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英语的起源发展和演变The origin and development of English is a fascinating journey that spans over several centuries. It all started with the arrival of the Germanic tribes in Britain around the 5th century CE. These tribes, including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, brought with them their own dialects, which eventually evolved into what we now call Old English.Old English (450-1100 CE) was a Germanic language heavily influenced by the languages of the Vikings, who began raiding the British Isles in the 8th century. This period is marked by the epic poem "Beowulf," which is one of the oldest surviving works of literature in English.The Norman Conquest in 1066 brought significant changes to the English language. The Norman French conquers introducedtheir own language, which was spoken by the nobility and court. This transition period, known as Middle English (1100-1500 CE), saw the merging of Old English with Norman French, resulting in the loss of many inflections and a simplification of grammar.Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales" is the most famous literary work from this period, capturing the essence of Middle English. During the 14th century, English became the language of Parliament and the law courts, gradually replacing Norman French as the language of the upper classes.The Renaissance in the 16th century marked the beginning of the Modern English period (1500-present). The revival of interest in classical Greek and Latin led to an influx of borrowing from these languages, enriching English vocabulary. The discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus also introduced new words related to exploration and colonization.The printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century, played a crucial role in the development and standardization of English. Books became more accessible, and a standardized form of English started to emerge.The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries brought technological advancements and social changes. English adapted to the needs of the emerging industrial society, with the vocabulary expanding to include terms related to machinery and manufacturing.。
英语发展历程The Development of the English LanguageThe English language has a long and complex history, dating back over 1,500 years. It has evolved from its Germanic roots to become one of the most widely spoken languages in the world.The story of English begins in the 5th century, when Germanic tribes, known as the Anglo-Saxons, migrated to the British Isles from what is now Germany and Denmark. These tribes spoke various dialects of West Germanic, which eventually developed into Old English. Old English was heavily influenced by Latin, due to the influence of the Roman Catholic Church.In the 11th century, England was invaded by the Normans, led by William the Conqueror. The Normans spoke a form of Old French, which had a profound impact on the English language. Many French words were adopted into English, especially in the domains of law, government, and the arts. This period is known as the Middle English period.During the Renaissance in the 14th and 15th centuries, there was a renewed interest in the classical languages of Latin and Greek. This led to the introduction of many new words into English, especially in the fields of science, philosophy, and literature. This period is known as the Early Modern English period.In the 16th and 17th centuries, England began to explore and establish colonies around the world. This expansion brought the English language to new shores, including North America, India,Africa, and the South Pacific. As a result, English absorbed many words from other languages, especially Spanish, Dutch, Portuguese, and Hindi.During the 18th and 19th centuries, the Industrial Revolution dramatically changed the world and influenced the English language. New inventions and technologies required new vocabulary to describe them, leading to the adoption of many words related to industry and machinery.In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the British Empire reached its zenith, and the English language was spread even further across the globe. English became the dominant language of international commerce, science, and diplomacy. This period also saw the rise of American English as a distinct variant of the language, due to the cultural and political influence of the United States.In the 21st century, English continues to evolve and adapt to the changing needs of its speakers. The internet and globalization have brought people from different linguistic backgrounds together, leading to the emergence of new words, phrases, and even grammar structures. English is now the official or widely spoken language in many countries, and it shows no signs of slowing down in its global dominance.In conclusion, the development of the English language is a testament to the power of cultural exchange and adaptation. From its humble beginnings as a Germanic dialect, English has grown into a truly global language, connecting people around the world.Its journey over the centuries has been marked by influences from Latin, French, Greek, and many other languages. As new technologies and the need for communication continue to shape our world, it is likely that English will continue to evolve and change in the years to come.。
英语的起源发展和演变1. 古英语时期（4501066年）古英语是英语的早期形式，其词汇、语法和发音与现代英语相比有很大差异。
这一时期的英语受到拉丁语和古诺斯语的影响，词汇量相对有限。
古英语时期的文学作品包括《贝奥武甫》等史诗，这些作品为后世研究古英语提供了宝贵的资料。
2. 中古英语时期（10661500年）1066年，诺曼征服英格兰后，法语成为英国上层社会的官方语言，而英语逐渐沦为民间语言。
然而，英语并未因此消失，而是在不断吸收法语、拉丁语等词汇的基础上，逐渐发展壮大。
这一时期的英语，语法和词汇都发生了较大变化，为现代英语的形成奠定了基础。
3. 现代英语早期（15001700年）15世纪末，英国成为世界强国，英语的地位逐渐上升。
这一时期，英语大量吸收了拉丁语、希腊语、法语等词汇，词汇量迅速扩大。
随着印刷术的传入，英语标准化进程加快，语法和拼写逐渐规范。
莎士比亚等文学巨匠的作品，更是将英语推向一个新的高度。
4. 现代英语时期（1700年至今）18世纪以来，英国在全球范围内的殖民地扩张，使得英语成为世界范围内的通用语言。
现代英语在词汇、语法和发音等方面继续发展，形成了多种英语变体，如美式英语、英式英语、澳大利亚英语等。
这些变体虽有差异，但基本语法结构相同，沟通无障碍。
英语的起源、发展和演变历程见证了人类文明的发展。
如今，英语已成为国际交流的重要工具，其在全球范围内的地位日益巩固。
了解英语的起源和发展，有助于我们更好地学习这门语言，增进国际间的沟通与理解。
5. 语言的融合与创新英语的演变并非孤立进行，它不断地吸收其他语言的精华，实现自我更新。
在18世纪至20世纪，随着全球贸易、科技和文化的交流，英语词汇库得到了极大的丰富。
例如，从印度语中借来了“瑜伽”、“丛林”等词汇，从阿拉伯语中借来了“咖啡”、“算法”等。
这种语言的融合不仅丰富了英语的表达，也体现了人类文化的交流与共生。
6. 语法结构的简化随着时间的推移，英语的语法结构逐渐简化。
英语发展史英语发展史英语是当今世界上最被广泛使用的第二语言，也是最为重要的国际语言，全球有超过3亿人使用英语作为他们的本族语。
在中国，英语教育也正进行得如火如荼，许多来自英美的外教在这里从事教学工作。
1．英语发展史：英语的形成和统一英语发展史可以追溯到公元前500年左右。
在大不列颠岛(Great Britain)上史料记载的最早的语言是公元前500年左右的凯尔特语(Celtic)。
