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Explaining unintended developments withcultural selection theoryDraft - please do not cite without permissionAgner FogABSTRACTCultural selection theory has been rejected by many social scientists. The objections against this theory are listed and commented. Some of the objections can be dismissed as expressions of preference for one perspective over another. Different perspectives lead scientists to make different kinds of discoveries, but all perspectives are valid, and no theory or perspective can cover all aspects of social phenomena.The limitations of cultural selection theory are discussed and some improvements are proposed. It is concluded that cultural selection theory can explain certain phenomena that other theories cannot explain, especially phenomena that are unplanned or unintended.INTRODUCTIONThe idea that culture can evolve by selection is almost as old as Darwin's theory of natural selection. Many different versions of cultural selection theory have been proposed throughout the years, and many versions of this theory have been criticized, and with good reason, for being inadequate (Fog 1999).In most areas of science, a discovered inadequacy of a theory typically leads to modification or refinement of the theory. Only when another theory explains observed data better, is the inadequate theory rejected (Lakatos 1974). The history of the social sciences is different, however. Social systems are so complex that every rule has exceptions. The consequence of this is that every testable theory can easily be falsified by examples that it fails to cover. All too often, testable theories of social phenomena have been rejected rather than refined or replaced with an equally testable theory. This has led to a shortage of testable theories and models with predictive power in the social sciences. One such theory, which many social scientists have rejected, is the theory of cultural selection. I will therefore discuss the criticism that has been raised against this theory and propose ways of meeting the criticism. The most sophisticated criticism has been voiced recently by Schatzki (2001). His article therefore deserves special attention.Selection theory, in its most general form, says that a selection process can take place when the following three elements are present:• there is a class of entities which can be replicated or extended in time or space• there is variation among these entities• different variants have differing properties which causes them to be replicated or extended differentiallyThe most popular version of cultural selection theory is memetics. It regards instructions, rules, ideas or practices as replicating entities. These instructions, or memes, are transferred differentially from person to person in an evolutionary process (). However, not all versions of cultural selection theory require the replication of information units, as later examples will show.In the following paragraphs, I will discuss each of the objections against cultural selection theory.OBJECTION 1: GENERAL OBJECTIONS AGAINST CAUSAL MODELSThere is a long-standing debate among social scientists about whether a nomothetic science and causal models of social phenomena are possible and relevant. There is no reason to repeat this debate here, as adequate arguments for the possibility and relevance of such ascience have been presented elsewhere (Martin and McIntyre 1994; McIntyre 1996; Blute 1997).OBJECTION 2: CULTURE IS DIFFERENT FROM BIOLOGY Many critics of cultural selection theory have focused on disanalogies between biological and cultural processes. Based on simplified accounts, these critics believe that a close analogy with biology is necessary for evolutionary processes to work (Henrich, Boyd & Richerson: Forthcoming). Some of the most important disanalogies between the two processes are (Fog 1999):• The selection of genetic traits is tied to the birth and death of individuals, while cultural traits can change many times through the lifetime of an individual underthe influence of many different selection mechanisms.• Genetic traits can be inherited only from the two biological parents, while cultural traits can be transmitted from any person to any other person.• Genetic mutations are blind, while cultural innovations may be the product of rational planning and goal-directed problem solving.• A new gene usually replaces an old one, while cultural knowledge may be cumulative, so that old ideas are still remembered after new ideas have beenintroduced.• Culture does not have a universal information unit analogous to the gene, but is capable of storing many different types of information.Many models of cultural evolution have rightly been criticized for ignoring some of these differences (Hallpike 1985). The analogy between biological and cultural evolution is useful as a source of inspiration and as a metaphor in the study of cultural evolution, but no conclusion should be drawn on the basis of this analogy without taking the fundamental differences between the two processes into account.OBJECTION 3: CULTURAL SELECTION CAN BE REDUCED TO SITUATEDAGENCYSome theories explain cultural selection events as the consequence of intentional human action in a social environment that restricts the number of possible actions. Schatzki (2001) argues that this account makes cultural selection theory superfluous as it can be reduced to a theory of situated human agency.The important difference between selectionism and theories of situated agency, which the critics ignore, is a difference in perspective. Selectionism seeks explanation in the properties of the entity being selected, while a theory of agency focuses on the properties of the person choosing the same entity.It is worth delving more into the question of perspective, as this has been the basis of many scientific debates. Different perspectives make scientists focus on different aspects of a phenomenon. This makes them ask different kinds of questions and make different kinds of discoveries. Gaziano and Gaziano (1999) present an elegant example of this. By applying four different perspectives, they are able to construct four different contributions to the understanding of the knowledge gap between social classes. These four perspectives are obtained by combining two dichotomous dimensions: whether phenomena are represented as naturally occurring or as voluntary human constructions; and whether phenomena are analyzed at the individual level or the collective level. All perspectives are valid; they just represent different foci of attention. Unfortunately, researchers sometimes commit to a certain perspective and corresponding set of methods as the only true one (Gaziano and Gaziano 1999). Many unproductive scientific debates can be translated to the argument that perspective A fails to cover aspect b, while ignoring the counter-argument that perspective B fails to cover aspect a.The situated-agency perspective is anthropocentric, while the selectionist perspective is non-anthropocentric. To explain this difference, I will present the following example. Assume that we ask two different persons why a particular song has become popular. The first person answers, "Because people like the melody", and the second person answers, "Because it has acatchy tune". Both answers are perfectly acceptable, and in effect they are saying the same thing. The first answer represents the anthropocentric view, saying that people's tastes are matching the melody, while the second answer represents the non-anthropocentric view, saying that the melody is matching people's taste. Swapping subject and object here does not affect the truth of the statement, only the focus of attention.This is the key to understanding cultural selection theory. By moving the focus of attention away from the supposedly rationally choosing person to the attributes of the thing being chosen, we make it easier to understand unintended consequences of the choice being made (Marsden 1998). The words of the song may contain a political message and this message may have less influence than the tune on people's decision to sing the song. Any political consequence of people listening to the song is thus unintended by the singer; and this unintended consequence is most easily explained by reference to the catchy tune.Memes that spread without benefiting the people who hold them, are often compared with viruses. This metaphor helps understand the parasitic or "selfish" nature of the meme's tendency to spread (Dawkins 1993; Brodie 1996).A third possible focus of attention is the environment and social structure, which may determine the number of possible choices a person can make, or make certain choices easier or more difficult to make. Focusing on such structural constraints also represents a non-anthropocentric view that can have importance in cultural selection models.There is a further limitation of the anthropocentric perspective that needs to be mentioned. By focusing on the person who holds and propagates a particular idea, we fail to compare the propagating idea with potentially competing variants that were propagated less, or not at all. This is a reductionist fallacy. Just like the evolution of a biological species is an emergent phenomenon, which cannot be explained by looking only at individual events of birth and death, the evolution of a belief, or set of beliefs, may also be an emergent phenomenon, which cannot be explained by looking at individual believers. This is further explained in the following paragraph.OBJECTION 4: CULTURAL SELECTION CAN BE REDUCED TO RATIONALCHOICEMost selection events involve people making conscious choices. According to Schatzki, this affirms a convergence between selectionist and rational-choice approaches to human activity, because the adaptive advantages of practices are identical to the benefits they bring people in particular environmental circumstances (Schatzki 2001). This claim ignores the most important discovery in memetics: the selfish meme (Dawkins 1976, 1993). The adaptive fitness of a meme is not necessarily identical to the adaptive fitness of the person holding the meme. What is good for the reproductive fitness of a computer virus is certainly not good for the computer or its owner. Likewise, a chain letter containing false claims that compel people to copy it, can spread without benefiting anybody (Goodenough and Dawkins 1994).Memetics has really proved its power to explain irrational behavior in its analysis of religious cults and sects. A sect is seen as a complex of memes that spreads as a whole package. The success of the sect depends on the effective cooperation of these memes. One meme serves as an allure to make the sect look attractive to new potential converts. Other memes control practices that effectively brainwash new members with the whole meme complex. There are also memes that serve as defense against rivaling beliefs. There are memes that tell the members to proselytize and introduce new members. There are memes to punish defectors. And there are memes, which make the members devote all their time and money to the benefit of the sect. None of these memes would survive alone, but when propagating as a meme complex, the sect can be quite successful (Dawkins 1993, Lynch 1996, Brodie 1996).The crucial point is that such a meme complex can evolve into an optimized reproduction machine without any of the sect members understanding why. Theories based on rational human agency cannot explain the efficiency of the abovementioned mechanisms without assuming that sects are skillfully constructed by crooked charlatans. While this may be true of some sects, it certainly does not apply to them all. Nobody starting a new sect will be able to invent such a successful meme complex without copying memes from existingsects - memes that have evolved and proven their fitness through a long history of development.This example clearly shows the power of selection theory to explain unintended developments. No other known scientific theory can explain the origin of a well-functioning machinery like a sect if it is not the result of intelligent planning.OBJECTION 5: THE THEORY CONFUSES CAUSE AND EFFECT By defining selection as whatever causes replication to be differential, it is no longer a distinct explanation but simply a label for