(完整版)胡壮麟《语言学教程》名词解释

胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformativefunction,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phaticcommunion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,yingdown rules for language use.8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels ofare composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable theirusers to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at themoment of communication.12.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.13.metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particularstudies.14.macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such aspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches ofmacrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,etpetence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16.performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18.parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).19.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.20.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations areinvolved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.21.Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.22.Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.23.Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some placeto divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.24.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.25.Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When/t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/. 26.Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping ofthe air can be perceived.27.Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actualrelationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.28.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in thevocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.29.Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.plementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the sameenvironment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.31.IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the InternationalPhonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.32.Suprasegmental:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments.The principal supra-segmental features are syllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.33.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,aunit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.pound oly morphemic words w hich consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.35.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectionalaffixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.36.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).37.derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.38.root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.39.allomorph:any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme isbut it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ inclasses.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.40.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.41.bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is addedto,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.42.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.43.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)44.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided withsemantic interpretation.45.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articlesand pronouns.46.lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action andquality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.47.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.48.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.49.loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,insome cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.50.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fullyborrowed.51.leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.52.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.53.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.54.back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting animagined affix from a long form already in the language.55.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is morespecifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.56.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so thatthe sounds become less alike,or different.57.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation ofthe origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous58.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts ofspeech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.59.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of thetruth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connectionbetween them.60.Proposition:what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do withreference.61.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.62.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of oneelement change to match those of another that precedes or follows.63.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a“recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistionelement”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.64.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wordsprovide an appropriate context for it.65.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its morefrequent usage in language.66.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone hassaid,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinarysense,e.g.in a specific context.67.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understandeach word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies theunderstanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde tomake friends,influence people,convey information and so on.71.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,wherea bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.72.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.73.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,eachgoverned by its own principles and operating independently of others.74.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionallye.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.75.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property ofpropositions that they have truth values.76.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguisticstructure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).77.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures representedin the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.78.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.79.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.80.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.82.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”83.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determinesthought.84.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.85.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about bynothing less than women’s place in society.86.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look atstructural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.87.sociolinguistics of society:one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understandsociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.88.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’socialstarts and phonological variations.89.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.90.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.91.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means ofsyntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.92.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’sintention.93.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequenceof,or the change brought about by the utterance.94.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandableto the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.95.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Maryis running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.96.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.。

语言学重点名词解释refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.refers that there is no logical connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for(meaning and sounds).means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.system must be learned by each speaker.people what they should say and not say.in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time在那一刻、时、块的情况（当代、古代）历时in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time and treated historically.(在过程中都有什么变化、区别、有大时间变化)2个共时即为历时occur in the world’s languages.are sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the oral cavity。

LINGUISTICS A COURSE BOOKDefine the following terms:1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions inclucle informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e. laying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of humanlanguage, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of humanlanguage, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary. level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of humanlanguage, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication. 13. phatic communion: one function of humanlanguage, which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguisticsigns or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting studybetween language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).20. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic processin which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually avowel or a voiced consonant) by vibratingthe vocal cords.23. Broad and narrow transcription: the use ofa simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26. Allophone: any of the different forms ofa phoneme(e.g. <th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated <t>.Both <th> and <t> are allophones of the phoneme /t/.27. Vowel: are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28. Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants, place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.30. Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by theInternational Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergoing a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics, etc.33. Suprasegmental: suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal supra-segmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 34. Suprasegmental: aspects of speech thatinvolve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language interms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound only morphemic words whichconsist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snow-white, etc. 37. inflection: the manifestation ofgrammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type offormative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). 39. derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph: any of the different form of amorpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42 Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g. “dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system. 56. back-formation: an abnormal type ofword-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix froma long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as aresult of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called. “contact”or “contiguous” assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a wordor phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.60. category: parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.61. concord: also known as agreement, is therequirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item andothers in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holdingbetween elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: theanalysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: oneconstruction whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. 66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such as the relation between, the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object. 68. surface structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities, or of the more general features, in these two government relations, is technically called constituent command, c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis, or the starting point, of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication. 72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles, which include the communication roles created by language itself; and also for getting things done, by means of the interaction between one person and another.74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which itis used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part ofmeaning, which contains logical, cognitive, or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast withdenotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to expressa propostion, meaning the properties of theentity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of language to expressa proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair incomplementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely, such as male, female, absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kindare gradable, such as long: short, big;small, fat; thin, etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind ofantonymy in that members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition, such as buy; sell, lend, borrow, above, below, etc.85. relational opposites: converse antonymyin reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, and temporal and spatial relations. There are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other. The shorter, better; words .etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words, inwhich the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym).87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e. the class name. A superordinate usuallyhas several hyponyms. Under animal, for example, there are cats, dogs, pigs, etc.88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g. <+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction: semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take, e.g. regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition; what is talk about in an utterance, that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus, which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound, word, syntax, etc.)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent “recognition element”. When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal, all elements matching it are fully activated, and, as more of the signal is received, the system tries to match it independently with each of them, Wherever it fails the element is deactivated; this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriatecontext for it.97. frequency effect: describes theadditional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawnfrom a set of proposition, from something someone has said, and so on. It includes things that, while not following logically, are implied, in an ordinary sense, e.g. ina specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader issupposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception: language awareness of things through the physical senses, esp. sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research, which studies the understanding of language. 102. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on. 103. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on. 104. lexical ambiguity: ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: e.g. that of I saw a bat, where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others, stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition: general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular: which a assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing: the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents, traditionally e.g. to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions: whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement. It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure. Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics (being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind, and experimental psycholinguistics (being concerned somehow whth empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar, etc. as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker. Often opposed, in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars, to criteria of simplicity, elegance, and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized. 113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing development.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions, etc. governing the skilled use of language in a society. Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence, in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is “gender difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society; one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics, which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. 123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of thecooperative principle.128. entailment: relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other: e.g. “Mary is running”entails, among other things, “Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance, or a proposition that it communicates, must, in the nature of communication, necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, i.e. Make your contribution necessary (Gradation, Quantity2, Manner); Say no more than you must (given Q). 133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked creatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarked a(simpler, less “effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed). 134. constraints on Horn scales: the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to. 135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s representation of speech acts:a minimalist kind of presentation in whicha part of passage can be seen as a summeryof a longer piece of discourse, and therefore even more backgrounded than indirect speech representation would be. 141. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts. For example, she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features. 144. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g. He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features. 147. narrator’s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speeche.g. He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same asthose used to represent a speech, e.g. He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard, printer, screen, disk drives, programs, etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programmed instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress, to direct students into appropriate lessons, material, etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom, lab, or building. They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information. Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom. 157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word, sequence of words. or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word, usually in a context, which is a further aid to the linguist. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so thatinformation on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately, applied to the type of activity discussed in this volume. An information retrieval system does not inform (i.e. change the knowledge of) the user on the subject of his inquiry. It merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships, between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies. It covers specifically a logical organization of information, such as document representatives, for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, and other areas such as translation, the compiling of dictionaries, etc.166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes, the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use. 167. syllabus: the planning of course of instruction. It is a description of the course content, teaching procedures and。