公元前55年，罗马人入侵大不列颠，并一直占领了大约500多年，拉丁语进入了该地区，并成为官方语言，凯尔特语的地位下降。
约公元449年，居住于丹麦与德国北部的3个日耳曼人部族趁罗马帝国衰落入侵到大不列颠岛上。
他们分别是盎格鲁人（Angles，入侵日德兰半岛中部）、萨克逊人（Saxons，入侵日德兰半岛南部）和朱特人（Jutes，入侵日德兰半岛北部）。
在语言上，他们取代了当时该地所使用的凯尔特语。
这三个日耳曼部族方言随着社会发展，逐渐融合为一种新的语言，即盎格鲁一萨克逊语（Anglo-Saxon），这就是后来形成的英语的基础。
到公元700年，人们把大不列颠岛上三部族混合形成的语言称为Englisc。
到公元1000年，岛上整个国家被称作Englaland。
这两个词后来就演变成English（英语）和England（英格兰或英国）这就是English和England两个词的历史由来。
8世纪末，丹麦人大批入侵英国，在其东北部建立丹麦区，持续了近300年，当时所带来的斯堪的那维亚语对英语的发展有很大影响。
公元1066年，法国的诺曼蒂公爵侵人英国，并加冕为英国国王，建立了诺曼蒂王朝，一直延续到1154年。
在诺曼蒂王朝统治期间，英国实际上存在着三种语言，法语是官方语言；拉丁语是宗教语言，用于阅读圣经、教堂宗教活动；英语则是下层社会劳动者用的世俗语言。
法语在英国的特殊地位一直延续到14世纪，法院、学校、宫廷分别于1362年、1385年、1399年才停止使用法语。
英语发展简史在罗马人入侵英格兰之前，来自欧洲地区的凯尔特人（Celts:属于今天苏格兰，爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先）已经在英伦列岛居住多年。
罗马人自公元前55年代开始，发动对英格兰的入侵，但直到公元43年才完全征服英格兰，自罗马人入侵到公元410年撤出英格兰，罗马人已经在英格兰盘居长达四百年之久。
在罗马人离开后，来自欧洲西日耳曼部落'Angelen'地区的盎格鲁人（Angles）、其它部落的撒克逊人（Saxon）、朱特人（Jutes）和弗里斯兰人（Frisian）开始跨海西迁进入英格兰地区（英语中的'English'就是出自古词'englisc','englise'中的'Engle'表示'theAngles'，即是'盎格鲁人'的意思），并与当地的凯尔特人（Celts）为争寻土地发生了长期的战争，经历几代后也续渐在英格兰各处定居下来。
凯尔特人（Celts）的国王Arthur在Celts与日耳曼人之间长久的战争中，虽然曾一度与日耳曼停战，但最终凯尔特人还是不敌日耳曼人而被驱赶到今天的爱尔兰、威尔士和马恩（Man）岛地区，日耳曼人称威尔士地区的Celts为'wealas'意即外国人，'Welsh'和'Wales'亦因此而得名。
英语作为最初期日耳曼人使用的语言，自从在英伦半岛生根成长到今天，整个语言的演进基本上可以划分为以下4个时期:1.Pre-oldEnglish.前古英语时期（从日耳曼人入侵开始至公元500年罗马人撤出英格兰）2.OldEnglish.古英语时期（公元500-1100）3.MiddleEnglish.中古英语时期（公元1100-1500）4.ModernEnglish.现代英语时期（公元1500-现在）古英语时期在前古英语时期，表记文字只有凯尔特人和日耳曼人受罗马字母影响而产生的RUNES字母。
一种民族语言（包括词汇）的发展与民族的历史密切可关。
要了解英语语汇的发展史，不可避免地跟整个英语的发展史，乃至英国的历史密不可分。
不列颠群岛的最早居民是凯尔特人，又称不列颠人。
公元前55年，罗马人在凯萨大帝的率领下侵入不列颠群岛，凯尔特人被罗马人赶入威尔士和苏格兰的深山之中。
直到公元410年，罗马占领时期才告结束。
随后，来自德国北部平原的三个日耳曼部落盎格鲁人，撒克森人和朱特人开始来到不列颠定居。
英语就是盎格鲁—撒克森人的语言。
语言史学家一般把英语的历史分为三个时期：1、古英语时期，2、中古英语时期，3、现代英语时期。
1、古英语时期（又称盎格鲁-萨克森时期公元450—1100年）日尔曼部落在不列颠定居后，名自占领一些地区。
盎格鲁人占领了泰晤士河以北的英格兰的大部分地区和苏格兰的低地，朱特人占领了肯特郡一带地区，撒克森人占领了泰晤士河以南的大部分地区。
各个部落建立了一些小王国，出现了英国历史上的七国时代。
直到公元830年，阿尔弗雷德大王才统一了整个英格兰地区。
由于全国长期没有统一，所以古英语时期存在着多种方言，主要方言有四种：西萨克森语，肯特语，莫西亚语和北恩布里亚语。
这四种方言都曾一度占主导地位。
西撒克森语保存下来的手搞最多。
其它方言在形成英语的过程中也起过很重要的作用。
古英语的词汇有着浓厚的日尔曼语族的特点。
这主要表现为复合法是重要的构词方法。
复合词在古英语词汇中占有显著的地位。
据统计，在史诗《贝奥武夫》3183行诗句中，竟有1069个复合词。
有些复合词中不重读部分，渐渐失去了独立地位，而演变成了词缀，如for-, in-, -ful 等派生法在古英语中也广泛使用。
共有二十四个名词后缀、十五个形容词后缀，-dom, -hood, -ship, -ness, -the, -ful,- ish 等词缀都可溯源到古英语时期。
古英语时期的诗歌有一种特殊的修辞手法，即头韵(alliteration)，由此产生的许多短语一直保留到现在，如night and main, friend or foe, a labour of love。
英语的发展历程英文The Evolution of the English LanguageEnglish is a language that has undergone significant changes throughout its history. From its origins as a Germanic language spoken by tribes in what is now known as England, to becoming one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, its evolution has been influenced by various factors. This article will provide a brief overview of the key stages in the development of the English language.Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, was the earliest form of English spoken from the 5th to the 11th century. It was heavily influenced by Germanic dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxon settlers and had a complex inflectional grammar system. The vocabulary of Old English also included words of Celtic, Latin, and Norse origin.The next significant stage in the evolution of English was Middle English, which was spoken from the 11th to the 15th century. During this period, the Norman Conquest in 1066 brought the French language to England, resulting in a fusion of Old English and French vocabulary. The influence of Latin also increased, especially in the fields of religion, law, and medicine. Middle English grammar simplified compared to Old English, but it still maintained some of the complex features.The Early Modern English period emerged in the late 15th century and lasted until the late 17th century. This era coincided with important historical events such as the Renaissance and theProtestant Reformation. The printing press invention by William Caxton in 1476 played a crucial role in standardizing English spelling and accelerating the spread of the written language. The works of influential writers like William Shakespeare contributed significantly to the development of Early Modern English vocabulary and grammar.The Late Modern English phase started in the late 17th century and continues until the present day. This period witnessed significant changes in pronunciation and the rise of the British Empire, which helped English become a global language. Industrialization and technological advancements also brought new words and concepts into the English vocabulary.Currently, English exists in various forms, including American English, British English, and other regional or dialectal variations. Additionally, the widespread use of English as a lingua franca in international communication has led to further adaptations and the inclusion of loanwords from other languages.In conclusion, the English language has evolved over time from its Germanic roots to become a global language with diverse influences. The stages of Old English, Middle English, Early Modern English, and Late Modern English reflect the dynamic nature of language and its ability to adapt to different cultures and historical developments.。
英语发展史年表-----公元前3000年至公元前500年伊比利亚人(Ierians)居住在英伦三岛-----公元前500年至公元450年由凯尔特人（Celts）取代居住在英伦三岛-----公元前55年罗马帝国皇帝克罗迪斯(Claudius)率军4万人征服了不列颠岛的中部和东南部，即现在的英格兰。
罗马人在英国的统治历时近400年。
-----410年罗马军队撤走。
-----449年盎格鲁人(Angles)、萨克逊人(Saxons)和朱特人(Jutes)渡过北海，大举入侵不列颠岛，征服了当时由凯尔特人定居的不列颠岛，实施了日尔曼征服。
他们讲的日尔曼方言演变成古英语，或盎格鲁一萨克逊英语(Anglo-Saxon English)。
------450年～1150年古英语(Old English)时期（盎格鲁－萨克森英语）。
------597年受罗马教皇格雷高里一世(Pope Gregory the Great)派遣，奥古斯丁(St．Augustine)等传教士来到英国肯特郡的坎特伯雷，开始在盎格鲁一萨克逊人的英国传播基督教。
第一次文化入侵（拉丁语）。
------793年开始，斯堪的纳维亚人，又称北欧的海盗（丹麦人为主）（Vikings）开始入侵不列颠岛。
到了10世纪中期，几乎个英格兰都落入了北欧海盗手中。
第二次文化入侵（北欧语）。
------1066年，法国的诺曼底公爵入侵不列颠岛,法国诺曼底人(Normans)征服了不列颠岛，最终成功得控制了英国全国，第三次文化入侵（法语）。
英语从拉丁语，丹麦人讲的北日尔曼语和诺曼底人讲的法语等语言中吸收了很多成分，演变成中古英语。
------1150年～1500年中古英语时期。
欧洲文艺复兴, 人文主义思想, 欧洲宗教改革,各国之间的相互交往增多，英语从多达50多种语言中借入词汇。
除拉丁语和希腊语外，英语从法语、意大利语、西班牙语借词数量最大，演变成现代英语。
------1500年～至今现代和当代英语时期。