whatever does the explaining, Schatzki argues (2001). A similar criticism has been applied to the theory of biological evolution. The famous expression "the survival of the fittest", which was coined by Herbert Spencer, involves the same problem. When fitness is defined as the ability to survive, then "the survival of the fittest" becomes "the survival of the survivor", which of course is a tautology (Peters 1976).This confusion of cause and effect is not a weakness of the selection theory itself, only of certain wordings of the theory. If selection is used as a name for the cause, then we need another word for the effect, for example evolution. If selection is used as a name for the effect, then we need another word for the cause, as in the expression "selection by consequences". To use the word selection for both is sloppy language, I must admit.OBJECTION 6: EXACT REPLICATION IS NOT POSSIBLE When an idea is transferred from one person to another, it is not actually copied, but translated, interpreted, inferred or reconstructed in a possibly different version. Hence, the transfer of memes is not replication, but resemblance, Schatzki argues (2001). Furthermore, it has been shown that information may be transformed and altered while stored in memory under the influence of other memory traces (Heyes and Plotkin 1989).However, the selection theory not only allows variation, it requires variation for an evolutionary process to take place. Henrich and Boyd (2002) have shown mathematically that even very incomplete, inexact, and biased transmission of information is sufficient for an evolutionary process to take place under relevant conditions. For the sake of conceptual precision, we should therefore define replication, or whatever we want to call it, as a process which makes a new entity that is approximately equivalent to the old one, but not necessarily identical.OBJECTION 7: DISTINCTION BETWEEN REPLICATOR AND INTERACTOR ISUNCLEARI agree with Schatzki on this point. The distinction between replicator and interactor is constructed as an analogy to the distinction between genotype and phenotype in biological evolution (Hull 1988). Consider the example of a stone axe. The axe cannot reproduce itself. What is reproduced is the recipe for how to make a stone axe. So the replicator is not the axe but the recipe. But what is the interactor? An interactor is defined as "an entity that interacts as a coherent whole with its environment in such a way that this interaction causes replication to be differential." The interactor does not have to be the producer or the product of the replicator. According to this definition, we can have several different interactors in our example: the axe, the person who uses axes and experiences which variant works best, the person who produces axes, and the act of communication between these two. If we further assume that one type of axe works best on one sort of tree, while another type of axe works best on another sort of tree, then the tree also becomes an interactor. Even this simple example leaves the definition of interactor indeterminate.Clearly, there is room for a lot of elaboration on these concepts. We may regard the different interactors as different perspectives that might lead to different insights. Or we may regard this exercise as unimportant if we are satisfied with the simple conclusion that cultural evolution has led to improvements in axe technology.OBJECTION 8: SOCIAL PRACTICES ARE NOT REPLICATED, BUT CONTINUEDOR EXTENDEDIf a social structure or practice evolves, when does the old copy end and a new replicated version begin? A social structure, which is continued or extended, cannot be divided into distinct, countable instances. Thus, the memetic theory does not apply.I agree with Schatzki on this point, which I have also argued elsewhere (Fog 1999). Memetic theory requires distinct instances of information units to be replicated; hence memetic theory does not apply very well to the evolution of social structures and practices. But general selection theory, as defined above, does not require distinct instances. It suffices that such structures are extended differentially in time or space.Economic competition between companies is a good example of this. If one company increases its market share because of some competitive advantage, then this company grows, but it is still the same company, not a new copy. Thus, the theories of competition in a free market economy may, in principle, be subsumed under the general selection theory, but not under memetics. The same applies to the continuation and evolution of other social and political organizations and structures.Changes in social structures often involve feedback mechanisms. For example, we often see that big companies have a competitive advantage over small companies. This advantage allows the big company to grow bigger, which increases its advantage further and allows it to grow still bigger. Such feedback effects are quite common, not only in economic systems, but also in other social and political systems. These effects are not covered very well in the general selection theory, as defined here. In order to analyze the selecting consequences of feedback effects in detail, we may need assistance from other, more mathematically oriented, disciplines.OBJECTION 9: THE ACTION OF MEMES REQUIRES THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE THAT THE MEMES ARE SUPPOSED TO EXPLAIN The same paradox pertains to genetics. There are genes coding for the organic structure that interpret genes. And there are genes determining when to enact genes. We may wonder how these arose in the first place, but we have no problem explaining why they persist.In sociocultural evolution, we have instructions, rules for interpreting instructions and for deciding when to use them, as well as the whole complex of social structure in which these rules work. These are all interacting and subject to interdependent selection processes. Schatzki (2001) makes a similar conclusion, though with a slightly different terminology.This circularity problem is smaller in memetics than in genetics, though, because the ultimate impulse to interpret instructions is assumed to be innate. Several scientists have studied the genetic basis of culture (Rindos 1986).OBJECTION 10: THE CULTURAL CANNOT BE SEPARATED FROM THESOCIALSchatzki argues, that the replication and selection of memes is a social process, which takes place in the context of a social practice and arrangement (2001). The replication of memes is not possible without the social practice, of which they form a part, also being replicated. Hence the social practices and arrangements are the prime, though not exclusive, phenomena that reproduce and persist in sociocultural evolution, according to Schatzki.I think it is unwise to make general statements about whether the memes or the social structure change most or persist longest. This is a matter to be determined on a case-by-case basis. Focusing on the memes or on the social structure and practice are two different perspectives which are equally valid. The memetic perspective may be the most fruitful one in situations where memes change a lot while the social structure is almost unchanged. On the other hand, the focus on the evolution of social structures and practices may be the most fruitful perspective if the most important changes take place at this level. In the latter case, the memetic perspective may appear reductionist and less productive.Furthermore, there may be situations where significant events take place at both levels, or in the interaction between the two, so that our model has to consider the coevolution of memes and structures. However, a holistic model that is intended to cover every perspectivemay soon become unmanageable. It is therefore acceptable, and perhaps also necessary, to limit the focus of attention to those areas where the most interesting phenomena happen.The term cultural selection is intended to emphasize cultural inheritance or transmission, as opposed to the genetic inheritance in biological evolution. To use terms like social evolution, or sociocultural evolution, as Schatzki proposes, is of course quite valid if one wants to emphasize the social perspective.OBJECTION 11: PEOPLE CAN INTERPRET RULES AND CHOOSE WHICHRULES TO FOLLOWI agree with this point. Elsewhere, I have argued that memetics need to make a distinction between knowing a meme, endorsing a meme, and practicing a meme (Fog 1999). Schatzki argues that actions are organized into practices by a complex of memes: (1) a pool of understandings, (2) an array of rules, and (3) what he calls teleoaffective structure, defined as a spectrum of normativized and hierarchically ordered ends, projects, and tasks, to varying extents allied with normativized emotions and feelings (Schatzki 2001, 2002). Clearly, memetics and selection theory can only account for some aspects of social behavior and practices, namely those aspects that are transmitted from person to person. Other aspects, such as individual decisions and motives, need to be covered by psychology and other disciplines. OBJECTION 12: THE IDEA OF COMPETITION PROJECTS CAPITALISM ONTONATUREThis objection appears to be ideological, rather than scientific. The fact that competition in a free market economy is a selection process does not invalidate the theory of selection, regardless of whether we consider this competition fair or unfair. Some versions of selection theory, commonly known as social Darwinism, have been used ideologically for justifying racist, imperialist, and colonialist ideologies. I assume that it is superfluous here to argue against the validity of such a justification. As already explained, selection theory can account for both desired and undesired outcomes. The theory may be useful for determining what the result of an economic, social, or other competition is. Whether this result is desired or not, must be left to a political discussion.Incidentally, I have to correct the misunderstanding that evolution necessarily involves competition. Schatzki assumes that selection always involves competition for a limited resource (2001). This may or may not be the case. The idea that the Earth is round has replaced the idea that the Earth is flat, because we can only accept one idea about the shape of the Earth. But the discovery of a new star or a new biological species does not have to replace any existing knowledge. Human knowledge can be cumulative, and there appears to be no limit to the amount of information we can store, as we are using technical means of information storage when the memory does not suffice. The growth of knowledge has often been seen as an evolutionary process (Hull 1988).OBJECTION 13: IRRATIONAL BELIEFS WILL VANISH BECAUSE HUMANSPREFER TRUTH AND LOGICCritics often argue that human action is guided by rational decisions quite unlike the blind trial-and-error of biological evolution. Therefore, they argue, we do not need a Darwinian model to describe cultural change. However, I will maintain that humans cannot predict all consequences of their decisions. And even if they could, they might still make egoistic choices that are detrimental to their society. Therefore, we need a theory to describe the emergent societal consequences of many people's decisions.Percival (1994) challenges the claim that humans are likely to spread irrational beliefs. He argues that humans have a strong innate preference for truth and logic and that this will guide their choice of beliefs. However, this presupposes that false beliefs can easily be disproved, and this is not always the case. True and false beliefs can spread equally fast when no proof or disproof is easily available and believers of true and false statements are equally successful. Unless dominating selective forces discriminate between true and false beliefs, cultural selection cannot tell whether a belief is true or false.History shows that even severe logical inconsistencies in a set of beliefs can be covered up by auxiliary hypotheses (Lakatos 1974) or by the belief that blind faith is a virtue (Dawkins 1993, Brodie 1996). Percival argues that a set of beliefs containing logical inconsistencies will eventually collapse under the weight of a growing number of such auxiliary hypotheses, and that the "blind faith is a virtue" meme makes