1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pi ke’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qpp eal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s und erlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． V oicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． V owl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illoc utionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be. 141. narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144. narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147. narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another. 158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotatedcorpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167. syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis。

胡壮麟语言学名词解释汇总————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结Define the following terms:1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions include imformative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s dis tinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic w hich originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnograph, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21 Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26．Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27．Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29．Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions. IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental: suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats, as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51.loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised. By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connectionbetween them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96 context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered. nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternativegrammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.munic ative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of know ledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonologica l variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. 124.locution ary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the s peaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案Define the following terms:1.design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2.function: the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions inclucle informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alo ne.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones ofthe phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.theunderlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experi ence of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitutea positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.。

胡壮麟语言学名词解释胡壮麟是中国著名语言学家，被誉为“中国语言学的泰斗”，他对汉语语言学和普通话教学做出了卓越贡献。

下面是对胡壮麟语言学名词的解释：1. 语言语言是人类最重要的交流工具，是人与人之间进行思想、知识和文化传递的媒介。

胡壮麟认为，语言是一种人造符号系统，具有表达意义、交际功能和形成文化的能力。

2. 语音语音是语言的基本要素之一，研究语音可以揭示语言声音组织的规律和特点。

胡壮麟提出了八股语音学的理论体系，包括声母、韵母、声调等要素，并对中文语音特点进行了系统研究。

3. 语音规律语音规律是指语音在特定语言中的音位分布、音位变体、连读、变调等规律性现象。

胡壮麟对汉语语音规律进行了深入研究，提出了一系列理论和方法，如“韵尾现象”、“叠音现象”等。

4. 语法语法是语言的基本结构和规则，包括词法、句法和语义等方面。

胡壮麟在汉语语法研究中，提出了“双重结构理论”，强调词法和句法的统一性，并对句子结构、动词短语和名词短语等进行了深入分析。

5. 语义语义是语言的意义系统，研究词汇和句子的意义、语义变化等问题。

胡壮麟针对中文语义的特点，提出了“双重语义理论”，强调语义的界限模糊、语义的丰富性和词义的扩展和变化。

6. 文化语言学文化语言学是研究语言与文化关系的学科，包括言语行为、语言习惯、社会语言学等方面。

胡壮麟在文化语言学方面提出了“语言与文化的关系可以用交替来说明”等观点，探究了语言与文化之间的相互作用。

7. 语言变化语言变化是指语言在时间和空间上的变化过程，具体包括语音、词汇、语法等方面的变化。

胡壮麟对语言变化进行了深入研究，提出了“语域、语变”等概念，分析了语音变化的规律和原因。

8. 语言教学语言教学是指教师将语言知识和技能传授给学习者的过程，包括词汇、语法、听力、口语和写作等方面的教学。

胡壮麟对汉语普通话教学进行了系统研究，提出了“四声同调”、“朝鲜汉字音韵”等理论，促进了汉语教学的发展。

以上是对胡壮麟语言学名词的基本解释，这些名词涵盖了语言学的各个方面，胡壮麟通过深入研究和理论创新，为中国语言学界做出了重要贡献。

胡壮麟语言学名词解释集团标准化小组：[VVOPPT-JOPP28-JPPTL98-LOPPNN]C h a p t e r1:I n t r o d u c t i o n1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)7. diachronic study:It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole?:Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence?: The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. competence有什么区别？？11. performance?: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language?: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features?: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium?: The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)2. phonetics?: The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)3. articulatory phonetics?: It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.或者It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation?: The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation?: The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel?: a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong?: the individual vowel.18. diphthong?: The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.20. phoneme?: An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone?: the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)22. phonology?: The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast?: two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution?: allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they’re collectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.Chapter 3: Morphology1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words andrules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it constantly.(08C)3. closed class: A group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes thepart of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others.E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.（07F）10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F)12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)15.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top levelare said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction (such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.)15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.(08F/09C)17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation?: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion?: the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Inflposition to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion?: In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work. 24. deep structure?: A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads’s subcategorization properties.(08F)25. surface structure?: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresult from appropriate transformations. (05)26. Wh question?: In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement?:The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.补充29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.第十一章30.structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemesin a language.31.IC analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.32.paradigmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.33.syntagmatic relation: the relation between any linguisticelements which aresimultaneously present in a structure.34.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking upsentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.35.endocentric construction: (向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching? equivalence, to one of its constituents. Thetypical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases. （03）36.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentricconstruction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning ofa word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world,but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense?: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference?: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic worldof experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.(08C)7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy?: The same word has more than one meaning.(it can be understood as the growth and development of or change in the meaning of the words).(05/03)10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate;and the more specific words are called its hyponyms;hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.(07F)或者 Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。