英语的历史英文版简短100字British history began in Germanic and Celtic, and later in England, Wales and Scotland. Its origin can be traced back to Roman rule.Britain is called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It consists of Northern Ireland and the whole history of Britain is made up of the interweaving of the four regions.Wales became part of the Kingdom of England in 1535. The defeat of the Spanish Invincible Fleet in 1588 by the Naval Battle of Gravoline frustrated the invasion of foreign Catholic forces.basically eliminating the threat of Catholicism and consolidating the achievements of religious reform.In 1640, Britain broke out the first bourgeois revolution in the world and became the pioneer of the bourgeois revolution. The Republic was proclaimed on 19 May 1649.The restoration of the dynasty in 1660 and the "Glorious Revolution" in 1688 established the constitutional monarchy.In 1707, England merged with Scotland. Through the SevenYears'War, Britain laid the foundation of the Sunset Empire and gained the hegemony of the sea.It was merged with Ireland in 1801. After the Napoleonic War, Britain completed the imperial hegemony of the Sunset Empire.From the second half of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century, it became the first country in the world to complete the industrial revolution.The nineteenth century was the heyday of the British Empire. The colonies occupied in 1914 were 111 times larger than those in the mainland.They were the first colonial power and claimed to be the "Sunset Empire".In 1922, the Republic of Ireland became independent, and Northern Ireland remained in the United Kingdom, that is, Northern Ireland today.。
英语语言的发展史：一段跨越千年的文化之旅The history of the English language is a fascinating journey through the annals of time, tracing the evolution of a language that has become a global lingua franca. Spanning over a thousand years, English has transformed from a small, regional dialect to the most widely spoken language in the world, with over a billion native speakers and countless non-native users.The early beginnings of English can be traced back to the 5th century, when the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons, invaded and settled in Britain. They brought with them a Germanic language, Old English, which was significantly different from the Romance languages spoken in the south of France and Spain. Old English was characterized by its complex grammar, strong verbs, and limited vocabulary.Over the centuries, English underwent significant changes. The Norman invasion of 1066 introduced French loanwords into the language, particularly in the fields of government, law, and religion. This period marked thebeginning of Middle English, which saw the blending of Old English with Norman French, Latin, and Scandinavian languages. The vocabulary expanded, and the grammar became more regularized.The Renaissance period, which began in the 14th century, marked another significant milestone in English's evolution. The influx of Italian and Greek loanwords expanded the language's reach into the fields of science, art, and philosophy. This period also saw the publication of thefirst major English dictionaries, such as Samuel Johnson's "A Dictionary of the English Language," which standardized the language and solidified its place as a literary medium. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19thcenturies further transformed English, as the language became the lingua franca of the global economy. The influxof immigrants from various parts of the world introducednew words and phrases into the language, enriching its vocabulary and syntax. This period also saw the emergenceof the first major English-speaking nations, such as the United Kingdom and the United States, which further propelled English's global dominance.Today, English is the official language of over 50 countries and is widely spoken as a second language in many others. It is the language of international business, diplomacy, and culture, and is constantly evolving to reflect the changing world. From Shakespeare's Elizabethan English to the slang and jargon of modern social media, English has demonstrated its adaptability and resilience over the centuries.The history of the English language is not just a linguistic narrative; it is a cultural and historical record of human civilization. It tells the story of invasions, migrations, wars, and trade, as well as the story of innovation, exploration, and cultural exchange. As we delve into the rich tapestry of English's development, we gain a deeper understanding of not just the language itself but also the rich tapestry of human history.**英语语言发展史：跨越千年的文化之旅**英语语言的发展史是一段跨越千年的文化之旅，记录了一种语言如何从一个地区性的小方言蜕变为全球通用的语言。
英语发展简史在罗马人入侵英格兰之前﹐来自欧洲地区的凯尔特人(Celts﹕属于今天苏格兰﹐爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先)已经在英伦列岛居住多年。
罗马人自公元前55年代开始﹐发动对英格兰的入侵﹐但直到公元43年才完全征服英格兰﹐自罗马人入侵到公元410年撤出英格兰﹐罗马人已经在英格兰盘居长达四百年之久。
在罗马人离开后﹐来自欧洲西日耳曼部落‘Angelen’ 地区的盎格鲁人(Angles) ﹑其它部落的撒克逊人(Saxon) ﹑朱特人(Jutes) 和弗里斯兰人(Frisian)开始跨海西迁进入英格兰地区(英语中的‘English’就是出自古词‘englisc ’﹐‘englise’中的‘ Engle’表示‘ the Angles ’﹐即是‘盎格鲁人’的意思)﹐并与当地的凯尔特人(Celts) 为争寻土地发生了长期的战争﹐经历几代后也续渐在英格兰各处定居下来。
凯尔特人(Celts)的国王 Arthur在Celts与日耳曼人之间长久的战争中﹐虽然曾一度与日耳曼停战﹐但最终凯尔特人还是不敌日耳曼人而被驱赶到今天的爱尔兰﹑威尔士和马恩(Man)岛地区﹐日耳曼人称威尔士地区的Celts为‘wealas’意即外国人﹐‘ Welsh ’和‘Wales’亦因此而得名。
英语作为最初期日耳曼人使用的语言﹐自从在英伦半岛生根成长到今天﹐整个语言的演进基本上可以划分为以下4个时期﹕1. Pre-old English. 前古英语时期(从日耳曼人入侵开始至公元500年罗马人撤出英格兰)2. Old English. 古英语时期(公元500-1100)3. Middle English. 中古英语时期(公元1100-1500)4. Modern English. 现代英语时期(公元1500-现在)古英语时期在前古英语时期﹐表记文字只有凯尔特人和日耳曼人受罗马字母影响而产生的RUNES字母。
但是从597年后开始﹐St. Augustine 主持了Kent国王Ethelberht 的受洗仪式﹐令他皈依了基督教。
英语发展历史英文作文English language has a rich and diverse history that spans over centuries. It has evolved and developed through various stages, reflecting the changes in society, culture, and technology.In the beginning, English was just a simple language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons in what is now modern-day England. It was a raw and unrefined form of communication, but it served its purpose well. People used it to convey their thoughts, share stories, and interact with one another.Over time, English started to borrow words from other languages, such as Latin and French. This infusion of new vocabulary enriched the language and expanded its capabilities. It became more sophisticated and adaptable, allowing speakers to express themselves in different ways.The invention of the printing press in the 15th centurybrought a significant change to the English language. Books became more accessible, and literacy rates started to rise. This led to a standardization of spelling and grammar, as writers and scholars sought to create a unified form of English that could be easily understood by all.As the British Empire expanded its reach across the globe, English spread to different parts of the world. It became a lingua