the meme complex vulnerable to mutation. What Percival ignores, however, is that there may be other selective forces at work countering these effects. An irrational belief system will continue to propagate as long as the sum of selective forces supporting it exceeds the sum of selective forces countering it. A religious sect may have effective brain washing practices that counter the effect of logical thinking or the irrational belief may confer psychological rewards upon the believer.A further mechanism contributing to the spread of irrational beliefs has been explored by Barrett and Nyhof (2001). The human memory is not neutral. Notions that violate the laws of nature are remembered more effectively than more mundane notions. This means that stories containing non-natural and bizarre elements may be remembered and transmitted preferentially. Barrett and Nyhof propose that the high prevalence of supernatural events in folk mythology may be explained in part by this effect.OBJECTION 14: I DON'T BELIEVE THAT DEAD THINGS CAN BE SELFISH Various versions of this objection are often heard, though seldom seen in print. Seeing a meme as a selfish creature or a virus is of course only a metaphor, but a quite instructive one.One example of a selfish meme is the false belief that transfer tattoos given to children sometimes contain narcotic drugs. Dave Gross has studied how this rumor has circulated through many years and spread to several countries. Other scientific disciplines cannot easily explain the origin of such a rumor, which benefits nobody, without assuming malicious intent. But Gross documents that this rumor has mutated and evolved through many years, probably without any deliberate deception (Gross n.d.).The origin and spreading of such a rumor, which makes people worry and take unnecessary precautions, and which benefits nobody, can best be understood by using the evolution of a virus or parasite as a metaphor.CONCLUSIONCultural selection theory applies a perspective that is different from theories of social action in the sense that it focuses on the properties of the ideas and things that humans choose, rather than the characteristics of the persons choosing. Different perspectives make scientists focus on different aspects of a phenomenon, ask different types of questions, and consequently make different kinds of discoveries. The kind of discoveries that are made from one perspective are unlikely to be made by scientists using a different perspective, not because they do not make sense, but because the focus of attention is elsewhere. Since all perspectives are valid, the different perspectives should be regarded as supplementing each other, not as competing against each other. No perspective, theory or paradigm can claim universal generality. Every social science theory has limitations in the sense that there are phenomena which it doesn't cover or cannot explain. The remedy against such limitations is not to reject the theory, but to refine it or supplement it with other theories. Only when another theory can explain the same observations better, should a theory be rejected (Lakatos 1974).Some of the objections that have been raised against cultural selection theory can be dismissed as merely expressing preference for one perspective over another. Other objections can be dismissed for misunderstanding the theory or for referring to obsolete versions of the theory. The remaining objections refer to limitations of the theory. These limitations should be remedied, when necessary, by refining the theory or by supplementing it with other theories. Some of the possible refinements have been mentioned here.Another important aspect that distinguishes cultural selection theory from other social science theories is that it can account for the emergent consequences of a long series of decisions. This makes it possible to explain the origin of functional mechanisms that are not the consequence of intentional decisions and intelligent planning.。

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在图书馆需要的规则与感受英语作文英文回答：Rules and Etiquette in the Library.The library is a place where people come to read, study, and research. In order to create a productive and enjoyable environment for everyone, it is important to follow certain rules and etiquette guidelines.General Rules.Be quiet. The library is a quiet place. Avoid talking loudly, laughing, or making other noises that could disturb others.Be respectful of others. This means being courteous, considerate, and tolerant of others. Do not hog the computers or other resources. Share the space and equipment fairly.Keep the library clean. Put your trash in the trash cans and return books to their proper places. Do not leave food or drinks on the tables.Computer Use.Follow the library's computer policies. This includes logging on with your library card, using the computers for appropriate purposes, and respecting the time limits.Do not download or install software without permission. This can compromise the security of the library's computers.Be mindful of your volume. If you are listening to music or watching videos, use headphones so as not todisturb others.Research.Ask for help if you need it. Staff members areavailable to assist you with your research.Respect the library's collection. Do not damage or mark books, and return them to their proper places when you are finished.Cite your sources correctly. This includes giving credit to the authors whose work you use in your own research.Etiquette Guidelines.Be mindful of your body language. Avoid sprawling out on the furniture or taking up too much space.Be respectful of other people's belongings. Do not touch or move someone else's things without their permission.Chew gum or eat quietly. Avoid making loud or distracting noises while eating or chewing gum.Dress appropriately. The library is a public space, soit is important to dress respectfully.By following these rules and etiquette guidelines, you can help to create a welcoming and productive environment for everyone in the library.中文回答：图书馆里的规则和礼仪。

用英语介绍自己的家规和校规七下作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1My Family and School RulesIntroduction:Everyone has rules in their family and school that they need to follow. These rules help us to have a harmonious and organized life. In this essay, I will introduce the rules in my family and school.Family Rules:1. Respect: In my family, respect is the most important rule. We always respect each other's opinions, feelings, and personal space. We believe that mutual respect is the key to a healthy and happy family.2. Communication: We have an open and honest communication in our family. We share our thoughts, problems, and achievements with each other. We believe that communication helps to strengthen our bond as a family.3. Responsibility: Each member of our family has their own responsibilities. We help each other with household chores, study together, and take care of our pets. By fulfilling our responsibilities, we learn the value of hard work and cooperation.4. Curfew: We have a set curfew time in our family. It helps us to stay disciplined and safe. We always inform our parents if we need to stay out late for any reason.5. Homework: We have a rule in our family that we must finish our homework before dinner. This rule helps us to prioritize our studies and manage our time effectively.School Rules:1. Respect: Respect is also a fundamental rule in our school. We are taught to respect our teachers, classmates, and school property. We believe that respect creates a positive learning environment.2. Punctuality: Being on time is crucial in our school. We must arrive on time for classes, exams, and school events. Punctuality shows our commitment to our education and respect for others' time.3. Uniform: We have a strict uniform policy in our school. We must wear our school uniform neatly and appropriately. Uniformity promotes equality and discipline among students.4. No Bullying: Bullying is strictly prohibited in our school. We are encouraged to treat each other with kindness and empathy. We report any incidents of bullying to our teachers to ensure a safe and supportive school environment.5. No Cheating: Cheating is a serious offense in our school. We are taught the importance of academic integrity and honesty. We must complete our assignments and exams independently to demonstrate our knowledge and skills.Conclusion:Rules are essential in our family and school to maintain order, respect, and discipline. By following these rules, we learn valuable lessons about responsibility, cooperation, and integrity. My family and school rules shape me into a responsible and respectful individual.篇2Introduction to My Family Rules and School RulesIn my family, we have a set of rules that we all abide by to ensure a harmonious and respectful living environment. These rules are meant to promote mutual respect, responsibility, and cooperation among family members. Here are some of the key family rules that we follow:1. Communication is key: We believe in open and honest communication in our family. We encourage everyone to express their thoughts and feelings in a respectful manner.2. Respect for others: We treat each other with kindness and respect. We do not use hurtful words or engage in physical violence.3. Responsibility: Each family member has their own responsibilities, such as chores and homework. We all do our part to contribute to the household and help each other when needed.4. Curfew: We have a set curfew for everyone in the family to ensure their safety and well-being. This rule helps us to stay disciplined and maintain healthy habits.5. Privacy: We respect each other's privacy and personal space. We do not invade each other's privacy without permission.Similarly, at my school, we have a set of rules and guidelines that we must follow to maintain a safe and productive learning environment. These rules are put in place to ensure thewell-being of all students and promote a positive school culture. Here are some of the key school rules that we follow:1. Respect for teachers and classmates: We are expected to treat our teachers and classmates with respect and courtesy. We listen attentively in class and follow instructions given by teachers.2. Punctuality: We are expected to arrive at school on time and attend all classes regularly. Punctuality is important to ensure that we do not miss any important lessons or exams.3. Uniform: We are required to wear the school uniform neatly and appropriately. This rule promotes a sense of unity and equality among students.4. No bullying: Bullying of any form is not tolerated in our school. We are encouraged to report any incidents of bullying to teachers or school authorities.5. No cheating: We are expected to complete all assignments and exams honestly and independently. Cheating is a serious offense and can result in disciplinary action.By following these family and school rules, we are able to maintain a positive and respectful environment where everyone feels safe, valued, and supported. These rules help us to build strong relationships with our family members and classmates and foster a sense of responsibility and discipline in our daily lives.