胡壮麟《语言学教程〉名词解释课后答案Define the following terms:1.design feature :are features that define our human Ianguages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displaceme nt,cultural tran smissi on, etc.2.function : the use of Ianguage tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imfor mative fun ctio n,in terpers onal fun ctio n,performative function ,i nterpers onal fun ctio n,performative fun cti on, emotive function, phatic com munion, recreati onal fun ctio n and metali ngual fun cti on.3.etic : a term in contrast with emic w hich originates from American linguist Pike ' s distinction of phon etics and phon emics.Be ing etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in li n guistics proper.4.emic : a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike ' s distinction of phon etics and phon emics.A n emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than viaqppeal to the investigator ' s ingenuith or intuition alone.5.s ynchronic: a kind of descripti on which takes a fixed in sta nt(usually,but not n ecessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachr onic :study of a Ian guage is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive : the study of a Ianguage is carried through the course of its history.8.prescriptive : a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e. laying dow n rules for Ian guage use.9.descriptive : a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10.arbitrariness : one design feature of human Ianguage,which refers to the face that the formsof lin guistic sig ns bear no n atural relati on ship to their meaning.11.duality: one design feature of human Ianguage,which refers to the property of having two I evels of are composed of eleme nts of the sec on dary .I evel and each of the two levels has its own prin ciples of orga ni zatio n.12.displacement : one design feature of human Ianguage,which means human Ianguage enable their users to symbolize objects,eve nts and con cepts which are not prese nt c in time and space,at t he mome nt of com muni catio n.13.phatic communion : one function of human Ianguage,which refers to the social interaction ofIan guage.14.metala nguage : certa in kinds of lin guistic sig ns or terms for the an alysis and descripti onof particular studies.15.macroli nguistics : he in teract ing study betwee n Ian guage and Ian guage-related discipli nes such as psychology,sociology,eth no graph,scie nee of law and artificial in tellige nee etc.Bra nches of macroli nguistics in clude psycholi nguistics,socioli nguistics,a nthropological li nguistics,etpete nee: Ian guage user ' s un derly ing kno wledge about the system of rules.17.performanee : the actual use of Ianguage in concrete situation.18.Ian gue: the lin guistic compete nee of the speaker.19.parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20.Articulatory phonetics : the study of production of speechsounds.21.Coarticulation : a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulatio ns are in voIved..CoarticuIati on can be further divided into an ticipatory coarticulati on and per severative coarticulati on.22.Voicing : pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23.Broad and n arrow tran scripti on: the use of a simple set of symbols in tran scripti on is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called bro ad tran scriptio n;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phon etic detail is referre d to as n arrow tran scriptio n.24.Consonant: are sound segme nts produced by con strict ing or obstruct ing the vocal tra ct at some place todivert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25.Pho neme: the abstract eleme nt of soun d, ide ntified as being dist inctive in a partic ular Ian guage.26.Alloph on e:a ny of the differe nt forms of a phon eme(eg.<th>is an alloph one of /t/in En glish.Whe n /t/occurs in words like step,it is un aspirated<t>.Both<th>a nd <t>are allopho nes of the phon eme/t/.27.Vowl:are sound segme nts produced without such obstruct ion,so no turbule nee of a tot al stopp ing of the air can be perceived.28.Manner of articulati on; in the product ion of consonan ts,ma nner of articulati on refe rs to the actual relati on ship betwee n the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certa in parts of the vocal tract.29.Place of articulati on: in the product ion of consonan ts,place of articulati on refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximati on,n arrow in g,or the obstruct ion of air.30.Dist in ctive features: a term of phono logy,i.e.a property which dist in guishes one ph on eme from ano ther.pleme ntary distributi on: the relati on betwee n tow speech sounds that n ever occurin the same en viro nmen t.Alloph ones of the same phon eme are usually in compleme ntary distributio n.32.IPA: the abbreviati on of Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet,which is devised by the In ternational Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.lPA is a c omprised system emplo ying symbols of all sources,such as Roma n small letters,italics uprighted, obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33.Suprasegme ntal:suprasegme ntal featuresare those aspects of speech that in volve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and inton ati on.34.Suprasegme ntal:aspects of speech that in volve more tha n sin gle sound segme nts.The p rinciple suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35.morpheme:the smallest un it of Ian guage in terms of relati on ship betwee n expressi on a nd conten t,a unit that cannot be divided into further small un its without destro ying or drastic ally altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.po und oly morphemic words which con sist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,s no wwhite,etc.37.in flect ion: the mani festati on of grammatical relati on ship through the additi on of inflecti onal affixes,such as nu mber,pers on,fin ite ness,aspect and case,which do not cha nge the gra mmatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only whe n adde d to ano ther morpheme(the root or stem).39.derivati on: differe nt from compo un ds,derivati on shows the relatio n betwee n roots and affixes.40.root: the base from of a word that cannot further be an alyzed without total lass ofiden tity.41.allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differe ntly in differe nt environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ i ndogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem: any morpheme or comb in ati on of morphemes to which an in flecti onal affix can be added.43.bound morpheme: an eleme nt of meaning which is structurally depe ndent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “ dog' s”.44.free morpheme: an eleme nt of meaning which takes the form of an in depe ndent word.45.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g. ” dog in the manger )46.lexicon: a list of all the words in a Ianguage assigned to various lexical categories and provided with sema ntic in terpretati on.47.grammatical word: word express ing grammatical meanin gs,such conj unction, prepositi ons, articles and pronouns.48.lexical word: word havi ng lexical meanin gs,that is ,those which refer to substa nce,action and quality,such as noun s,verbs,adjectives,a nd verbs.49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as noun s,verbs,adjectives,a nd many adverbs.50.ble nding: a relatively complex form of compo undin g,i n which two words are ble nded byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the in itial parts of the two words. 51.loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptati on ,i n some cases,to eh phono logical system of the new Ian guage that they en ter.52.loa nble nd: a process in which part of the form is n ative and part is borrowed, but t he meaning is fully borrowed.53.lea nshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is n ative.54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the n ame of an orga ni zati on, which hasa heavily modified headword.55.loss: the disappeara nee of the very sound as a morpheme in the phono logical system.56.back-formatio n: an abno rmal type of word-formati on where a shorter word is derived by delet ing an imagi ned affix from a long form already in the Ian guage.57.assimilati on: the cha nge of a sound as a result of the in flue nce of an adjace nt sound,which is more specifically called. ” con tact ” or ” con tiguous ” assimilati on.58.dissimilati on: the in flue nce exercised.By one sound segme nt upon the articulati on ofano ther, so that the sounds become less alike,or differe nt.59.folk etymology: a cha nge in form of a word or phrase,result ing from an in correct popular n ati on of the origi n or meaning of the term or from the in flue nce of more familiar terms mistake nly take n to be an alogous60.category:parts of speech and function, such as the classificati on of words in terms of parts of speech,the ide ntificati on of terms of parts of speech,the ide ntificati on of function s of words in term ofsubject,predicate,etc.61.con cord: also known as agreeme nt,is the requireme nt that the forms of two or more words in a syn tactic relati on ship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62.syn tagmatic relati on betwee n one item and others in a seque nce,or betwee n eleme nts w hich are all prese nt.63.paradigmatic relati on: a relatio n holdi ng betwee n eleme nts replaceable with each oth er at a particular place in a structure,or betwee n one eleme nt prese nt and he others abse nt.64.immediate con stitue nt an alysis: the an alysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun an alyzed into the immediate con stitue nts of their own,and the process goes on un til the ultimate con stitue nts are reached.65.en doce ntric con struct ion: one con struct ion whose distributi on is fun cti on ally equiva lent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.He nee an en doce ntric con struct ion is also known as a headed con structi on.66.exoce ntric con structi on: a con structi on whose distributi on is not function ally equiv ale nt to any to any of its con stitue nts.67.deep structure: the abstract represe ntati on of the syn tactic properties of a con stru ction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68.surfacte structure: the final stage in the syn tactic derivatio n of a con struct ion,which closely corresp onds to the structural orga ni zati on of a con struct ion people actually produc e and receive.69.c-comma nd: one of the similarities,or of the more gen eral features, in these two gov ernment relatio ns,is tech ni cally called con stitue nt comma nd,c-comma nd for short.'s TGer nment and binding theo ry: it is the fourth period of developme nt ChomskyGrammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utteranee. muni cative dyn amism: the exte nt to which the sentence eleme nt con tributes to the developme nt of the com muni cati on.72.ideatio nal function: the speaker ' s experie nee of the real world,i nclud ing the innerworld of his own con scious ness.73.in terpers onal fun ctio n: the use of Ian guage to establish and main ta in social relations: for the expressi on of social roles,which in clude the com muni cati on roles created by Ian guag e itself;a nd also for gett ing thi ngs don e,by means of the in teracti on betwee n one pers on and an other..74.textual function: the use of Ian guage the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situati on in which it is used.75.con ceptual meaning: the cen tral part of meaning, which contains logical,cog nitive,or deno tative content.76.deno tatio n: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phe nomena in thereal world.77.conno tati on: a term in a con trast with deno tati on, mea ning the properties of the entity a word deno tes.78.referen ce: the use of Ian guage to express a propostio n, mea ning the properties of the en tity a word deno tes.79.referen ce: the use of an guage to express a propositi on ,i.e. to talk about things in con text.80.sen se: the literal meaning of a word or an expressi on ,i ndepe ndent of situati onal con text.81.synonymy: is the tech ni cal n ame for the same ness relati on.ple ntary antonymy: members of a pair in compleme ntary antonymy are compleme ntaryto each field completely,such as male,female,abse nt.83.gradable anton gymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as Ion g:short,big;small,fat;th in, etc.84.con verse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not con stitute a positive-n egative oppositi on, such as buy;sell,le nd,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relati onal opposites:c on verse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,ki nship relati ons,temporal and spatial relati on s.There are always two en tities in volved. One presupposes the other.The shorter,better;worse.etc are in sta nces of relati onal opposites.86.hyp onymy: a relati on betwee n tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordin ate)is in cluded in the meaning of ano ther word(the hyp onym)87.superord in ate: the upper term in hyp ony my,i.e.the class n ame.A superord in ate usuallyhas several hyp ony ms. Un der ani mal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88.sema ntic comp onent: a dist in guishable eleme nt of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+huma n>positi on ality: a prin ciple for sentence an alysis, in which the meaning of a sente nee depe nds on the meanings of the con stitue nt words and the way they are comb in ed.90.selectio n restrictio n:sema ntic restrictio ns of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a huma n subject.91.prepositi on al logic: also known as prepositi onal calculus or senten tial calculus,isthe study of the truth con diti ons for propositi on s:how the truth of a composite propositi ons and the connection betwee n them.92.propositi on; what is talk about in an uttera nce,that part of the speech act which hasto do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilati on theory: Ian guage(so un d,word,s yn tax,etc)cha nge or process by which features of one eleme nt cha nge to match those of ano ther that precedes or follows.95.cohort theory: theory of the percepti on of spoke n words proposed in the mid-1980s .Itsaaumes a "recog niti on lexic on ” in which each word is represe nted by a full and in depe ndent ” r ecog ni sti on eleme nt ” .Whe n the system receives the begi nning of a releva nt acoustic sig nal,all eleme nts matchi ng it are fully acticated,a nd,as more of the sig nal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;thisprocess continues un til only one rema ins active.96.con text effect: this effect help people recog nize a word more readily whe n the receding words provide an appropriate con text for it.97.freque ncy effect: describes the additi onal ease with which a word is accessed due toits more freque nt usage in Ian