the UnitKeyboard keys is changed.Sending connection data A UnitKeyboard sends a “Con-nection Status”command to the host,when the status of its connectors is changed.3.3EnhancedUnitThe EnhancedUnit has two models:a simple model that only controls the diapason of a UnitKeyboard and a high-end model that is equipped with sensors,actuators,and a wireless module to operate settings of the UnitKeyboards.The former is inserted between UnitKeyboards to increase the diapason.It has a simple structure that consists of two connectors and a variable electric resistance.Since the con-nectors of a UnitKeyboard can measure the change of volt-age that works with the number of the variable resistance,UnitKeyboards that interleave with simple EnhancedUnits convert the amount of voltage to changing the diapason.Figure 4shows hardware of the high-end EnhancedUnit.The main differences between the EnhancedUnit and the UnitKeyboard are that the EnhancedUnit does not have a keyboard and has various input/output devices.The high-end EnhancedUnit has the following functions.Connection to the host The enhancedUnit broadcasts a “New Entry”command after the power is turned-on and establishes connections with the host just like a UnitKey-board.Sending connection data The EnhancedUnit monitors the status of its own connectors,and it sends a “Connection Status”command to the host when it detects a change of connection just like the UnitKeyboard.Sending of input data from input devices The En-hancedUnit collects data from input devices,and informs the host of this according to the requirements of the host.Control of output devices The EnhancedUnit controls output devices according to commands sent from the host.3.3.1Input/OutputdevicesWe developed a high-end EnhancedUnit prototype equipped with various kinds of input/output devices.Distance sensor Users can control diapasons of a UnitKey-A number of octave: [*]Figure 5:An EnhancedUnit with electric motor board neighboring an EnhancedUnit equipped with distance sensors.For example,the longer the distance between the UnitKeyboard and the EnhancedUnit,the higher the dia-pason of the UnitKeyboarda.Acceleration sensor Users control the tone of UnitKey-boards with the users’posture that is calculated and de-tected from data of the acceleration sensor.Motor Users can move UnitKeyboards automatically by using an EnhancedUnit equipped with motors attached to a propeller and wheels.For example,if musicians use an EnhancedUnit equipped with a motor and wheels,they can add/subtract a diapason by automatically moving a UnitKeyboard as shown in Figure 5.4.CONSIDERATIONSWe discuss the usability of proposed UnitKeyboard from the reviews by 5amateur pianists and 5professional pianists that actually used the UnitKeyboard.We have demon-strated UnitKeyboard in various kinds of events such as Kobe Luminarie Live Stage on December 8th and 9th,2007.It began in 1995and commemorates the Great Hanshin earthquake of that year about 4million participants at-tended last year.4.1Performance EvaluationVisibility We checked the function that automatically assigns the settings of the UnitKeyboard assuming the re-lationship among all the UnitKeyboards were working well.The host settled conflicting settings among the UnitKey-boards.Moreover,the proposed automatic-assignment al-gorithm was intuitive from participants’reviews.Because he participants could see the connection rela-tionships between the UnitKeyboards,it was easy to rec-ognize the relative diapason of each UnitKeyboard.How-ever,it was difficult to recognize the absolute diapason of each UnitKeyboard.In present implementation,partici-pants could not see the BaseUnit and the diapason of the BaseUnit.Therefore,participants had to press the keys of each UnitKeyboard to check the diapason.For future work,we plan to develop an EnhancedUnit with LEDs and a display for checking the settings of the UnitKeyboard.Wireless vs.Wired connections We adopted a wireless connection for communication between the host and the Units.In the wireless connection,although there was some de-lay between the keying to the output sound.The delay was not so noticeable in the music.However,the more UnitKey-boards were used,the higher the possibility was for packet loss and longer delays.On the other hand,the delay produced using wired con-nection was less than that of the wireless connection.Because both methods have advantages and disadvan-Figure6:Snapshots of collaborative performancetages,we will conduct a more detailed evaluation for eachmethod in future work.One-octave UnitKeyboard In this study,a UnitKey-board had only one octave from C to B.This diapason iseffective in music of only C major or C minor.We can solvethis problem by using the Mobile Clavier[7],which enablesa smooth change in diapason.4.2New performanceWe conducted performance with UnitKeyboards and En-hancedUnits.As shown in Figure6,when there was a lack of diapasonduring the performance,a musician solved it by borrow-ing a UnitKeyboard from another performer.Moreover,asshown in Figure5,a keyboard moving automatically to acommanded location was visually interesting.These perfor-mances are not only musically entertaining but also visuallyattractive.4.3RELATED WORKThere has been a large amount of research whose maingoal was improving a function by combining simple func-tional units.For example,users can control an object in agame by combining LEGO blocks[1],control website brows-ing by combining triangle boards[2],or control program-ming with combined blocks[3].Moreover,there are blockinterface equipped input/output devices[4].These targetswere not musical like our study.On the other hand,a system whose for music compositionfunctions by combining blocks assigned for mood music[5].Moreover,there are systems,DoublePad/Bass[6]and Mo-bile Clavier[7],which were developed to improve the porta-bility of acoustic instruments.DoublePad/Bass is base in-struments using two PDAs.Musicians who play an electricbass should be able to easily play it.Mobile Clavier en-ables the smooth change of diapason by allowing additionalblack keys to be inserted.These instruments were not de-signed with concept of combining units or for various kindsof keyboard/string instruments5.CONCLUSIONSWe proposed the UnitKeyboard,which can apply vari-ous kinds of keyboard instruments by connecting one-octavekeyboards together.Moreover,the UnitKeyboard has var-ious functions such as the automatic settings consideringthe relationship among multiple UnitKeyboards,intuitivecontrols and new performance using an EnhancedUnit.We intend to evaluate the hardware and the usability ofthe system in the future.6.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis research was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid forScientific Research(A)(17200006)from the Japanese Min-istry of Education,Culture,Sports,Science and Technol-ogy,a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the JSPSResearch Fellowship,and by the Hayao Nakayama Founda-tion for Science&Technology and 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