篇3Introduction: In this essay, I will introduce the rules in my family and at my school.My Family Rules:1. Respect: In my family, we believe in treating each other with respect. We try to communicate openly and honestly, and we always listen to each other's opinions and ideas.2. Responsibility: Each member of my family has their own responsibilities, such as completing household chores, doing well in school, and respecting the property of others.3. Time management: We value time management in our family. We have set schedules for meals, homework, and family activities to ensure that everyone can balance their responsibilities effectively.4. Communication: Communication is key in my family. We have family meetings regularly to discuss any issues or concerns and to keep everyone informed about important events or changes in the family.5. Privacy: We respect each other's privacy in my family. We understand the importance of personal space and boundaries, and we try to give each other the privacy they need.6. Gratitude: We practice gratitude in my family by expressing our appreciation for each other and for the things we have. We believe that gratitude fosters a positive and harmonious family environment.7. Forgiveness: In my family, we believe in forgiveness and second chances. We understand that everyone makes mistakes, and we try to forgive each other and move forward with a positive attitude.My School Rules:1. Respect: At my school, we are expected to treat everyone with respect, including teachers, classmates, and school staff. We are encouraged to listen attentively, follow instructions, and cooperate with others.2. Punctuality: Punctuality is important at my school. We are expected to arrive on time for classes, meetings, and school events to demonstrate our respect for others' time and to maintain a smooth schedule.3. Academic integrity: My school values academic integrity and expects students to submit their own work, cite sources properly, and avoid plagiarism. Cheating and dishonesty are not tolerated.4. Uniform: We have a strict uniform policy at my school. Students are required to wear the designated uniform neatly and appropriately to promote a sense of unity and equality among the students.5. Safety: Safety is a top priority at my school. We have rules and procedures in place to ensure the safety of all students and staff, such as fire drills, emergency protocols, and health guidelines.6. Environmental awareness: My school promotes environmental awareness by encouraging recycling, reducing waste, and conserving resources. We are expected to participate in environmental initiatives and maintain a clean and sustainable school environment.7. Community service: At my school, we are encouraged to give back to the community through volunteering and community service projects. We learn the importance of helping others and making a positive impact on society.Conclusion: In conclusion, the rules in my family and at my school play a crucial role in shaping my character, values, and behavior. By following these rules, I can cultivate a sense of respect, responsibility, communication, and integrity in both my personal and academic life.。

以下是Materials Letters的作者指南，我觉得它已经非常简明的说清楚整个投稿过程需要注意的东西2009年影响因子：1.94Guide for Authors Materials LettersMaterials Letters is dedicated to publishing novel, cutting edge reports of broad interest to the materials community. The journal provides a forum for materials scientists and engineers, physicists, and chemists to rapidly communicate on the most important topics in the field in materials. We are primarily interested in those contributions which bring new insights, and papers will be selected on the basis of the importance of the new knowledge they provide.Contributions include a variety of topics such as:• Materials- Metals and alloys, amorphous solids, ceramics, composites, nanocrystals, polymers, semiconductors.• Applications - Structural, opto-electronic, magnetic, medical, MEMS, sensors, smart.• Characterization- Analytical, microscopy, scanning probes, nanoscopic, optical, electrical, acoustic, spectroscopic, diffraction.• Novel Materials- Micro and nanostructures (nanowires, nanotubes, nanoparticles), nanocomposites, thin films, superlattices, quantum dots.• Processing - Thin film processing, sol-gel processing, mechanical processing, assembly, and nanocrystalline processing leading to unique materials.• Properties - Mechanical, magnetic, optical, electrical, ferroelectric, thermal, interfacial, transport, thermodynamic.• Synthesis- Quenching, solid state, solidification, solution synthesis, vapor deposition, and high pressure, explosive processes leading to unique materials. The following topics are inappropriate for publication:Building materials - aggregate, asphalt, cement, concrete, plasterCatalytic materialsCorrosion and oxidation phenomena and protectionLiquid crystalsMetallurgical ProcessesNatural raw materials – clays, minerals, rocksOxide glasses and glass ceramicsRecycled materialsRefractoriesSingle crystal growthTheoryWearTypes of Contribution:Letters are intended as brief reports of significant, original and timely research results on the science, applications and processing of materials which warrant rapid publication. In considering a manuscript for publication, particular attention will be given to the originality of the research, the desirability of speedy publication, the clarity of the presentation and the validity of the conclusions. There is a strict four-page limit to printed articles. Manuscripts must not exceed 2000 words plus three figures and one table. The maximum number of figures is strictly limited to five. If the maximum of 5 figures is used, then the total number of words must be reduced to 1600. If more than 5 figures are used, the manuscript will be rejected. The manuscript submitted for review should not exceed 8 pages (including title, abstract, references, figures, tables and figure captions).Contact Details:Authors should submit their article via the online submission system. Authors will be asked to choose the Editor whose subject area is most closely aligned to the subject of their article. Each Editor's specialties are given below. To expedite the review process, authors will also be prompted to nominate 3 potential referees, who are not at the same institute, to serve as potential referees. Contact details are helpful.Principal EditorsProf. J. Hojo - Nano-composites, Composites, Sol-gel preparationProf. T.G. Nieh - Metallic Alloys, Ceramics, Composites, High Temperature Materials, Mechanical Behavior, Material ProcessingProf. L.S. Shvindlerman - Nano-Crystalline Metals, Thermodynamics, Kinetics, Interfaces and Surfaces.Prof. A.F.W. Willoughby - Semiconductor/Electronic Materials, PolymersOnline Submission:Authors must submit their articles using the secure online submission system at .To facilitate rapid publication, it is essential to precisely follow these instructions. Failure to do so can result in a delay or rejection of the manuscript for publication. To ensure a timely review you will be required to answer the following questions before your paper will be considered for review.• Has your paper, or par t of your paper, been published before, or is it currently submitted for review to another journal?Yes / No(If yes, then do not submit your paper to Materials Letters.)• Is the total number of words less than 2000?Yes / No(If greater than 2000, please reduce the number of words.)• Is the number of figures greater than 5?Yes / No(If yes, then the paper will automatically be rejected.)• Are the x-ray diffraction patterns indexed?Yes / No(see 4.10) (If your x-ray patterns are not indexed, the paper will be rejected for publication.) [?奇怪]• Do the micrographs have professional quality scale markers?Yes / No(Please replace the black bar on SEM & TEM micrographs with a professional quality scale marker. See 4.9)Ethics in PublishingFor information on Ethics in Publishing and Ethical guidelines for journal publication see and .Policy and ethicsThe work described in your article must have been carried out in accordance with The Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki) for experiments involving humans; EC Directive 86/609/EEC for animal experiments; Uniform Requirements for manuscripts submitted to Biomedical journals. This must be stated at an appropriate point in the article.Conflict of interestAll authors are requested to disclose any actual or potential conflict of interest including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations within three years of beginning the submitted work that could inappropriately influence, or be perceived to influence, their work. See also . 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When preparing tables, if you are using a table grid, use only one grid for each individual table and not a grid for each row. If no grid is used, use tabs, not spaces, to align columns. The electronic text should be prepared in a way very similar to that of conventional manuscripts (see also the Guide to Publishing with Elsevier: ). Do not import the figures into the text , instead, indicate their approximate locations directly in the electronic text and on the manuscript. See also the section on Electronic illustrations.To avoid unnecessary errors you are strongly advised to use the "spell-check" and "grammar-check" functions of your wordprocessor.Follow this order when submitting manuscripts: Title, Authors, Affiliations, Abstract, Keywords, Main text, Acknowledgements, Appendix, References, Figure Captions and then Tables. For submission via the website you are requested to import low-resolution images into the article at the approximate location you wish them to appear. Thus the PDF which is created for refereeing purposes will contain all necessary information. In addition you will be asked to separately upload high quality images. Collate acknowledgements in a separate section at the end of the article and do not include them on the title page, as a footnote to the title or otherwise.Text LayoutUse double spacing and wide (3 cm) margins. (Avoid full justification, i.e., do not use a constant right-hand margin.) Ensure that each new paragraph is clearly indicated. Present tables, figures and figure legends at the point they will appear in the manuscript. If possible, consult a recent issue of the journal to become familiar with layout and conventions. Number all pages consecutively, use 12 or 10 pt font size and standard fonts.Subdivision - numbered sectionsDivide your article into clearly defined and numbered sections. Subsections should be numbered 1.1 (then 1.1.1, 1.1.2, ...), 1.2, etc. (the abstract is not included in section numbering). Use this numbering also for internal cross-referencing: do not just refer to "the text". Any subsection may be given a brief heading. Each heading should appear on its own separate line. IntroductionState the objectives of the work and provide an adequate background, avoiding a detailed literature survey or a summary of the results.Material and methodsProvide sufficient detail to allow the work to be reproduced. Methods already published should be indicated by a reference: only relevant modifications should be described.Theory/calculationA Theory section should extend, not repeat, the background to the article already dealt with in the Introduction and lay the foundation for further work. In contrast, a Calculation section represents a practical development from a theoretical basis. ResultsResults should be clear and concise.DiscussionThis should explore the significance of the results of the work, not repeat them.A combined Results and Discussion section is often appropriate. Avoid extensive citations and discussion of published literature.ConclusionsThe main conclusions of the study may be presented in a short Conclusions section, which may stand alone or form a subsection of a Discussion or Results and Discussion section.Essential title page information• Title.Concise and informative. Titles are often used in information-retrieval systems. Avoid abbreviations and formulae where possible.• Author names and affiliations.Where the family name may be ambiguous (e.g., a double name), please indicate this clearly. Present the authors' affiliation addresses (where the actual work was done) below the names. Indicate all affiliations with a lower-case superscript letter immediately after the author's name and in front of the appropriate address. Provide the full postal address of each affiliation, including the country name, and, if available, the e-mail address of each author.• Corresponding author.Clearly indicate who will handle correspondence at all stages of refereeing and publication, also post-publication. Ensure that telephone and fax numbers (with country and area code) are provided in addition to the e-mail address and the complete postal address.