guage.98.inference in con text: any con clusi on draw n from a set of propositi on,from someth ing some one has said,a nd so on.lt in cludes things that,while not follow ing logically,are implied,i n an ordi nary sen se,e.g.i n a specific con text.99.immediate assumpti on: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required toun dersta nd each word and its relati on ship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encoun tered.100.Ian guage percepti on :la nguage aware ness of things through the physical sen ses,esp,sight.101.Ian guage comprehe nsion: one of the three stra nd of psycholi nguistic research,which studies the un dersta nding of Ian guage.102.Ian guage producti on: a goal-directed activety,i n the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103.Ian guage producti on: a goal-directed activity,i n the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity expla ined by refere nce to lexical meanin gs:e.g.that ofI saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macropropositi on:gen eral propositi ons used to form an overall macrostructure of thestory.106.modular:which a assumes that the mi nd is structuied into separate modules or comp onen ts,each gover ned by its own prin ciples and operat ing in depe nden tly of others.107.pars in g:the task of assig ning words to parts of speech with their appropriate acciden ts,traditi on ally e.g.to pupils lear ning lat in grammar.108.propositi on s:whatever is see n as expressed by a sentence which makes a stateme nt.ltis a property of propositi ons that they have truth values.109.psycholi nguistics: is concerned primarily with in vestigat ing the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(be ing concerned above all with making inferences about the content of huma n min d,a nd experime ntal psycholi nguistics(be ing concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of resp onseto a particular word).110.psycholi nguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported acco unt of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed」n discussion of the merits of altern ative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored kno wledge in Ian guage process ing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arran ged or orga ni zed.113.writ ing process: a series of actions or eve nts that are part of a writ ing or con tinuing developme ng. muni cative compete nce: a speaker ' s kno wledge of the total set of rules,c onventions,erning the skilled use of Ianguage in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late1960s from Chomsley ' s concept of competence, in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is ” genden difference116.lin guistic determ ini sm: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,i.e .Ian guag e determ ines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir- Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there ' s no limit to the structural diversity of Ian guages.118.lin guistic sexism:ma ny differe nces betwee n me and wome n in Ian guage use are broughtabou t by nothing less than women ' s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of Ianguage: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which wewant to look at structural things by pay ing atte nti on to Ian guage use in a social con text.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics」n which we try to un dersta nd sociological things of society by exam ining lin guistic phe nomena of a speak ingcom mun ity.121.variati oni st lin guistics: a branch of lin guistics,which studies the relati on ship be twee n speakers ' social starts and phono logical variatio ns.122.performative: an uttera nee by which a speaker does someth ing does someth in g,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.con stative: an uttera nee by which a speaker expresses a propositi on which may be tr ue or false.124.locuti onary act: the act of say ing someth in g;it ' s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syn tax,lexic on,and phono ly.,the uttera nee of a sentence with determ ina te sense and reference. 125.illocutio nary act: the act performed in say ing someth in g;its force is ide ntical with the speaker ' s intention.126.perlocuti onary act: the act performed by or result ing from say in g someth in g,it ' s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utteranee.127.con versati onal implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal uttera nces,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker ' s knowledge o r knows why andhow he violates inten ti on ally one of the four maxims of the cooperative prin ciple.128.en tailme nt:relati on betwee n propositi ons one of which n ecessarily follows from theother:e.g. ” Mary is running ” entails,among other things, ” Mary is not standing still ”.129.oste nsive com muni cati on: a complete characterizati on of com muni cati on is that it isoste nsive-i nfer-e ntial. muni cative prin ciple of releva nce:every act of oste nsive com muni cati on com municates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131.releva nce: a property that any uttera nce,or a propositi on that it com muni cates,must,in the n ature of com mun icati on,n ecessarily have.132.Q- principle: one of the two principles in Horn ' s scale,i.e.Make your contributionn ecessary (G.Relati on, Qua ntity2,Ma nn er);Say no more tha n you must(give n Q).133.divisi on of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex an d/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less ” effortful ” )alternate e xpression is availabletends to be in terpreted as con vey ing a marked message( one which the unm arked alter native would not or could not have con veyed).134.con stra ints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Pri nciple is a sufficie ncy con diti onin the sense that i nformati on provided is the most the speaker is able to..ts t 135. third-pers on n arrator: of the n arrator is not a character in the fictional world,heor she is usually called a third— pers on n arrator. 136. l-n arrator: the pers on who tells the story may also be a character in the fictionalworld of the story,relati ng the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. in direct speech: a kind of speech prese ntati on in which the character said in its f ullest form.139. in direct speech: a kind of speech prese ntati on which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator ' s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation i n which a part of passage can be see n as a summery of a Ion ger piece of discourse,a nd therefore eve nmore backgru on ded tha n in direct speech represe ntatio n would be.141. narrator ” srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelis o represe nt the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to prese nt speech acts. For example,,she con sidered his unpun ctuality.142. in direct thought: a kind of categories used by no velist to represe nt the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to prese nt in direct speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee in direct speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of dire ct speech and in direct speech features.144.na rrator ' s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelis ts to prese nt the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represe nta speech e.g.He spe nt the day thinking.145. in direct thought: a kind of categories used by no velist to represe nt the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to prese nt in direct speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee in direct speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of dire ct speech and in direct speech features.147. narrator ” s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to presentthe thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represe nt a speech e.g.He spe nt the day thinking.148. free in direct thought: the categories used by no velists to represe nt the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represe nt a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by no velists to represe nt the thoughts of their cha racters are exactly the same as those used to represe nt a speech..puter system: the mach ine itself together with a keyboard,pri nter,scree n, disk dr ives,programs,etc.puter literacy: those people who have sufficie nt kno wledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter lin guistics: a branch of applied liguistics,deali ng with computer processi ng of huma n Ian guage.153.Call: computer-assisted Ian guage lear nin g(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teachi ng or lear ning of a sec ond or foreig n Ian guage.154.progra mn ded in struct ion: the use of computers to mon itor stude nt progress,to direct stude nts into appropriate less on s,material,etc.155.local area n etwork: are computers lin ked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or b uildi ng.They offer teachers a novel approach for creat ing new activities for stude nts that prov ide more time and experience with target Ianguage.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read on ly memory allows huge amount of in formatio n to be stor ed on one disk with quich access to the in formatio n.Stude nts and teachers can access in formatio n quickly and efficie ntly for use in and out of the classroom.157.mach ine tran slati on: refers to the use of mach in e(usually computer)to tran slate texts from one Ian guage to ano ther.158.con corda nce: the use of computer to search for a particular word,seque nce of words.or perhaps eve n a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a part icular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate t he nu mber of occurre nces of the word so that i nformatio n on the freque ncy of the word may be ga thered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas anno tated corpora has bee n enhan ced with various type of lin guistic in formatio n,160.anno tati on: if corpora is said to be unanno tated — it appears in its existi ng raw state of plain text,whereas anno tated corpora has bee n enhanced with various type of lin guistic in formati on.161.in formatio nal retrieval: the term conven ti on ally though somewhat in accurately,appli ed to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.A n in formatio n retrieval system does n ot in for(i.e.cha nge the kno wledge of)the user on the subject of his inqu iry.it merely in forms on the existe nce(or non-existe nce)a nd whereabouts of docume nts relat ing to his request. 162.docume nt represe ntative: in formatio n structure is concerned with exploit ing relation ships,betwee n docume nts to improve the efficie ncy and effective ness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical orga ni zati on of in formati on, such as docume nt represe ntatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precisi on: the proporti on of retrieval docume nts which are releva nt.164.recall: the proporti on of retrieval docume nts which are releva nt.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign Ianguage lear ning and teach in g,a nd other areas such as tran slati on ,the compil ing of dict ion aries,etc muni cative compete nce: as defi ned by Hymes,the kno wledge and ability in volved inputti ng Ian guage to com mun icative use.167.syllabus:the pla nning of course of in struct ion.l t is a descripti on of the cousr conten t,teach ing procedures and lear ning experie nces.168.in terla nguage:the type of Ian guage con structed by sec ond or foreig n Ian guage lear ners who are still in the process of lear ning a Ian guage,i.e.the Ian guage system betwee n the targ et Ianguage and the learner ' s native Ianguage169.tran sfer: the in flue nce of mother ton gue upon the sec ond Ian guage.Whe n structures o f the two Ianguages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two langu ages are differe nt in structures ,n egative tran sfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170.validity: the degree to which a test mean sures what it is meant to measure.There ar。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dong theory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatory assimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relative uninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphological conditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes)calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command forshort)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统=derivational procedure推导系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程empiricism经验主义（洛克，白板说）rationalism 理性主义（笛卡尔）mentalism心灵主义new empiricism新经验主义(Bloomfield)priori先天综合判断（康德Kant）Cartesian linguistics笛卡尔语言学派Syntactic structure (SS)早期转换句法时期Standard theory (ST)标准理论时期Extended Standard theory (EST)扩展的标准理论Revised Standard theory(REST)扩展的休正标准理论The theory of government and binding(GB theory)管辖和约束理论时期（管约论）Minimalist program (MP)最简方案时期Structural description结构描写式Performance system应用系统Modular theory模块理论Spell-out拼写Language faculty语言机制/官能Mental organ心智器官Knowledge of language 语言知识Meaning potential 意义潜势Context culture 文化语境Field语场Tenor语旨Mode语式pivot words轴心词mental construct心理构念theoretical cognitive psychology理论认知心理学psychological faculty心理官能autosyn/autogram/autoknow语法自主(arbitrariness任意性,systemacity系统性, self-containedness自足性)typological functionalism类型学功能主义extreme functionalism极端的功能主义external functionalism外部功能主义integrative functionalism一体化功能注主义exceptional case marking例外格标记specifier标定成分fall-category maximal projection全语类的最大投射two-segment category两节语类complement domain补足语区域minimal domain最小区域internal domain内部区域checking domain检验区域sisterhood姐妹关系minimizing chain link最小语链联结representational system表达系统strict cyclic principle严格的层级条件structure-preserving principle结构保存原则C-commanding condition成分统领条件articulatory-perceptual system发音-听音系统conceptual-intentional system概念-意旨系统interface conditions中介条件full-interpretation完全解释原则procrastination逻辑形式操作优先原则greed句法操作自利原则the shortest linkage principle最短联接原则the shortest movement principle最短移位原则primarycomplement/modifier(referential NP)一级补语位/修饰语位(定指名词短语)secondary complement(non- referentialNP) 二级补语位(非定指名词短语)empty category principle空范畴原则aspect checking特征验证aspect feature基本体貌特征ASPP is functional projection .ASPP是功能投射.crossing branch交叉分支across the board extraction抽取跨界移动principles-and-parameters framework原则与参数语法head parameter中心语参数logical form(LF)逻辑形式phonetic form(PF)语音形式spell-out拼读phonological component音韵部分overt component显性部分covert component隐性部分core computation核心运算asymmetric c-command不对称成分统制linear correspondence axiom线形对应定理adjunction加接determiner限定词concatenate联结linearization线性化functional parameterization hypothesis功能参数设定假设right-branching右向分支X’(V,N,A,P)词项X’’=XP=Xmax是X的二阶投射结构Y’’=指示语specifierZ’’=补述语complementIP=屈折短语inflection phraseXP=general phrase structureC HL人类语言的运算系统=computational system for humanlanguageLCA线性对应定理=linearcorrespondence axiomXmin=X0=最小投射。

胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结Define the following terms:1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate, to think ,etc. Language functions include imformative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contras t with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnograph, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc16. competence: language us er’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21 Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26．Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27．Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29．Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions. IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental: suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats, as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the pl ural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51.loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised. By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connectionbetween them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all element s matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96 context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense, a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered. nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternativegrammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the res tricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, determines thought. 117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis, no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonologica l variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. 124.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the s peaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案Define the following terms:1.design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality,creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2.function: the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions inclucle informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverativecoarticulation.22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the i nner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.。

1.Phonetics语言学：It studies how speech sounds areproduced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生3.Acoustic phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征4.Perceptual or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知5.Phonology音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet7.Diacritics变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化8.Consonant辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦，这样发生的音叫辅音10. Coarticulation协同发音: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation当涉及到同时或重合的发音时，这类过程称为协同发音，它分为先期协同发音和后滞协同发音11. Broad and narrow transcription宽式转写与严式转写: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.用简单的符号进行语音转写称为宽式转写，用复杂的符号进行转写称为严式转写12.Phoneme音位: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.明显的语音对立单位13.Allophone音位变体:any of the different forms of a phoneme音位的变化形式(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.14.Manner of articulation发音方式：in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.完成发音过程的方法15.Place of articulation发音部位: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.辅音的发音部位16.Distinctive features区别特征: a term of phonology,i.e.a propertywhich distinguishes one phoneme from another.用来区分音位的音系学术语plementary distribution互补分布: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.两个音位变体不出现在相同环境中，它们处于互补分布状态18.Suprasegmental features超音段特征:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental featuresaresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.语言问题中涉及超出单音音段以上的方面，主要有音节、重音、声调和语调。

胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucleimformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic:a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition a lone.5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought tobe,ying down rules for language use.8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having twolevels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enabletheir users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time andspace,at the moment of communication.12.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.13.metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description ofparticular studies.14.macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines suchas psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguistics,etpetence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16.performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18.parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).19.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.20.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulationsare involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation andperseverative coarticulation.21.Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocalcords.22.Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is calledbroad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.23.Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.24.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.25.Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/inEnglish.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.26.Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a totalstopping of the air can be perceived.27.Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to theactual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.28.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where inthe vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.29.Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.plementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in thesame environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.31.IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the InternationalPhonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.32.Suprasegmental:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more thansingle sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features are syllable,stress,tone,,andintonation.33.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression andcontent,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.pound oly morphemic words w hich consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.35.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectionalaffixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.36.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).37.derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.38.root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.39.allomorph:any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the pluralmortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.40.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can beadded.41.bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it isadded to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.42.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.43.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)44.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and providedwith semantic interpretation.45.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.46.lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action andquality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.47.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.48.blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.49.loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slightadaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.50.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaningis fully borrowed.51.leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.52.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.53.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.54.back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived bydeleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.55.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specificall y called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.56.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another,so that the sounds become less alike,or different.57.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popularnation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar termsmistakenly taken to be analogous58.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts ofspeech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.59.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study ofthe truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and theconnection between them.60.Proposition:what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do withreference.61.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.62.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features ofone element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.63.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full andindependent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevantacoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal isreceived,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.64.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wordsprovide an appropriate context for it.65.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its morefrequent usage in language.66.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someonehas said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in anordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.67.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required tounderstand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studiesthe understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in ordeto make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.71.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw abat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.72.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.73.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules orcomponents,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.74.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.75.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is aproperty of propositions that they have truth values.76.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality oflinguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).77.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structuresrepresented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.78.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.79.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.80.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished byD.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense ofknowledge of a grammar.82.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”83.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguagedetermines thought.84.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.85.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought aboutby nothing less than women’s place in society.86.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want tolook at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.87.sociolinguistics of society:one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try tounderstand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.88.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship betweenspeakers’social starts and phonological variations.89.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.90.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.91.locutionary act: the act of saying some thing;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by meansof syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.92.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with thespeak er’s intention.93.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s theconsequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.94.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literalutterances,underata ndable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge orknows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperativeprinciple.95.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from theother:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.96.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it isostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicatesthe presumption of its own optimal relevance.。