franca, a common language used for trade, diplomacy, and communication between people of different backgrounds. This global influence further shaped the development of English, as it absorbed words and phrases from various cultures and languages.The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries brought about significant changes in society and technology. English adapted to these changes, incorporating new words related to industry, science, and technology. It became a language of innovation and progress, reflecting the advancements of the time.In the 20th century, English became the dominantlanguage of the United States, thanks to its economic and cultural influence. American English introduced new slang, idioms, and expressions, adding a vibrant and dynamic element to the language. This influence continues to shape the evolution of English today.With the advent of the internet and globalization, English has become even more widespread and accessible. It is now the most widely spoken language in the world, used by millions of people for various purposes. English continues to evolve, incorporating new words and expressions from different cultures and adapting to the changing needs of its speakers.In conclusion, the history of the English language is a testament to its adaptability and resilience. From its humble beginnings as a simple means of communication, it has grown into a global language that connects people from different corners of the world. Its development reflects the changes in society, culture, and technology, making it a truly dynamic and ever-evolving language.。
★英语的史_共１0篇范文一：英语的历史英语的历史英语是第一国际语言，母语为非英语国家的人学习外语时首选英语。
根据谱系分类法，语言可分成八大语系，即汉藏语系，印欧语系，闪含语系等。
英语属印欧语系日尔曼语族西日尔曼语支.以英语为母语的国家有美国、加拿大、英国、爱尔兰、澳大利亚、新西兰、南非、加勒比海诸国（巴哈马、牙买加、巴巴多斯、格林纳达、特立尼加和多巴哥）以及南美的圭亚那。
还有一些国家如印度、马来西亚、新加坡、尼日利亚、加纳、塞拉利昂、喀麦隆等英语也被作为官方语言。
全世界大约有3亿人在讲英语，另外有20亿人在一定程度上懂英语。
英语是如何崛起的,值得我们认真研究。
一、英国英语时期1．古代英语是从公元449年日耳曼的首领Jiｔiｓh人在不列颠的肯特郡登陆时开始的。
公元前，大不列颠岛上住着克尔特人等，公元五到六世纪盎格鲁撒克逊人开始移入。
公元７世纪先后出现了7个Angle—Saｘon王国,English一词就是从Anglｅ演变而来的。
有三种语言对古代英语产生过较大影响,他们是凯尔特语，遗迹有Ａvon，Kennet，Doｖer和Londｏn；拉丁语,幸存的词语有：ancor（aｎｃｈｏr）,f**ce(f**k）,mｉl（mｉle)，alｔar（ａltaｒe)，papa，plａｎｔe（pｌant），dihtan（ｄｉctatｅ）；１01３年后一个时期,丹麦人统治了全英格兰,所以，古北欧语是对古英语有影响的第三种语言.它们的影子多带sk音,如：sky,ｓｋｉn，skull，scare，skilｌ。
最早的英语文学作品只能追溯到75０年,即刻在石碑上的“ＤrｅaｔｈeRoｏd”（十字架之梦）。
比中国的《诗经》晚了1000多年。
2.中世纪的英语可分两个阶段，第一阶段从1066年诺曼征服起。
英王爱德华（忏悔者）无嗣而终，哈罗德被选为继承人.诺曼底大公威廉以哈罗德不是王室血统为由,对英国出兵征服。
在长达两个世纪的征服时期,法语作为统治阶级的官方用语成了语言上的最大成果，英国的遗老遗少不得不学点法语，以便发号施令。
英文的发展历史英语作文英文：English has a rich and complex history that spans over 1,400 years. The language has evolved and developed through various stages, influenced by different cultures and languages.Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, was spoken in England from the 5th century until the Norman Conquest in 1066. During this time, the language was heavily influenced by Germanic languages and Latin. Examples of Old Englishcan be found in famous works such as Beowulf.Middle English emerged after the Norman Conquest andwas spoken from the 11th century to the 15th century. This period saw the introduction of French and Latin influences, resulting in a significant change in vocabulary and grammar. Chaucer's Canterbury Tales is a famous example of Middle English literature.Modern English began to emerge in the late 15th century and has continued to evolve to this day. The Renaissance period saw a revival of classical learning and the introduction of new words and phrases. The British Empire also played a significant role in spreading the English language across the world.Today, English is the third most spoken language in the world, with over 1.5 billion speakers. It is the official language of over 50 countries and is widely used in international business, politics, and entertainment.中文：英语有着丰富而复杂的历史，跨越了1400多年的时间。
英语发展历史英文作文英文：The development of English language can be traced backto the 5th century when Germanic tribes invaded Britain and brought their language with them. Over the centuries, English has gone through various stages of evolution, from Old English to Middle English and finally to Modern English.Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, was spoken from the 5th century to the 11th century. During this time, English was heavily influenced by Latin and Norse. Middle English, which was spoken from the 11th century to the 15th century, saw the introduction of French vocabulary due tothe Norman Conquest of England in 1066. Modern English, which began in the 15th century, is the form of Englishthat is spoken today.The development of English language can also be attributed to the rise of the British Empire. As theBritish colonized various parts of the world, English became a global language and was adopted as the official language in many countries.English has also been greatly influenced by technology and the internet. The rise of social media and online communication has led to the creation of new words and phrases, such as "selfie" and "LOL".Overall, the development of English language has been a long and complex process, shaped by historical events, cultural influences, and technological advancements.中文：英语语言的发展可以追溯到公元5世纪，当时日耳曼部落入侵不列颠并带来了他们的语言。
英语的起源与发展简史The Origin and Evolution of English: A Brief History.English, a language that has captivated the world, has a rich and fascinating history. Its origin can be traced back to the 5th century when the Anglo-Saxons, a Germanic tribe, settled in Britain. Over the centuries, English has evolved and transformed,吸收 influence from various languages and cultures, 最终 becoming the global language of communication.The Early Stages: Anglo-Saxon England.The earliest form of English, known as Old English or Anglo-Saxon, was brought to Britain by the Anglo-Saxons. This language, which was closely related to other Germanic languages such as German and Dutch, was the predominant language in England until the Norman Conquest of 1066. During this period, English was primarily used for religious, legal, and administrative purposes.The Norman Conquest and the Influence of French.The Norman Conquest brought significant changes to English. The Normans, who were French-speaking, introduceda large number of French words and phrases into the language. This influx of French vocabulary and grammar hada profound impact on English, resulting in the developmentof Middle English. Middle English, which emerged in the11th century, was a hybrid language that combined Anglo-Saxon vocabulary with French grammar and syntax.The Renaissance and the Standardization of English.The Renaissance period, which began in the 14th century, marked a significant turning point in the history of English. During this time, there was a renewed interest in classical literature and languages, which led to the widespread adoption of Latin and Greek words into English. Additionally, the printing press, invented in the 15th century, allowed for the widespread dissemination of books and literature, further promoting the standardization anddevelopment of English.The 16th and 17th centuries saw further changes in English. The Protestant Reformation led to the translation of the Bible into English, making the language more accessible to the common people. Shakespeare, a renowned playwright and poet, used a rich vocabulary and innovative grammar in his works, which significantly contributed to the development and refinement of Modern English.The Global Spread of English.The global spread of English can be attributed to the British Empire's colonial expansion. As the British Empire expanded throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, English became the lingua franca of the Empire, serving as the common language of communication between the colonizers and the colonized. This led to the widespread adoption of English in countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and India.The 20th and 21st centuries saw the further ascendancyof English as the global language of communication. The advent of the internet and globalization has accelerated the spread of English, making it the most widely spoken language in the world. English is now used in international business, politics, education, and culture, and it is the official language of numerous countries and international organizations.In conclusion, the history of English is a fascinating tapestry of cultural exchange and linguistic evolution. From its humble beginnings as a Germanic tribal language to its current status as the global language of communication, English has transformed and adapted, drawing influence from various sources and reflecting the rich diversity of human history and culture.。
英语发展史的英语版The Development of English Language: A Historical PerspectiveIntroductionThe history of English language is a fascinating journey that dates back several centuries. From its humble beginnings as a Germanic dialect spoken by a small group of people in medieval England, English has grown into a global language that is spoken and understood by millions worldwide. This article aims to provide an overview of the key milestones and significant events that have shaped the development of English language throughout history.Old English Period (450-1100 AD)The story of English language begins with the arrival of Germanic tribes, namely the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, in the British Isles in the 5th century AD. The language they brought with them, known as Old English, was heavily influenced by the languages of the indigenous Celtic-speaking populations. Old English was characterized by complex inflectional endings and a vocabulary primarily based on Germanic roots.Middle English Period (1100-1500 AD)The next phase in the development of English language was the Middle English period. This era saw the influence of the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 by William the Conqueror. The Norman French spoken by the ruling class and the Latin used by the Church greatly influenced the English language. Middle English had a simplified grammar compared toOld English and saw the emergence of the Great Vowel Shift, which changed the pronunciation of English vowels.Early Modern English Period (1500-1800 AD)The Early Modern English period witnessed remarkable changes in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. The introduction of the printing press by William Caxton in 1476 had a significant impact on the standardization of English spelling and the spread of literacy. This period also saw the Renaissance, which brought a wealth of new words into English from classical languages such as Latin and Greek.The influence of the British Empire and Colonialism on English (18th-20th Century)With the expansion of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, English began to spread across the globe. British colonization led to the establishment of English as the official language in many colonies, and as a result, English experienced dramatic changes and variations influenced by local languages. These regional variations gave rise to different forms of English, such as American English, Australian English, and Indian English.Modern English and Globalization (20th Century-Present)The advancements in technology and globalization in the 20th century propelled English to new heights. English became the language of science, technology, international business, and diplomacy. The development of mass media, particularly television and the internet, further accelerated the spreadand evolution of English worldwide. English has become the most widely spoken second language and a lingua franca in many parts of the world.ConclusionThe development of English language has been shaped by various historical, social, and cultural factors. From its humble beginnings as a Germanic dialect to its current global status, English has undergone significant transformations over the centuries. The influence of other languages, colonization, and technological advancements have all contributed to the rich tapestry of the English language. Understanding the history of English helps us appreciate its complexity and diverse variations, making it an essential tool for global communication in the modern era.。
一种民族语言（包括词汇）的发展与民族的历史密切可关。
要了解英语语汇的发展史，不可避免地跟整个英语的发展史，乃至英国的历史密不可分。
不列颠群岛的最早居民是凯尔特人，又称不列颠人。
公元前55年，罗马人在凯萨大帝的率领下侵入不列颠群岛，凯尔特人被罗马人赶入威尔士和苏格兰的深山之中。
直到公元410年，罗马占领时期才告结束。
随后，来自德国北部平原的三个日耳曼部落盎格鲁人，撒克森人和朱特人开始来到不列颠定居。
英语就是盎格鲁—撒克森人的语言。
语言史学家一般把英语的历史分为三个时期：1、古英语时期，2、中古英语时期，3、现代英语时期。
1、古英语时期（又称盎格鲁-萨克森时期公元450—1100年）日尔曼部落在不列颠定居后，名自占领一些地区。
盎格鲁人占领了泰晤士河以北的英格兰的大部分地区和苏格兰的低地，朱特人占领了肯特郡一带地区，撒克森人占领了泰晤士河以南的大部分地区。
各个部落建立了一些小王国，出现了英国历史上的七国时代。
直到公元830年，阿尔弗雷德大王才统一了整个英格兰地区。
由于全国长期没有统一，所以古英语时期存在着多种方言，主要方言有四种：西萨克森语，肯特语，莫西亚语和北恩布里亚语。
这四种方言都曾一度占主导地位。
西撒克森语保存下来的手搞最多。
其它方言在形成英语的过程中也起过很重要的作用。
古英语的词汇有着浓厚的日尔曼语族的特点。
这主要表现为复合法是重要的构词方法。
复合词在古英语词汇中占有显著的地位。
据统计，在史诗《贝奥武夫》3183行诗句中，竟有1069个复合词。
有些复合词中不重读部分，渐渐失去了独立地位，而演变成了词缀，如for-, in-, -ful 等派生法在古英语中也广泛使用。
共有二十四个名词后缀、十五个形容词后缀，-dom, -hood, -ship, -ness, -the, -ful,- ish 等词缀都可溯源到古英语时期。
古英语时期的诗歌有一种特殊的修辞手法，即头韵(alliteration)，由此产生的许多短语一直保留到现在，如night and main, friend or foe, a labour of love。
古英语时期有两个重要的历史事件，给英语词汇带来较大的影响。
第一件事是基督教传入英国。
公元597年，一个名叫奥古斯丁的牧师从罗马来到英国传教。
罗马文化随着基督教传入了英国。
与此同时，一批拉丁词进入了英语。
第二件事是北欧人入侵英国。
从公元790年开始，大批斯堪的那维亚人在英国定居。
丹麦国王卡纽特还一度成为英国的君主。
斯堪的那维亚人和英国人频繁交往，所以有许多斯堪的那维亚各国的词语进入了英语。
2、中古英语时期（公元1100—1500年）公元1066年，诺曼人在征服王威廉率领下，横渡英吉利海峡，在哈斯丁战役中击溃了盎格鲁-萨克森军队，英王哈路德战死，英国被征服。
这在历史上被称为诺曼征服。
从此，英国结束了分裂状态，置于中央集权的封建统治之下。
谨曼征服是英国历史上的重要转折点，对英语的发展有巨大的影响。
诺曼征服之后，谨曼人占据了教会和政府的一切重要职务。
以后的二、三百年里，谨曼法语成为英国的官方语言。
普通人仍然讲英语，但英语的文字记载却几乎中断。
中古英语一般右以分为两个时期，1204年后，英语逐渐恢复主导地位。
1362年英王爱德华三世首次用英语向议会致词。
十五世纪，伦敦标准方言兴起。
1476年，卡克斯顿把印刷术传入英国，对英语拼写标准化、传播英语书面语都起了很大的推进作用。
在中古英语时期，英语历经了剧烈变化。
词尾变化大多消失，名词的性也消失了。
词序，虚词和语调成了表示句子关系的主要手段。
如果说古一英语与其它日尔曼语族的语言一样是典型的综合语，那么到了中古英语末期，英语已逐渐具有分析语的特性。
而且这个趋势一直在继续着。
词汇方面的变化也是显著的。
由于诺曼法语一度是英国统治阶级的语言，大批法语词涌入英语。
在政治、宗教、法律、军事、社交、服饰、饮食等凡是与统治阶级有关的一切领域都有反映。
法语词成了这些领域所用词语的主体。
从此，英语改变了运用复合法创造新词的主要手段，并用来指称新事物，表达新概念这一日尔曼语族语言的特征，而向外来语敞开了大门。
用直接引进借词的方法来满足对新词的需要。
这一变化对英语词汇的发展影响深远，为日后大量借词—主要是希腊语词、拉丁语词—进入英语铺平了道路。
随着众多的法语借词被吸收进英语，一些法语和拉丁语的词缀也被英语化了，成为英语构词的重要素材。
如前缀dis-, en-, inter-, mal-, non-, pre-, re-, semi-, sub-后缀如-able, -acy, -age, -al, -ancy/ency, -ate, -ory, -ance, -ant/-ent, -ician, -ise。
与此同时，有些英语本族语的词缀反而被废弃不用了。
在复合词的构成格式方面，也吸收了法语的一些特色，例如：名词+形容词，副词+过去分词(例by-gone)。
这些现象，语言学史上称为英语的罗曼语化。
这就是为什么从谱系关系上看，英语与德语同族，但现代英语的词汇和法语更相近的原因。
大量的法语词的涌入，也使英语词汇起了词义变化。
有一些英语固有的词被淘汰掉了，有一些虽然还存在，但词义范围有所改变，或者带上特有的文体色彩和感情色彩。
例如：wed在古英语中作“结婚”解，但在中古英语时期传入了法语词”merry”，英语中“结婚”这一意义渐渐由marry来表示，wed只用在引申意义中了；它的动名词wedding还是一个常用的词，但只限于指“婚礼”。
带有不同文体意义的英语本族语词与法语并存，组成了英语中特有的同义词群格式。
3、现代英语时期（1500-- ）到中古英语末期，英语已经确立了作为英国国语的地位。
乔叟的作品证明，英语已成为一种成熟的文学语言。
英语语法的简单化过程已大体完成，拼写走向固定，基本词汇也已形成。
总之，现代英语的基础也已经奠定。
如果说阅读中古英语以前的英语仿佛是在读另外一种语言，那么十六世纪以后的英语与当代的英语的差别也就不那么明显了。
现代英语一般以1700年为界，分为早期现代英语与后期现代英语。
1700年英语规范化和标准化过程已经完成，这以后英语的语音和语法都无大的变化，只有词汇不断地扩大和丰富。
早期现代英语时期，对英语词汇的影响最大的是文艺复兴运动。
文专职复兴运动是十四世纪在意大利开始的，在十六世纪以后的两个世纪内对英国的影响很大。
在这一时期，强调研究古代希腊、罗马文化，以对抗中世纪的封建文化。
于是许多外来词，主要是拉丁语和希腊语的词语传入英语，成为英语的书面语和术语词的基本部分。
同时也为英语提供了大量的同义词。
希腊和拉丁语词进入英语后有的保留了原来的形式，如 climax, appendix, exterior, axis；有的失去了词尾，如（扩号内为拉丁语）, consult (consultare), exclusion(exclusioneum) exotic (exoticus)；还有的改变了词尾，使之更适合英语的形式，如形容词词尾us 变成了ous或变成al，名词词尾tas变为ty。
经过1640年英国资产阶级革命和其后的工业革命，英帝国开始向外扩张，与世界各地的交往日趋频繁，全球各地的语言都有语汇进入了英语，例如：harem[波斯语，商队]，bazaar[波斯语，市场]，shawl[波斯语，披肩]，kiosk[土耳其语，凉亭]，coffee[土耳其语]，nabob[印地语，大富翁]，soy[日语，酱油]，orang-outang[马来语，猩猩]，paddy[马来语，稻]。
与此同时，由于与法国一直保持着密切关系，法语词仍然源源不断地传入英语。
这一时期传入英语的法语词很多保留了法语在发音和拼写上的特征，如protégé，被保护人，chaise 两轮马车。
在构词法方面，截短单词和混成词迅速增加。
依靠元音交替构成新词的方法被逐渐废弃了。
在这一时期，英语被带到了英国以外的一些地区、国家。
成为那里的通用语言。
这里应特别提到的美国英语。
随着时间的推移，大西洋两边的盎格鲁-萨克森人使用的英语尽管基本相同，但在语言，拼写和语法方面都开始出现一些区别。
二十世纪以来，英美的科学文化有了很大的发展，各式各样的宣传媒介越来越普及，又发生了两次世界大战，从们之间的交往越来越多，英语的词汇也随着越来越丰富。
词汇量有了成倍的增加。
英语作为一种国际的语言，是英国，美国，澳大利亚，新西兰，加拿大等国的国语。
使用人口过三亿四千万以上，是在国际上使用最广泛的语言，在国际交往中起着重要的作用。
经过1500年的变迁，英语从几个日耳曼部族的语言发展为今天具有重大国际影响的语言，这固然有政治，经济，社会的原因，但英语本身也有其它主要语言所没有的长处。
词汇的国际性便是他的优点之一。
从本单元简略地回顾中可以看出英语善于吸收外来词。
一方面英语属于日尔曼语族，有日尔曼语的共同词语，另一方面又长期与法语及其它罗曼语族语言的联系密切，同时吸收了大量古典词语。
可以说，英语把代表欧洲主要文化的词语兼收并蓄于一身，这在欧洲各语言中间是独特的。
从语法角度看，英语词尾变化简单，没有复杂的性数格变化。
英语正在不断向分析性语言的方向发展，向简化的方向发展，英语的词序起的作用越来越大，这也使英语比较容易学习，特别是容易入门了。
英语也有他的弱点。
最容易察觉的便是拼读不统一，造成的拼写混乱。
此外，同义词、惯用语特别多，这固然使其表现力强，但同时也给英语学习者带来了不少的因难。
English is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. This broad family includes most of the European languages spoken today. The Indo-European family includes several major branches: Latin and the modern Romance languages (French etc.); the Germanic languages (English, German, Swedish etc.); the Indo-Iranian languages (Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit etc.); the Slavic languages (Russian, Polish, Czech etc.); the Baltic languages of Latvian and Lithuanian; the Celtic languages (Welsh, Irish Gaelic etc.); Greek.The influence of the original Indo-European language can be seen today, even though no written record of it exists. The word for father, for example, is vater in German, pater in Latin, and pitr in Sanskrit. These words are all cognates, similar words in different languages that share the same root.By the second century BC, this Common Germanic language had split into three distinct sub-groups:East Germanic was spoken by peoples who migrated back to southeastern Europe. No East Germanic language is spoken today, and the only written East Germanic language that survives is Gothic.North Germanic evolved into the modern Scandinavian languages of Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic (but not Finnish, which is related to Hungarian and Estonian and is not an Indo-European language).West Germanic is the ancestor of modern German, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, and English.Old English (500-1100 AD)West Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the Angles (whose name is the source of the words England and English), Saxons, and Jutes, began to settle in the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. They spoke a mutually intelligible language, similar to modern Frisian - the language of the northeastern region of the Netherlands - that is called Old English. Four major dialects of Old English emerged, Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the Midlands, West Saxon in the south and west, and Kentish in the Southeast.These invaders pushed the original, Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of what is now England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, leaving behind a few Celtic words. These Celtic languages survive today in the Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland and in Welsh. Cornish, unfortunately, is, in linguistic terms, now a dead language. (The last native Cornish speaker died in 1777) Also influencing English at this time were the Vikings. Norse invasions and settlement, beginning around 850, brought many North Germanic words into the language, particularly in the north of England. Some examples are dream, which had meant 'joy' until the Vikings imparted its current meaning on it from the Scandinavian cognate draumr, and skirt, which continues to live alongside its native English cognate shirt.The majority of words in modern English come from foreign, not Old English roots. In fact, only about one sixth of the known Old English words have descendants surviving today. But this is deceptive; Old English is much more important than these statistics would indicate. About half of the most commonly used words in modern English have Old English roots. Words like be, water, and strong, for example, derive from Old English roots.Old English, whose best known surviving example is the poem Beowulf, lasted until about 1100. Shortly after the most important event in the development and history of the English language, the Norman Conquest.The Norman Conquest and Middle English (1100-1500)William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. The new overlords spoke a dialect of Old French known as Anglo-Norman. The Normans were also of Germanic stock ("Norman" comes from "Norseman") and Anglo-Norman was a French dialect that had considerable Germanic influences in addition to the basic Latin roots.Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on the English language, mainly through vestiges of the Roman occupation and from the conversion of Britain to Christianity in the seventh century (ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar, and mass came into the language this way), but now there was a wholesale infusion of Romance (Anglo-Norman) words.The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow.Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow. Many legal terms, such as indict, jury , and verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the courts. This split, where words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romantic roots and words frequently used by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances.Sometimes French words replaced Old English words; crime replaced firen and uncle replaced eam. Other times, French and Old English components combined to form a new word, as the French gentle and the Germanic man formed gentleman. Other times, two different words with roughly the same meaning survive into modern English. Thus we have the Germanic doom and the French judgment, or wish and desire.In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the King of France. This began a process where the Norman nobles of England became increasingly estranged from their French cousins. England became the chief concern of the nobility, rather than their estates in France, and consequently the nobility adopted a modified English as their native tongue. About 150 years later, the Black Death (1349-50) killed about one third of the English population. And as a result of this the labouring and merchant classes grewin economic and social importance, and along with them English increased in importance compared to Anglo-Norman.This mixture of the two languages came to be known as Middle English. The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Unlike Old English, Middle English can be read, albeit with difficulty, by modern English-speaking people.By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and the commoners was largely over. In that year, the Statute of Pleading was adopted, which made English the language of the courts and it began to be used in Parliament.The Middle English period came to a close around 1500 AD with the rise of Modern English.Early Modern English (1500-1800)The next wave of innovation in English came with the Renaissance. The revival of classical scholarship brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the Language. These borrowings were deliberate and many bemoaned the adoption of these "inkhorn" terms, but many survive to this day. Shakespeare's character Holofernes in Loves Labor Lost is a satire of an overenthusiastic schoolmaster who is too fond of Latinisms.Many students having difficulty understanding Shakespeare would be surprised to learn that he wrote in modern English. But, as can be seen in the earlier example of the Lord's Prayer, Elizabethan English has much more in common with our language today than it does with the language of Chaucer. Many familiar words and phrases were coined or first recorded by Shakespeare, some 2,000 words and countless idioms are his. Newcomersto Shakespeare are often shocked at the number of cliches contained in his plays, until they realize that he coined them and they became cliches afterwards. "One fell swoop," "vanish into thin air," and "flesh and blood" are all Shakespeare's. Words he bequeathed to the language include "critical," "leapfrog," "majestic," "dwindle," and "pedant."Two other major factors influenced the language and served to separate Middle and Modern English. The first was the Great Vowel Shift. This was a change in pronunciation that began around 1400. While modern English speakers can read Chaucer with some difficulty, Chaucer's pronunciation would have been completely unintelligible to the modern ear. Shakespeare, on the other hand, would be accented, but understandable. Vowel sounds began to be made further to the front of the mouth and the letter "e" atthe end of words became silent. Chaucer's Lyf (pronounced "leef") became the modern life. In Middle English name was pronounced "nam-a," five was pronounced "feef," and down was pronounced "doon." In linguistic terms, the shift was rather sudden, the major changes occurring within a century. The shift is still not over, however, vowel sounds are still shortening although the change has become considerably more gradual.The last major factor in the development of Modern English was the advent of the printing press. William Caxton brought the printing press to England in 1476. Books became cheaper and as a result, literacy became more common. Publishing for the masses became a profitable enterprise, and works in English, as opposed to Latin, became more common. Finally, the printing press brought standardization to English. The dialect of London, where most publishing houses were located, became the standard. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the first English dictionary was published in 1604.Late-Modern English (1800-Present)The principal distinction between early- and late-modern English is vocabulary. Pronunciation, grammar, and spelling are largely the same, but Late-Modern English has many more words. These words are the result of two historical factors. The first is the Industrial Revolution and the rise of the technological society. This necessitated new words for things and ideas that had not previously existed. The second was the British Empire. At its height, Britain ruled one quarter of the earth's surface, and English adopted many foreign words and made them its own.The industrial and scientific revolutions created a need for neologisms to describe the new creations and discoveries. For this, English relied heavily on Latin and Greek. Words like oxygen, protein, nuclear, and vaccine did not exist in the classical languages, but they were created from Latin and Greek roots. Such neologisms were not exclusively created from classical roots though, English roots were used for such terms as horsepower, airplane, and typewriter.This burst of neologisms continues today, perhaps most visible in the field of electronics and computers. Byte, cyber-, bios, hard-drive, and microchip are good examples.Also, the rise of the British Empire and the growth of global trade served not only to introduce English to the world, but to introduce words into English. Hindi, and the other languages of the Indian subcontinent, provided many words, such as pundit, shampoo, pajamas, and juggernaut. Virtually every language on Earth has contributed to the development of English, from Finnish (sauna) and Japanese (tycoon) to the vast contributions of French and Latin.The British Empire was a maritime empire, and the influence of nautical terms on the English language has been great. Phrases like three sheets to the wind have their origins onboard ships.Finally, the military influence on the language during the latter half of twentieth century was significant. Before the Great War, military service for English-speaking persons was rare; both Britain and the United States maintained small, volunteer militaries. Military slang existed, but with the exception of nautical terms, rarely influenced standard English. During the mid-20th century, however, a large number of British and American men served in the military. And consequently military slang entered the language like never before. Blockbuster, nose dive, camouflage, radar, roadblock, spearhead, and landing strip are all military terms that made their way into standard English.American English and other varietiesAlso significant beginning around 1600 AD was the English colonization of North America and the subsequent creation of American English. Some pronunciations and usages "froze" when they reached the American shore. In certain respects, some varieties of American English are closer to the English of Shakespeare than modern Standard English ('English English' or as it is often incorrectly termed 'British English') is. Some "Americanisms" are actually originally English English expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost at home (e.g., fall as a synonym for autumn, trash for rubbish, and loan as a verb instead of lend).The American dialect also served as the route of introduction for many native American words into the English language. Most often, these were place names like Mississippi, Roanoke, and Iowa. Indian-sounding names like Idaho were sometimes created that had no native-American roots. But, names for other things besides places were also common. Raccoon, tomato, canoe, barbecue, savanna, and hickory have native American roots, although in many cases the original Indian words were mangled almost beyond recognition.Spanish has also been great influence on American English. Mustang, canyon, ranch, stampede, and vigilante are all examples of Spanish words that made their way into English through the settlement of the American West.A lesser number of words have entered American English from French and West African languages.Likewise dialects of English have developed in many of the former colonies of the British Empire. There are distinct forms of the English language spoken in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India and many other parts of the world.Global EnglishEnglish has now inarguably achieved global status. Whenever we turn on the news to find out what's happening in East Asia, or the Balkans, or Africa, or South America, or practically anywhere, local people are being interviewed and telling us about it in English. To illustrate the point when Pope John Paul II arrived in the Middle East recently to retrace Christ's footsteps and addressed Christians, Muslims and Jews, the pontiff spoke not Latin, not Arabic, not Italian, not Hebrew, not his native Polish. He spoke in English. Indeed, if one looks at some of the facts about the amazing reach of the English language many would be surprised. English is used in over 90 countries as an official or semi-official language. English is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN. It is the de facto working language of 98 percent of international research physicists and research chemists. It is the official language of the European Central Bank, even though the bank is in Frankfurt and neither Britain nor any other predominantly English-speaking country is a member of the European Monetary Union. It is the language in which Indian parents and black parents in South Africa overwhelmingly wish their children to be educated. It is believed that over one billion people worldwide are currently learning English.One of the more remarkable aspects of the spread of English around the world has been the extent to which Europeans are adopting it as their internal lingua franca. English is spreading from northern Europe to the south and is now firmly entrenched as a secondlanguage in countries such as Sweden, Norway, Netherlands and Denmark. Although not an official language in any of these countries if one visits any of them it would seem that almost everyone there can communicate with ease in English. Indeed, if one switches ona television in Holland one would find as many channels in English (albeit subtitled), as there are in Dutch.As part of the European Year of Languages, a special survey of European attitudes towards and their use of languages has just published. The report confirms that at the beginning of 2001 English is the most widely known foreign or second language, with 43% of Europeans claiming they speak it in addition to their mother tongue. Sweden now heads the league table of English speakers, with over 89% of the population saying they can speak the language well or very well. However, in contrast, only 36% of Spanish and Portuguese nationals speak English. What's more, English is the language rated as most useful to know, with over 77% of Europeans who do not speak English as their first language, rating it as useful. French rated 38%, German 23% and Spanish 6%English has without a doubt become the global language.。