• Present/permanent address.If an author has moved since the work described in the article was done, or was visiting at the time, a "Present address" (or "Permanent address") may be indicated as a footnote to that author's name. The address at which the author actually did the work must be retained as the main, affiliation address. Superscript Arabic numerals are used for such footnotes.Abstract:A self-contained abstract of 100 to 200 words, outlining in a single paragraph the aims, scope and conclusions of the paper must be supplied. Do not list the analytical equipment (e.g. SEM, XRD, TEM) used unless it is critical to the meaning. The abstract should state briefly the purpose of the research, the principal results and major conclusions. An abstract is often presented separate from the article, so it must be able to stand alone. For this reason, References should be avoided, but if essential, they must be cited in full, without reference to the reference list. Also, non-standard or uncommon abbreviations should be avoided, but if essential they must be defined at their first mention in the abstract itself.KeywordsImmediately after the abstract, provide a maximum of 6 keywords, using American spelling and avoiding general and plural terms and multiple concepts (avoid, for example, "and", "of"). Be sparing with abbreviations: only abbreviations firmly established in the field may be eligible. These keywords will be used for indexing purposes.AcknowledgementsCollate acknowledgements in a separate section at the end of the article before the references and do not, therefore, include them on the title page, as a footnote to the title or otherwise. List here those individuals who provided help during the research (e.g., providing language help, writing assistance or proof reading the article, etc.).Nomenclature and unitsFollow internationally accepted rules and conventions: use the international system of units (SI). If other quantities are mentioned, give their equivalent in SI. You are urged to consult IUGS: Nomenclature for geological time scales/rock names: for further information.Math formulaePresent simple formulae in the line of normal text where possible and use the solidus (/) instead of a horizontal line for small fractional terms, e.g., X/Y. In principle, variables are to be presented in italics. Powers of e are often more conveniently denoted by exp. Number consecutively any equations that have to be displayed separately from the text (if referred to explicitly in the text).ArtworkElectronic artworkGeneral points• Make sure you use uniform lettering and sizing of your original artwork.• Save text in illustrations as "graphics" or enclose the font.• Only use the following fonts in your illustrations: Arial, Courier, Times, Symbol. • Number the illust rations according to their sequence in the text.• Use a logical naming convention for your artwork files.• Provide captions to illustrations separately.• Produce images near to the desired size of the printed version.• Submit each figure as a separ ate file.A detailed guide on electronic artwork is available on our website:You are urged to visit this site; some excerpts from the detailedFormatsRegardless of the application used, when your electronic artwork is finalised, please "save as" or convert the images to one of the following formats (note the resolution requirements for line drawings, halftones, and line/halftone combinations given below):EPS: Vector drawings. Embed the font or save the text as "graphics".TIFF: color or grayscale photographs (halftones): always use a minimum of 300 dpi.TIFF: Bitmapped line drawings: use a minimum of 1000 dpi.TIFF: Combinations bitmapped line/half-tone (color or grayscale): a minimum of 500 dpi is required.DOC, XLS or PPT: If your electronic artwork is created in any of these Microsoft Office applications please supply "as is".Please do not:• Supply embedded graphics in your wordprocessor (spreadsheet, presentation) document;• Supply files that are optimised for screen use (like GIF, BMP, PICT, WPG); the resolution is too low;• Supply files that are too low in resolution;• Submit g raphics that are disproportionately large for the content.Color artworkPlease make sure that artwork files are in an acceptable format (TIFF, EPS or MS Office files) and with the correct resolution. 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Reference management softwareThis journal has standard templates available in key reference management packages EndNote () and Reference Manager (). Using plug-ins to wordprocessing packages, authors only need to select the appropriate journal template when preparing their article and the list of references and citations to these will be formatted according to the journal style which is described below. Reference styleText: Indicate references by number(s) in square brackets in line with the text. The actual authors can be referred to, but the reference number(s) must always be given.List: Number the references (numbers in square brackets) in the list in the order in which they appear in the text.Examples:Reference to a journal publication:[1] Van der Geer J, Hanraads JAJ, Lupton RA. The art of writing a scientific article. J Sci Commun 2000;163:51-9.[2] Strunk Jr W, White EB. The elements of style. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan; 1979.Reference to a chapter in an edited book:[3] Mettam GR, Adams LB. How to prepare an electronic version of your article. In: Jones BS, Smith RZ, editors. Introduction to the electronic age, New York: E-Publishing Inc; 1999, p. 281-304.Note shortened form for last page number. e.g., 51-9, and that for more than 6 authors the first 6 should be listed followed by "et al." For further details you are referred to "Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts submitted to Biomedical Journals" (J Am Med Assoc 1997;277:927-934) (see also ).Journal abbreviations sourceJournal names should be abbreviated according toIndex Medicus journal abbreviations: ;List of serial title word abbreviations: ;CAS (Chemical Abstracts Service): .Supplementary and multimedia dataElsevier accepts electronic supplementary and multimedia data to support and enhance your scientific research. 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The PDF a watermarked version of the published article and includes a cover sheet with the journal cover image and a disclaimer outlining the terms and conditions of use. Keyword List（被省略）。

学术道德问题的英文作文英文：Academic ethics is a topic that has been discussed for a long time. As a student, I have also encountered some ethical dilemmas in academic research. In my opinion, academic ethics is not only a matter of personal integrity, but also a matter of social responsibility.First of all, academic ethics requires us to be honest and fair in our research. We should not fabricate data or plagiarize others' work, which is not only a violation of academic norms, but also a betrayal of our own conscience. For example, I once saw a classmate copy and paste a whole paragraph from a journal article without citation in his paper. This behavior not only undermines the credibility of his research, but also violates the intellectual property rights of the original author.Secondly, academic ethics also requires us to respectthe intellectual property rights of others. We should not use others' ideas or data without permission, and we should always cite our sources properly. For example, when I was writing a paper on a certain topic, I found a very useful article that provided a lot of relevant data. However, I realized that the data was not publicly available and could only be used with permission from the author. Therefore, I contacted the author and obtained his permission to use the data in my paper, and cited the article properly in my reference list.Finally, academic ethics also requires us to be responsible for the social impact of our research. We should not only pursue academic excellence, but also consider the potential consequences of our research on society. For example, if our research involves human subjects, we should ensure that their rights and interests are protected, and that the research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner.中文：学术道德是一个长期以来一直被讨论的话题。

剽窃英文作文 150字英文：Plagiarism is a serious issue in academic writing. It refers to the act of using someone else's work without giving proper credit. This can include copying and pasting text, paraphrasing without citation, or even using someone else's ideas without acknowledgement.Plagiarism not only violates academic integrity, but it also undermines the value and credibility of the work being produced. It is important to always give credit wherecredit is due and to properly cite sources.One common example of plagiarism is when a student copies and pastes information from a website into their paper without citing the source. Another example is when a student uses a friend's paper as their own without permission or acknowledgement.To avoid plagiarism, it is important to always properly cite sources and to use your own words to express ideas. It is also helpful to use plagiarism checkers to ensure that your work is original.中文：剽窃在学术写作中是一个严重的问题。

用英语说班级规章制度In our class, we have established some rules to ensure that everyone can learn and have a safe and comfortable environment. These rules are designed to promote respect, responsibility, and cooperation among all students. We believe that by following these rules, we can create a positive and supportive learning environment for everyone.1. RespectRespect is a key value in our class. We expect all students to show respect for their classmates, teachers, and school staff. This means treating others with kindness, empathy, and understanding. It also means respecting other people's opinions, beliefs, and differences. We do not tolerate bullying, teasing, or any other form of disrespectful behavior.2. ResponsibilityWe believe that every student has a responsibility to themselves, their classmates, and their school. This means coming to class on time, being prepared, and completing homework and assignments on time. It also means taking responsibility for one's actions and choices. Students are expected to take care of school property and resources and to follow school guidelines for behavior and safety.3. CooperationCooperation is essential for a successful learning environment. We expect all students to work together in a spirit of cooperation and teamwork. This means helping each other, sharing ideas, and supporting one another in our learning. It also means resolving conflicts and disagreements peacefully and respectfully. Cooperation is key to creating a positive and inclusive class community.4. Classroom BehaviorIn our class, we have some specific rules for classroom behavior. Students are expected to follow the teacher's instructions, raise their hand to speak, and listen respectfully when others are speaking. Students are also expected to keep their work area clean and tidy and to use technology and other resources responsibly. Disruptive behavior, such as talking out of turn, using electronic devices without permission, or being disrespectful to others, will not be tolerated.5. Academic IntegrityWe take academic integrity seriously in our class. This means that all work must be original and completed by the student. Cheating, plagiarism, or any other form of academic dishonesty is not allowed. Students are expected to cite their sources properly and to give credit to others for their ideas. Academic integrity is important for maintaining a fair and honest learning environment.6. Attendance and PunctualityRegular attendance and punctuality are essential for success in our class. Students are expected to come to class on time and to be present for all lessons and activities. If a student is absent, it is their responsibility to catch up on missed work and to communicate with the teacher about any missed assignments or assessments. Chronic lateness or absences without a valid excuse will be addressed according to school policy.7. Dress CodeWe have a dress code in our class that promotes a professional and respectful learning environment. Students are expected to dress modestly and neatly, avoiding clothing that is revealing, offensive, or distracting. Students should also wear appropriate footwear for safety and comfort. Any violations of the dress code will be addressed by the teacher or school administration.8. Electronic DevicesThe use of electronic devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops, is allowed in our class for educational purposes only. Students are expected to use their devices responsibly and respectfully, following the teacher's guidelines for their use. Devices should not be used for personal activities, such as social media or games, during class time. Any misuse of electronic devices will result in disciplinary action.9. ConsequencesIf a student violates any of the class rules, there will be consequences. These consequences may include a warning, a discussion with the teacher, a parent/guardian conference, a behavior contract, detention, or referral to the school administration. The severity of the consequences will depend on the nature of the infraction and the student's previous behavior. Students are expected to take responsibility for their actions and to make amends if necessary.10. RewardsOn the other hand, students who demonstrate respect, responsibility, and cooperation in our class will be rewarded. These rewards may include praise, recognition, extra privileges, positive notes home, certificates, or other incentives. We believe in recognizing and celebrating students' efforts and accomplishments as a way to motivate and encourage them to continue working hard.In conclusion, our class rules are designed to create a positive and supportive learning environment where all students can thrive. By following these rules, we can build a strong sense of community, respect, and responsibility among all members of our class. We believe that by working together and holding ourselves to high standards, we can achieve success and reach our full potential. Thank you for your cooperation and commitment to our class rules. Let's make this a great year!。

zotero引用参考文献中英文全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: Using Zotero to Cite Your Sources Like a Pro!Have you ever been working on a research project or paper and felt frustrated trying to keep track of all the books, websites, and articles you used? Well, my friends, there's a super cool tool called Zotero that can make citing your sources a breeze!What is Zotero, you ask? It's a free software program that helps you collect, organize, and cite your research sources. It's like having a personal librarian right on your computer or device!Let me walk you through how Zotero works:Installing ZoteroFirst things first, you'll need to download and install Zotero on your computer or device. It's available for Windows, Mac, and even Linux operating systems. Don't worry; the installation process is straightforward, and there are plenty of guides online to help you out if you get stuck.Creating a Zotero LibraryOnce you've installed Zotero, you'll create a new library. Think of this as your personal bookshelf where you'll store all your sources. You can even give your library a fun name like "Research Wonderland" or "Citation Station."Adding Sources to Your LibraryNow comes the fun part – adding sources to your library! Zotero can automatically detect and add sources from websites, online catalogs, and even PDFs. It's like magic! You can also manually add sources by typing in the details or using Zotero's handy search tools.Organizing Your SourcesWith Zotero, you can organize your sources in different ways. You can create collections (like folders) to group similar sources together. For example, you could have a collection for "Dinosaur Books" and another for "Outer Space Websites." You can also add tags and notes to your sources to make them easier to find later.Citing Your SourcesThis is where Zotero really shines! When you're writing a paper or project, you can use Zotero to insert citations and create a bibliography in the correct style (like APA, MLA, orChicago). Zotero knows all the rules for different citation styles, so you don't have to memorize them.Syncing Your LibraryZotero also allows you to sync your library across different devices, so you can access your sources from anywhere. It's like having your own personal cloud for research!Using Zotero might seem a bit tricky at first, but don't worry – there are plenty of tutorials and guides available online to help you get started. Plus, your teachers and librarians can provide guidance too.So, why should you use Zotero? Well, for starters, it'll save you a ton of time and effort when it comes to citing your sources correctly. No more scrambling to find that book or website you used months ago! Zotero keeps everything organized and easily accessible.But even more importantly, citing your sources properly is crucial in the world of research and academia. It's like giving credit where credit is due – acknowledging the hard work and ideas of others. Zotero makes sure you do this correctly, every time.Imagine how impressed your teachers and classmates will be when you hand in a perfectly cited research paper or project! They'll think you're a citation superstar, and you'll feel like a real pro.So, what are you waiting for? Give Zotero a try and watch citing your sources become a breeze!篇2Zotero Citation and Reference of Chinese and English LiteratureHey there, little scholars! Today, we're going to talk about something super important when it comes to writing papers or doing research – citing your sources and creating a reference list. It's like giving credit to the authors whose work you used, and it's a crucial part of being an honest and responsible student.Now, you might be thinking, "But why do I need to cite sources? That sounds like a lot of work!" Well, let me tell you why it's so important.Imagine you're a famous author who just wrote an amazing book. You put in so much effort and time into researching and writing it. Wouldn't you feel upset if someone just copied yourwork without giving you credit? That's why we cite sources – to give proper credit to the people whose ideas and information we use.But citing sources isn't just about being fair to authors. It also helps your readers understand where you got your information from. That way, if they want to learn more about a particular topic, they can easily find the sources you used and read them too!Now, let's talk about how you can use Zotero to make citing sources and creating a reference list much easier.Zotero is a special program that helps you collect, organize, and cite your sources. It's like having a personal librarian right on your computer! You can add books, articles, websites, and all sorts of other sources to your Zotero library with just a few clicks.One of the coolest things about Zotero is that it can automatically create citations and a reference list for you in different styles, like MLA, APA, or Chicago. That means you don't have to spend hours trying to format everything correctly –Zotero does it for you!But Zotero isn't just for English sources. It can also handle Chinese sources and create citations and references for them too.That's super helpful if you're working on a project that involves both English and Chinese literature.Let me give you an example of how Zotero can help you cite a Chinese book:Suppose you're writing a paper about Chinese folktales, and you used a book called "中国民间故事集" (A Collection of Chinese Folktales) by 李志强(Li Zhiqiang). Here's how you can cite it in Zotero:Open Zotero and click on the "New Item" button.Select "Book" from the list of item types.In the "Author" field, enter "李志强" (Li Zhiqiang).In the "Title" field, enter "中国民间故事集" (A Collection of Chinese Folktales).Fill in any other details you have, like the publisher, publication date, and edition.Click "OK" to save the item in your Zotero library.When you're ready to insert the citation and reference for this book into your paper, Zotero will automatically format it correctly in the citation style you've chosen. For example, in APA style, it might look something like this:In-text citation: (李志强, 2015)Reference list entry: 李志强. (2015). 中国民间故事集. 北京:人民文学出版社.Pretty neat, right?Using Zotero can save you a ton of time and effort when it comes to citing sources and creating a reference list. Plus, it helps you stay organized and keep track of all the sources you've used in your research.So, the next time you're working on a paper or project that involves English and Chinese literature, remember to use Zotero. It'll be your trusty sidekick, helping you give proper credit to the authors whose work you've used and making sure your citations and references are always on point!篇3Citing References with Zotero: A Fun Way to Give CreditHi there, friends! Today, we're going to learn about a cool tool called Zotero that can help us give credit to the authors and books we use when we're writing essays or reports. Sounds boring, right? But trust me, it's actually pretty neat!You see, whenever we use information from other sources in our writing, it's important to let our readers know where that information came from. That's called citing your references, and it's a big deal in the world of writing and research. If we don't cite our sources properly, it's like taking someone else's ideas without asking – and that's just not cool.Enter Zotero, our trusty sidekick for all thingscitation-related! Zotero is a free program that helps us keep track of all the books, websites, and other sources we use when we're working on a project. It's like having a super-organized digital bookshelf where we can store all our references.Here's how it works: let's say you're writing a report about dinosaurs (because who doesn't love dinosaurs, am I right?). You find a really cool book at the library called "Dino Dudes: The Ultimate Guide to Prehistoric Pals." With Zotero, you can easily add that book to your reference library with just a few clicks.But wait, there's more! Zotero can also help you format your citations and bibliographies in the correct style, like MLA or APA. That's like having a personal citation assistant who makes sure you give credit where it's due, every single time.And if you're worried about having to memorize all those tricky citation rules, fear not! Zotero has got your back. Itautomatically generates the citations for you, so you don't have to stress about forgetting a comma or mixing up the author's name.Now, I know what you're thinking: "But wait, isn't Zotero just for grown-ups and fancy researchers?" Nope, not at all! Zotero is super user-friendly, even for us kids. With its simple interface and handy tutorials, you'll be citing like a pro in no time.Plus, using Zotero can actually make your writing better. When you properly cite your sources, it shows that you've done your research and that you respect the work of others. That's a huge deal in the world of academics and can really make your essays and reports shine.So, there you have it, friends! Zotero is a fantastic tool that can help us give credit where credit is due, and it's way more fun than it sounds. Who knows, maybe one day you'll be a famous writer or researcher, and you'll be thankful you learned how to cite your sources like a pro.Now, let's go forth and conquer those citations! Happy writing, and remember: always give credit where it's due. Your sources will thank you!篇4Zotero: The Awesome Reference Manager for KidsHi friends! Today I want to talk to you about a really cool tool called Zotero. It's going to help you keep track of all the books, websites, and other sources you use for your school projects and reports. Pretty neat, right?You see, whenever you write a big paper or do research, you have to give credit to the smart people whose work you used. That's called making a bibliography or list of references. It lets others know where you got your information from.Without a bibliography, it would be like taking someone else's toy without asking! And we know that's not nice. So we always want to give credit where it's due by citing our sources properly.That's where Zotero comes in. It's kind of like having a digital notebook and librarian all in one! You can save full citations and even PDF files or webpages right into your Zotero library. How awesome is that?Setting Up ZoteroThe first step is to download and install the Zotero program on your computer. It's free, so your parents don't have to pay anything! There are versions for Windows, Mac, and even Linux.Once it's installed, you'll see the Zotero pane on the side of your web browser like Firefox or Chrome. This little sidebar is where the magic happens.Adding References ManuallyLet's say you read an awesome book for your science project on planets. In Zotero, you can click the green "New Item" button and select the "Book" option.A window will pop up asking you to fill in details like the title, author, publisher, and year. Make sure to spell everything correctly! Zotero will save the full reference for you once you click "OK."Getting References AutomaticallyBut typing in citations can get tiring after a while. The really cool part of Zotero is that it can automatically grab reference details from websites and online library catalogs!When you're on a book or article webpage, just click the Zotero icon in your browser toolbar. Zotero will detect the type of item and fill in all the metadata like author, title, and publication info. One click and it's saved in your library!This works on tons of different websites including Amazon, Wikipedia, news sites, and online journals. Zotero will even grabdetails from a book's ISBN barcode if you scan it. Talk about convenient!Managing Your Zotero LibraryOver time, your Zotero library will grow and grow with all your awesome sources. But don't worry, it's easy to stay organized!You can create separate folders or collections for different school projects or topics. Drag and drop references into the right folder so they're neatly filed away.You can also tag items with keywords or color code them. Use tags like "science project" or "book report" to quickly find what you need later.If you need to find a specific source, just use the search bar at the top. Zotero lets you search by title, author, keywords, and more!Citing Sources in Your PapersSo you've built up your Zotero library with all the books, websites, and articles you used for research. Now it's time to make that bibliography!From inside Zotero, you can click a magic button to automatically insert formatted citations into your paper. These will be in whatever citation style your teacher wants, like MLA, APA, Chicago, etc.Zotero will put in-text parenthetical citations like this: (Smith 2015) wherever you need them in your paper. Then at the very end, it will compile the full bibliography listing each source neatly!You can also use Zotero's powerful Word plug-in to insert citations with a couple clicks as you're writing. No more having to type out complicated citations by hand!Different Citations for English and ChineseOne last super cool Zotero feature is that it can handle references in multiple languages. So if you need to cite English books and Chinese books, no problem!For English citations, Zotero will format them in the standard "First Name Last Name" order like normal. But for Chinese sources, it will flip the name order to "Last Name, First Name" which is more common.It will also include other Chinese bibiographic info like the publisher's translated name and place. Pretty smart, right?So whether you need to cite 《孙子兵法》or "The Art of War" by Sun Tzu, Zotero can handle it all. No wonder it's a favorite tool of students and researchers worldwide!Using the Best Reference ManagerThere you have it friends! Zotero is honestly one of the best reference managers out there, especially for us students.It makes keeping track of our sources super easy and prevents any accidental plagiarism. Plus, generating bibliographies is a total breeze.The automatic citation magic, multi-language support, and powerful organization tools are second to none. Trust me, once you start using Zotero, you'll never go back!So what are you waiting for? Download Zotero today and take your research skills to awesome new levels. Your parents and teachers will be so impressed with your computer skills! Let's get researching and citing like pros.篇5The Magic of Zotero: Citing References in English and ChineseHi there, fellow students! Have you ever felt like you were drowning in a sea of books, articles, and websites while working on a research project? Fear not, because I'm here to introduce you to a fantastic tool called Zotero, which can make your life so much easier!Imagine having a special helper that can keep track of all the sources you use in your research, organize them neatly, and even help you cite them correctly in your paper or project. That's exactly what Zotero does, and it's like having a super-powered librarian at your fingertips!Now, let me explain how Zotero can help you cite references in both English and Chinese. First, let's talk about why citing references is so important.Citing References: Why It MattersWhen you're writing a research paper or creating a project, you'll likely use information from various sources, such as books, articles, websites, or even videos. It's crucial to give credit to the authors or creators of these sources by citing them properly. Citing references shows that you've done your research and respects the hard work of others.If you don't cite your sources, it's considered plagiarism, which is a big no-no in the world of academics. Imagine someone taking credit for your hard work – that wouldn't be fair, would it? That's why citing references is so important. It's like giving a high-five to the people who provided the information you used.Using Zotero for English and Chinese ReferencesNow, let's dive into how Zotero can help you with citing references in both English and Chinese. Zotero is a free software program that acts like a digital filing cabinet for all your research sources.When you come across a useful book, article, or website, you can easily add it to your Zotero library with just a few clicks. Zotero will automatically capture all the important information about the source, such as the author's name, title, publication date, and more.But here's the really cool part: Zotero can generate citations in different styles, like APA, MLA, or Chicago, with just a few clicks! It can even switch between English and Chinese citations, making it a perfect tool for bilingual research projects.Imagine you're writing a paper about the history of dragons in Chinese folklore. You've gathered sources in both English and Chinese. With Zotero, you can easily switch between the two languages when citing your references, without having to worry about formatting or translation.Adding Sources to ZoteroLet's go through the steps of adding sources to your Zotero library. It's super easy!Install Zotero on your computer or use the online version.When you find a useful source, like a book or website, click the Zotero icon in your browser toolbar (or use the keyboard shortcut).Zotero will automatically detect the source and add it to your library.If Zotero can't detect the source automatically, you can manually enter the information.That's it! Zotero will store all the important details about the source, making it easy for you to cite it later.Citing References in Your PaperNow comes the best part – citing your references in your paper or project. With Zotero, it's a breeze!Open your word processor (like Microsoft Word or Google Docs).Go to the Zotero tab or menu and select the citation style you want to use (e.g., APA, MLA, or Chicago).Click the "Add Citation" button or use the keyboard shortcut.Zotero will open a window where you can search for the source you want to cite.Select the source and click "OK."Zotero will automatically insert the citation in the correct format!If you're citing a Chinese source, simply switch the language setting in Zotero, and it will generate the citation in Chinese characters and formatting.Isn't that amazing? Zotero takes care of all the formatting and styles, so you can focus on writing your amazing research paper or project.Wrapping UpWhew, that was a lot of information, but I hope you're feeling excited about using Zotero for your next research project! Remember, citing references is crucial for giving credit to the hard work of others and avoiding plagiarism.With Zotero by your side, you can easily keep track of all your sources, switch between English and Chinese citations, and generate properly formatted citations with just a few clicks. It's like having a magical citation fairy helping you every step of the way!So, what are you waiting for? Download Zotero today and let the citation magic begin! Happy researching, fellow students!篇6Title: Zotero: Your Awesome Friend for Citing Sources!Have you ever felt confused when your teacher asked you to list all the books, websites, or articles you used for your report or project? Well, my friends, there's a super cool tool that can make citing sources a breeze – it's called Zotero!What is Zotero, you ask? It's a magical program that helps you keep track of all the sources you use for your schoolwork. Imagine having a special assistant that remembers every singlebook, website, or article you've looked at, and can quickly provide all the details you need to properly cite them. That's what Zotero does for you!Now, let me tell you why citing sources is so important. When you write a report or do a project, you gather information from different places, right? Maybe you read a book about dinosaurs, watched a video about the solar system, or looked up facts on a website. All of those sources provided you with valuable information, and it's only fair that you give them credit for their hard work.That's where citing comes in. Citing means listing the details of the source you used, such as the author's name, the title of the book or website, and the year it was published or created. It's like leaving a little thank-you note for the people who helped you learn something new.Without citing, your teacher might think you made up all the information yourself, which wouldn't be very nice. Plus, if someone else wants to learn more about the same topic, they won't know where to find the sources you used.Zotero makes citing super easy because it can automatically create citations in different styles, like MLA, APA, or Chicago. All you have to do is tell Zotero what style your teacher wants, and itwill format the citations perfectly for you. No more struggling to remember how to punctuate or capitalize things – Zotero has got your back!Here's how Zotero works:First, you install the Zotero program on your computer or device.Then, whenever you find a book, website, or article you want to use, you click a button in Zotero, and it saves all the important details about that source.When you're ready to write your report or project, Zotero shows you a list of all the sources you've collected.You can then insert the citations directly into your document, and Zotero will format them correctly, based on the style you chose.Isn't that amazing? It's like having a personal librarian helping you out with your schoolwork!But wait, there's more! Zotero can also help you organize your sources into different folders or collections, so you can easily find what you need for each project. You can even add notes or highlights to your sources, so you remember the most important parts.Using Zotero might seem a bit tricky at first, but don't worry – your teacher or a librarian can help you get started. Once you get the hang of it, you'll wonder how you ever managed without this fantastic tool!So, the next time you're working on a report or project, remember to ask about Zotero. It's your awesome friend for citing sources, and it will make your life so much easier. Happy citing, my friends!。

考研英二历年阅读真题大全要做好考研阅读必需要提升两方面力量：一是较强的阅读力量，指快速、精确读懂文章意思的力量;二是摸清真题的出题习惯、思路，找到做真题的“感觉”。

下文是我为你细心编辑整理的考研英二历年阅读真题大全，期望对你有所帮忙，更多内容，请点击相关栏目查看，感谢!考研英二历年阅读真题大全1For years, studies have found that first-generation college students-those who do not have a parent with a college degree-lag other students on a range of education achievement factors. Their grades are lower and their dropout rates are higher. But since such students are most likely to advance economically if they succeed in higher education, colleges and universities have pushed for decades to recruit more of them. This has created a paradox in that recruiting first-generation students, but then watching many of them fail, means that higher education has continued to reproduce and widen, rather than close achievement gap based on social class, according to the depressing beginning of a paper forthcoming in the journal Psychological Sciense.But the article is actually quite optimistic, as it outlines a potential solution to this problem, suggesting that an approach(which involves a one-hour, next-to-no-cost program) can close 63 percent of the achievement gap(measured by such factors as grades)between first-generation and other students.The authors of the paper are from different universities, and their findins are based on a study involving 147 students(who completed the project)at an unnamed private unive rsity.First generation was defined as not having a parent with a fou r-year college degree Most of the first-generation students(59.1 percent) were recipients of Pell Grants，a federal g rant for undergraduates with financial need，while this was true only for 8.6 percent of the students wit at least one parent with a four-year degreeTheir thesis-that a relatively modest inte rvention could have a big impact-was based on the view that first-gene ration students may be most lacking not in potential but in practical knowledge about how to deal with the issues that face most college students They cite past resea rch by several authors to show that this is the gap that must be na rrowed to close the achievement gap.Many first-gene ration studentsstruggle to navigate the middle-class culture of higher education，learn therules of the game，and take advantage of college resou rces, they write And this becomes more of a problem when collages dont talk about the class advantage and disadvantages of different groups of students Because US colleges and universities seldom acknowledge how social class can affect students educational expe rience，many first-gene ration students lack sight about why they a re struggling and do not unde rstand how students like them can improve26. Recruiting more first-generation students has[A]reduced their d ropout rates[B]narrowed the achievement gao[C] missed its original pu rpose[D]depressed college students27 The author of the research article are optimistic because[A]the problem is solvable[B]their approach is costless[q the recruiting rate has increased[D]their finding appeal to students28 The study suggests that most first-gene ration students[A]study at private universities[B]are from single-pa rent families[q are in need of financial support[D]have failed their collage29. The author of the paper believe that first-generation students[A]a re actually indifferent to the achievement gap[B]can have a potential influence on othe r students[C] may lack opportunities to apply for resea rch projects[D]are inexperienced in handling their issues at college30.We mayinfer from the last paragraph that--[A]universities often r~ect the culture of themiddle-class[B]students are usually to blame for their lack of resources[C]social class g reatly helps en rich educational experiences[D]colleges are partly responsible for the problem in question答案：26.C missed its original purpose27.A the problem is solvable28.C are in need of financial support29.D are inexperienced in handling issues at college30.D colleges are partly responsible for the problem in question考研英二历年阅读真题大全2While fossil fuels—still generate roughly 85 percent of the world’s energy supply, it’s clearer than ever that the future belongs to renewable sources such as wind and solar. The move to renewables is picking up momentum around the world: They now account for more than half of new power sources going on line.Some growth stems from a commitment by governments and farsighted businesses to fund cleaner energy sources. But increasingly the story is about the plummeting prices of renewables, especially wind and solar. The cost of solar panels has dropped by 80 percent and the cost of wind turbines by close to one-third in the past eight years.In many parts of the world renewable energy is already a principal energy source. In Scotland, for example, wind turbines provide enough electricity to power 95 percent of homes. While the rest of the world takes the lead, notably China and Europe, the United States is also seeing a remarkable shift. In March, for the first time, wind and solar power accounted for more than 10 percent of the power generated in the US, reported the US Energy Information Administration.President Trump has underlined fossil fuels—especiallycoal—as the path to economic growth. In a recent speech in Iowa, he dismissed wind power as an unreliable energy source. But that message did not play well with many in Iowa, where wind turbines dot the fields and provide 36 percent of the state’s electricity generation—and where tech giants like Microsoft are being attracted by the availability of clean energy to power their data centers.The question “What happens when the wind doesn’t blow or the sun doesn’t shine?” has provided a quick put-down for skeptics. But a boost in the storage capacity of batteries is making their ability to keep power flowing around the clock more likely.The advance is driven in part by vehicle manufacturers, who are placing big bets on battery-powered electric vehicles. Although electric cars are still a rarity on roads now, this massive investment could change the picture rapidly in coming years.While there’s a long way to go, the trend lines for renewables are spiking. The pace of change in energy sources appears to be speeding up—perhaps just in time to have a meaningful effect in slowing climate change. What Washington does—or doesn’t do—to promote alternative energy may mean less and less at a time of a global shift in thought.26. The word “plummeting”(Line 3, Para. 2) is closest in meaning to .[A] stabilizing[B] changing[C] falling[D] rising27. According to Paragraph 3, the use of renewable energy in America .[A] is progressing notably[B] is as extensive as in Europe[C] faces many challenges[D] has proved to be impractical28. It can be learned that in Iowa, .[A] wind is a widely used energy source[B] wind energy has replaced fossil fuels[C] tech giants are investing in clean energy[D] there is a shortage of clean energy supply29. Which of the following is true about clean energy according to Paragraphs 56?[A] Its application has boosted battery storage.[B] It is commonly used in car manufacturing.[C] Its continuous supply is becoming a reality.[D] Its sustainable exploitation will remain difficult.30. It can be inferred from the last paragraph that renewable energy____.[A] will bring the USA closer to other countries.[B] will accelerate global environmental change.[C] is not really encouraged by the USA government.[D] is not competitive enough with regard to its cost.考研英二历年阅读真题大全3A century ago, the immigrants from across the Atlantic inclued settlers and sojourners. Along with the many folks looking to make a permanent home in the United States came those who had no intention to stay, and 7millin people arrived while about 2 million departed. About a quarter of all Italian immigrants, for exanmle, eventually returned to Italy for good. The y even had an affectionate nickname, “uccelli di passaggio,” birds of passage.Today, we are much more rigid about immigrants. We dividenemcomers into two categories: legal or illegal, good or bad. We hail them as Americans in the making, or our broken immigrantion system and the long political paralysis over how to fix it. We don’t need more categories, but we need to change the way we think about categories. We need to look beyond strick definitions of legal and illegal. To start, we can recognize the new birds of passage, those living and thriving in the gray areas. We might then begin to solve our immigration challenges.Crop pickers, violinists, construction workers, entrepreneurs, engineers, home health-care aides and physicists are among today’s birds of passage. They are energetic participants in a global economy driven by the flow of work, money and ideas .They prefer to come and go as opportunity calls them , They can manage to have a job in one place and a family in another.With or without permission, they straddle laws, jurisdictions and identities with ease. We need them to imagine the United States as a place where they can be productive for a while without committing themselves to staying forever. We need them to feel that home can be both here and there and that they can belong to two nations honorably.Accommodating this new world of people in motion will require new attitudes on both sides of the immigrationbattle .Looking beyond the culture war logic of right or wrong means opening up the middle ground and understanding that managing immigration today requires multiple paths and multiple outcomes. Including some that are not easy to accomplish legally in the existing system.26 “Birds of passage” refers to thos e who____[A] immigrate across the Atlantic.[B] leave their home countries for good.[C] stay in a foregin temporaily.[D] find permanent jobs overseas.27 It is implied in paragraph 2 that the current immigration stystem in the US____[A] needs new immigrant categories.[B] has loosened control over immigrants.[C] should be adopted to meet challenges.[D] has been fixeed via political means.28 According to the author, today’s birds of passage want___[A] fiancial incentives.[B] a global recognition.[C] opportunities to get regular jobs.[D] the freedom to stay and leave.29 The author suggests that the birds of passage today should be treated __[A] as faithful partners.[B] with economic favors.[C] with regal tolerance.[D] as mighty rivals.30 选出最适合文章的标题[A] come and go: big mistake.[B] living and thriving : great risk.[C] with or without : great risk.[D] legal or illegal: big mistake.考研英二历年阅读真题大全4An article in Scientific America has pointed out that empirical research says that, actually, you think you’re more beautiful than you are. We have a deep-seated need to feel good about ourselves and we naturally employ a number ofself-enhancing strategies to research into what the call the “above average effect”, or “illusory superiority”, andshown that, for example, 70% of us rate ourselves as above average in leadership, 93% in driving and 85% at getting on well with others—all obviously statistical impossibilities.We rose tint our memories and put ourselves intoself-affirming situations. We become defensive when criticized, and apply negative stereotypes to others to boost our own esteem, we stalk around thinking we’re hot stuff.Psychologist and behavioral scientist Nicholas Epley oversaw a key studying into self-enhancement and attractiveness. Rather that have people simply rate their beauty compress with others, he asked them to identify an original photogragh of themselves’ from a lineup including versions that had been altered to appear more and less attractive. Visual recognition, reads the study, is “an automatic psychological process occurring rapidly and intuitively with little or no apparent conscious deliberation”. If the subjects quickly chose a falsely flattering image- which must did- they genuinely believed it was really how they looked. Epley found no significant gender difference in responses. Nor was there any evidence that, those who self-enhance the must (that is, the participants who thought the most positively doctored picture were real) were doing so to make up for profound insecurities. In fact those who thought that the images higher up the attractiveness scale were real directly corresponded with those who showed other makers for having higher self-esteem. “I don’t think the findings that we having have are any evidence of personal delusion”, says Epley. “It’s a reflection simply of people generally thinking wel l of themselves’. If you are depressed,you won’t be self-enhancing. Knowing the results of Epley ‘s study,it makes sense that why people heat photographs of themselves Viscerally-on one level, they don’t even recognise the person in the picture as themselves, Facebook therefore ,is a self-enhancer’s paradise,where people can share only the most flattering photos, the cream of their wit ,style ,beauty, intellect and lifestyle it’s not that people’s profiles are dishonest,says catalina toma of Wiscon—Madisonuniversity ,”but they portray an idealized version of themselves.26. According to the first paragraph, social psychologist have found that ______.[A] our self-ratings are unrealistically high[B] illusory superiority is baseless effect[C] our need for leadership is unnatural[D] self-enhancing strategies are ineffective27. Visual recognition is believed to be people’s______[A] rapid watching[B] conscious choice[C] intuitive response[D] automatic self-defence28. Epley found that people with higher self-esteem tended to______[A] underestimate their insecurities[B] believe in their attractiveness[C] cover up their depressions[D] oversimplify their illusions29.The word “Viscerally”(Line 2,para.5) is closest in meaning to_____.[A]instinctively[B]occasionally[C]particularly[D]aggressively30. It can be inferred that Facebook is self-enhancer’s paradise because people can _____.[A]present their dishonest profiles[B]define their traditional life styles[C]share their intellectual pursuits[D]withhold their unflattering sides文档内容到此结束，欢迎大家下载、修改、丰富并分享给更多有需要的人。