Chapter11. language：Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Design feature：The features that define our human languages3. Arbitrariness：refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.4. Duality：refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.5. Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.6. The bow-wow theory：In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.7. The “yo-he-ho” theory：As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.8. The pooh-pooh theory：In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language 9. Jacobson, language has six functions：1) Referential: to convey message and information;2) Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3) Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4) Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties5) Phatic: to establish communion with others;6) Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.10. Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language:1) Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2) Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3) Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and makea living passage different from a random list of sentences.11. Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1) The informative function: means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.2) The interpersonal function: means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.3) The performative function: is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.4) The emotive function: is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.5) The phatic communion: means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.6) The recreational function: means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.7) The metalingual function: means people can use language to talk about itself.E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.12. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings..13. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.14. Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.15.Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.16. Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.17. Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.18. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.19.Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of lan guage system.20. Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.21. Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.22. Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.23. Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.24.Synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical point in time.25.Diachronic:said of the study of development of languange and languages over time.26.Prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.27.Descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.petence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.29.Performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.ngue: the language system shared by a speech community.31.Parole:the concrete utterances of a speaker.Chapter21. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1)Articulatory phonetics– the study of the production of speech sounds2)Acoustic phonetics– the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3)Auditory phonetics– the study of perception of speech sounds2.Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. It consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.3.International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.4. A consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.5. A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived6. Received Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.7. Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.8. Pure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.9. Vowel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.10.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.11. Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units12. Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.13. Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation14. Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.15. Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements16. The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even theminutest shades of pronunciation.17. Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning.18. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones.19.Assimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilatio n: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.20. Distinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.21. Suprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation22. Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel. Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.23. Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / /. It shouldn’t be / / or / / according to this principle.24. Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Chapter31. A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to s acrifice its meaning.3. An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing5.3feathers of words: Stability ,Relative uninterruptibility ,A minimum free form(This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield.)6.Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words7. Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.8. Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.9. Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items10. Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed11. Free morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.12. Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes13. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed.14. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.15. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.16.Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached17. Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation)18. Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, 19. Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged20. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also called morphonology or morphonemics21. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation22. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.23. Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.24. Abbreviation / clipping: A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words25. Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.26.Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language27. Borrowing :English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.28. The loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed words29. Addition: Sounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence30. Metathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech communityChapter41. Concord (a.k.a. agreement) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. E.g. in English the determiner and the noun it precedes should concord in number as in this man, these men. And the form of a subject should agree with that of the verb in terms of number in the present tense, e.g. He speaks English; They speak English.2. Government is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic construction. It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain category. E.g. in English, the pronoun after a verb or a preposition should be in the object form as in She gave him a book; She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or the preposition, governs the form of the pronoun after it. The former is the governor, and the latter is the governed3. Syntagmatic (a.k.a. horizontal / chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between weather and the others in the following sentence: If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.4. Paradigmatic(a.k.a. vertical / choice) relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.5. Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes onuntil the ultimate sake of convenience. The IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or shown with a tree diagram. E.g.6. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It is also called headed construction. Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. They may be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions.eg, two pretty girls, girls is the centre or head of this phrase or word group.7. The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center or head in it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and the verb plus object constructions8. In transformational generative grammar(a.k.a. T-G grammar), the deep structure may be defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.9. The surfaces structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive10.Syntax: the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combied to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.11.Co-occurrence: it means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.12.Constituent: is a term used in structural sentence anaylsis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.13.Subordination:refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.14.Coordination: a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categoriess of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and but or or.15.Embedding: refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination16.Recursiveness: it means that a constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent.17.Cohesion: refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include conj. Ellipsis,lexical collocation, lexical repetition reference and so on.Chapter51. Meaning: Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world. It also means the association of language symbols with the real world.2. Connotation: The additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning.3. Denotation: That part of the meanings of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible word.4. Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.5. The referential theory: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.6. The semantic triangle theory(按大题背)Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the following diagram, in which the “symbol” refers to the linguist elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent” refers to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought” or “reference” refers to concept or notion. Thus the symbol of a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept,” associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The concept thus considered is the meaning of the word. The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and referent is made possible only through “concept7. Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation.8. Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.9. Hyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion.10. Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. That is, the meaning of a word is not an unanalyzable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word.11. Selection restrictions: Restrictions on the choice of individual lexical units in construction with other units. E.g. the word breathe will typically select an animate subject (boy, man, woman, etc.) not an abstract or an inanimate (table, book, etc.). The boy was still breathing. The desk was breathing.12. Prepositional logic / prepositional calculus / sentential calculus: Prepositional logic is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.13. Predicate logic / predicate calculus: Predicate logic studies the internal structure of simple propositions.Chapter61. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.2. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind.3. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word.4. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.5. Cohort theory: The cohort theory was postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh. It hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with written materials as well.6. lexical ambiguity: ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: e.g. that of I saw a bat, where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others, stable tennis bat.7. the minimal attachment theory: It would be inefficient for people to assume all these infinite structures until they get some positive evidence for one of them. And if they arbitrarily choice one of the possibilities, they are most likely to choose the simplest. The idea is that people initially construct the simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure of sentences.Chapter71.Context of situation is put forward by Firth. This theory has the following elements:(1) The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:a. The verbal action of the participantsb. The non-verbal action of the participants(2) The relevant objects(3) The effects of the verbal action2. Speech community:Speech community refers to a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common.3. Gender difference: Gender difference is the difference in a speech between men and women4. Ethnography of communication: The study of place of language in culture and society. Language is not studied in isolation but within a social or cultural setting.5. Cross-cultural communication: An exchange of ideas, information, etc. between persons from different cultural backgrounds.6. Vernacular refers to the native language of a country, not of a foreign origin or learned formation; or the indigenous language or dialect of a region7.Pidgin is a mixed or blended language used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Pidgins arose as a result of mixing two languages such as a Chinese dialect and English, an African dialect and French, etc8. Creole is a pidgin that has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that community as their native language9. Discourse analysis refers to the study of how sentences in spoken and writtenlanguage form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversation, interviews, etc.10. Bilingualism refers to the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.11. When two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a community and each one is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.12.Multilingualism refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in Malaysia, Singapore, Israel, etcChapter81. A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication2.Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.5. Characteristics of implicature1).Calculability2).Cancellability / defeasibility3).Non-detachability 4).Non-conventionality6. The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)7. Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.Chapter91. Style refers to variation in a person’s speech or writing or a particular person’s use of speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time2. Stylistics:According to H. G. Widdowson, stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation. He treated literature as discourse, thus。

第一章介绍Applied linguistics运用语言学： findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of suchpractical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known asapplied linguistics.Descriptive描绘性的： if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive规定性的： if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“ correct and standard in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what the should not say, it is said to beprescriptive.Synchronic共时的： the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.synchronic study共时研究 : The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features ofthe English used in Shakespeare’ s time is a synchronic study.Diachronic历时的： the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Diachronic study历时研究 : The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’ s time is a diachronic study. Langue 语言： refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is abstract.Parole 语言： refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Parole is concrete.Competence ： (N. Chomsky) defines as the ideal user’ s knowledge of the rules ofe. his languag Performance ： defines as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Design features?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. 设计特色是指界定性质的人类差别于其余动物的社交系统。

语言学术语（英-汉对照）表Glossary and IndexAabbreviation缩写词，略语 3.3.1Abercrombie 10.3.2ablative 夺格，离格 4.1.1abstractness 抽象性 1.3.2accent 重音（符）2.4.4；2.4.5accuracy正确性 11.6.4accusative 宾格 4.1.1achievement test 成绩测试 11.6.3acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 1.7.1；2.1acquisition 习得 6.1.2acronym 缩略语 3.3.1action process 动作过程 12.2.3actor 动作者 4.4.2；12.2.3addition 添加 3.3.2address form称呼形式 7.2.3addressee 受话人 1.4；9.4.1addresser 发话人 1.4；9.4.1adjective 形容词 3.1.2；4.1.1；5.5.2adjunct 修饰成分；附加语 12.2.3adverb 副词 3.1.2affix 词缀 3.2.1affix hopping 词缀跳跃 4.3.1affixation词缀附加法 7.1.4affricate 塞擦音 2.4.3；2.4.5；2.9.1agreement 一致关系 4.1.3airstream 气流 2alliteration 头韵 9.3.2；9.3.6allomorph 词/语素变体 3.2.4；4.3.1allophone 音位变体 2.8allophonic variation 音位变体 2.8.3allophony音位变体现象 2.8.3alveolar ridge 齿龈 2.2alveolar 齿龈音 2.4.4；2.4.5ambiguity 歧义 4.2.2；4.3.1；6.2.3；8.2.2；8.3.2 ambiguous歧义的 5.5.2；6.3American descriptive linguistics 美国描写语言学 12.3 American English 美式英语 10.3.5American Indian languages 美国印第安族诸语言 12.3 American structuralism 美国结构主义10.3.2；12.3 analogical creation 类推造字 3.3.1anapest 抑抑扬格 9.3.3anaphor 前指替代 4.3.3anaphoric reference 前指照应 4.3.2Anderson 6.3.1Animal communication system 动物交际系统 1.2；1.3 animate 有生命的 4.2.1annotation 注解 10.3.4；10.3.5antecedent 先行词；前在词 4.3.2anthropological 人类学的 12.3.1anthropological linguistics 人类语言学 1.8.3；7.1.1 anticipatory coarticulation 逆化协同发音 2.6.1 antonomasia 换称；代类名 7.1.4antonym 反义词 5.4antonymy 反义(关系) 5.3.2appellative 称谓性4.4.2applied linguistics 应用语言学11applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语言学7.2.4 appropriacy 适宜性11.6.4appropriateness 适宜性；得体性11.2.5approximant 无摩擦延续音2.4.3；2.4.5Apte 7；7.2.1aptitude test 素质测试11.6.2Arabic 阿拉伯语3.3.1；4.4.1arbitrariness 任意性1.3.1；12argument 中项；中词；主目4.3.3；5.5.2article 冠词3.1.2；4.1.1；4.2.1articulation 发音2.6articulator 发音器官2.4.2；2.4.3articulatory phonetics 发音语音学1.7.1；2.1 artificial speech 人工言语10aspect 体4.1.2aspirated 吐气；送气2.6.2；2.8.2assimilation 同化2.9.1；3.2.4；3.3.2；6.2.4 associative 联想 4.2.1associative meaning 联想意义 5.3assonance 准压韵；半谐音9.3.2；9.3.6 Atkinson, A.M. 2.1attributive属性；修饰语；定语 4.2.2；12.2.3 auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 1.7.1；2.1Austin, John Langshaw 8.1；8.1.2authentic input 真实投入 11.4.2authorial style 权威风格 9.4.3authoring program 编程 10.1.3autonomy 自主性 1.8auxiliary 助词 3.1.2；12.4.3auxiliary verb 助动词 3.1.2；12.2.3Bbabbling stage婴儿语阶段 12.4.1back-formation 逆构词法 3.3.1Bally, Charles 9.1Bar-Hillel 10.2.1Barnhart & Barnhart 7.1.4base component 基础部分 4.3.2；12.4。

《语言学教程》汉语解释第一章 语言的性质语言的性质语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章 语言学语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

学）等。

第三章 语音学语音学发音器官的英文名称；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；语音学的定义；发音语音学；发音语音学；听觉听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章 音位学音位学音位理论；音位理论；最小对立体；最小对立体；最小对立体；自由变异；自由变异；自由变异；互补分布；互补分布；互补分布；语音的相似性；语音的相似性；语音的相似性；区别性特征；区别性特征；区别性特征；超语段音位学；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章 词法学词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章 词汇学词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

胡壮麟《语言学教程〉名词解释课后答案Define the following terms:1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,dis placement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative fu nction,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive fun ction,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phon etics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differ entiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phon etics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningf ul via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the inve stigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5.synchronic:a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying dow n rules for language use.9.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of ling uistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality:one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the mom ent of communication.13.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of langua ge.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particul ar studies.15.macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as ps ychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics in clude psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguistics,etpetence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.ngue:the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole:the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are in volved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulati on.22．Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is calle d broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;wh ile,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcriptio n.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular lang uage.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme /t/.27．Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total st opping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29．Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where i n the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fr om another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in t he same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the Internation al Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek l etters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The princi ple suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and co ntent,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classr oom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of t he stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to a nother morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ i n classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be a dded.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it i s added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and prov ided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articl es and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,ver bs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joi ning the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial par ts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight ada ptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the me aning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a hea vily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by d eleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly t aken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their ow n,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or ap proaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to an y to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between, the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely c orresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two governme nt relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Gra mmar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the dev elopment of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also f or getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with featu res of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotati ve content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a w ord denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entitya word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,e tc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not cons titute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better; worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has se veral hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g< +human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depe nds on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item ca n take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection be tween them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of o ne element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saau mes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistio n element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently w ith each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one rema ins active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wo rds provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its m ore frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someo ne has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sens e,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to und erstand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in enc ountered.100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight. 101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a b at,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or component s,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of lingui stic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being con cerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures repr esented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing deve lopmeng.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,et erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from C homsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden differenc e”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determ ines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to th e structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought a bout by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to l ook at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to under stand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speaker s’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as appose d to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by m eans of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and r eference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speak er’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the cons equence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underat andable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he viol ates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensi ve-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates t he presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression w hen a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be int erpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the se nse that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest for m.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backg ruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141. narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represe nt the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule b e late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct spe ech and indirect speech features.144. narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to pre sent the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would b e late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct spe ech and indirect speech features.147. narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thou ghts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the da y thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their c haracters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters a re exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,prog rams,etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of com puters and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of hu man language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teach ing or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct stude nts into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building. They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time a nd experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stor ed on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quic kly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or pe rhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word, usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrence s of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plai n text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of pl ain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information. 161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to th e type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change theknowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existenc e)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,bet ween documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information ret rieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learn ing and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in pu tting language to communicative use.167. syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teachin g procedures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners wh o are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language a nd the learner’s native language169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are differ ent in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliabil ity,and equiralence reliability.172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequency,i.e.over passing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],e xtending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided int o individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis。

18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． V oicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． V owl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the pluralmorpheme in ―dog’s‖.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.‖dog in the manger‖)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.‖contact‖or‖contiguous‖assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists ofX-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a ―recognition lexicon‖in which each word is represented by a full and independent‖recognistion element‖.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set o f rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speec h between men and women is‖genden difference‖116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit t o the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying so mething;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which neces sarily follows from the other:e.g.‖Mary is running‖entails,among other things,‖Mary is not standing still‖.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less‖effortful‖)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be. 141. narrator‖srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144. narr ator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147. narrator‖s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another. 158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167. syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis。