Toward a Systems Theory of Motivated Behavior in Work Teams

2022年考研考博-考博英语-湖南师范大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题The teacher was in a rage with him, for his handwriting in the composition was （） .问题1选项A.illegibleB.incomprehensibleC.inaudibleD.decipherable【答案】A【解析】illegible难以辨认的, 字迹潦草的；incomprehensible费解的, 不可思议的；inaudible听不见的；decipherable可辨认的, 可解密的。

句意：老师对他很生气, 因为他的作文字迹潦草。

选项A符合句意。

2.单选题______ to tell us that the interest of the individual should be subordinate to that of the collective?问题1选项A.Were you usedB.Are you usedC.Did you useD.Do you used【答案】C【解析】考查固定句型。

句意：你不是经常告诉我们个人的利益应该从属于集体的利益吗？sb. used to do“某人过去常常做某事”，其一般疑问句为did sb. use to do；sb. be used to (doing) sth.“习惯于（做）某事”，其一般疑问句为be动词提前；be used to do sth.“被用来做某事”。

结合语境，这里指的是过去常常告诉我们某事，C选项Did you use符合题意。

因此C选项正确。

3.单选题In North America, the first canoes were constructed from logs and（）by means of wooden paddles.问题1选项A.dockedB.propelledC.chokedD.perceived【答案】B【解析】dock使靠码头；propel推进, 驱使；choke阻塞, 抑制；perceive觉察, 感知。

21. —Look at those clouds!—Don’t worry. ______ it rains, we’ll still have a great time.A. Even ifB.As thoughC. In caseD. If only22. By the time you have finished this book, your meal ______ cold.A. getsB. has gotC. will getD.is getting23. One learns a language by making mistakes and ______ them.A. correctsB. correctC.to correctD. correcting24. Jerry did not regret giving the comment but felt ______ he could have expressed it differently.A. whyB. howC. thatD. whether25. George said that he would come to school to see me the next day, but he ______.A. wouldn ’tB. didn ’tC. hasn ’tD. hadn ’t26. When deeply absorbed in work, ______ he often was ，he would forget all about eatingor sleeping.A. thatB. whichC. whereD. when27. _______ with care, one tin will last for six weeks.A. UseB. UsingC. UsedD. To use28. Many people have donated that type of blood; however, the blood bank needs _____.A. someB. lessC. muchD. more29. —Have you heard about that fire in the market?—Yes, fortunately no one _____.A. hurtB. was hurtC. has hurtD. had been hurt30. Our friendship _____ quickly over the weeks that followed.A. had developedB. was developingC. would developD. developed31. ______ at the door before you enter my room, please.A. KnockB. KnockingC. KnockedD. To knock33. We ______ the difficult y together, but why didn ’t you tell me?A. should faceB. might faceC. could have facedD. must have faced34. Do you think this shirt is too tight ____ the shoulders?A. atB. onC. toD. across35. Don ’t handle the vase as if it __ __ made of steel.A. isB. wereC. has beenD. had beenInspiration―Mama, when I grow up, I m’going to be one of th ose! ‖I said this after seeing the Capital Dancing Company perform when I was three. It was the first time that my __36__took on a vivid form and acted as something important to start my training. As I grew olderand was __37__ to more, my interests in the world of dance __38__ varied but that littlegirl ’s dream of someday becoming a __ 39__ in the company never left me. In the summerof 2005 when I was 18, I received the phone call which made that dream a __40__; I became a member of the company __41__ back to 1925.As I look back on that day now, it surely __42__ any sense of reality. I believe I stayedin a state of pleasant disbelief __43__ I was halfway through rehearsals ( 排练) on my first day. I never actually __44__ to get the job. After being offered the position, I was completely __45__. I remember shaking with excitement.Though I was absolutely thrilled with the change, it did not come without its fair shareof __46__. Through the strict rehearsal period of dancing six days a week, I found it vitalto __47__ up the material fast with every last bit of concentration. It is that extreme __48__ to detail ( 细节) and stress on practice that set us __49__. To then follow thosehigh-energy rehearsals __50__ a busy show schedule of up to five performances a day, I discovered a new __51 __ of the words ―hardwork. ‖WhatI thought were my physical __52__ were pushed much further than I thought __53__. I learned to make each performance better than the last.Today, when I look at the unbelievable company that I have the great __54__ of beinga part of, not only as a member, but as a dance captain, I see a __55__ that has inspirednot only generations of little girls but a splendid company that continues to develop andgrow-and inspires people every day to follow their dreams.32. A. hobby B. plan C. dream D. word33. A connected B. expanded C. exposed D. extended34. A. rarely B. certainly C. probably D. consistently35. A. director B. trainer C. leader D. dancer36. A. symbol B. memory C. truth D. reality37. A. bouncing B. dating C. turning D. tracking38. A. lacks B. adds C. makes D. brings39. A. while B. since C. until D. when40. A. Cared B. Expected C. Asked D. Decided41. A. motivated B. relaxed C. convinced D. astonished42. A. challenges B. profits C. advantages D. adventures43. A. put B. mix C. build D. pick44. A. Attention B. association C. attraction D. adaptation45. A. apart B. aside C. off D. back46. A. over B. by C. with D. beyond47. A. function B. meaning C. expression D. usage48. A. boundaries B. problems C. barriers D. efforts49. A. necessary B. perfect C. proper D. possible50. A. talent B. honor C. potential D. responsibility51. A. victory B. trend C. tradition D. desire第三部分：阅读理解（共两节，40 分）第一节（共15 小题；每小题 2 分，共30 分）阅读下列短文，从每题所给的A、B、C、D 四个选项中，选出最佳选项，并在答题卡上将该项涂黑。

综合管理试题及答案英语一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. The correct spelling of the word "management" is:A) manegmentB) manegmentC) managemnetD) management答案：D2. Which of the following is not a function of management?A) PlanningB) OrganizingC) LeadingD) Innovating答案：D3. The process of setting goals and deciding on actions to achieve these goals is known as:A) OrganizingB) LeadingC) ControllingD) Planning答案：D4. Who is considered the father of scientific management?A) Henry FordB) Frederick Winslow TaylorC) Peter DruckerD) Max Weber答案：B5. What is the term used to describe the process of making things happen in an organization?A) MotivationB) CoordinationC) ExecutionD) Delegation答案：C6. In management, "span of control" refers to:A) The number of employees a manager can effectively manageB) The number of products a company producesC) The number of departments in an organizationD) The number of years a manager has been in their position答案：A7. Which of the following is a characteristic of an effective team?A) Clear communicationB) Lack of trustC) Poor leadershipD) Conflict avoidance答案：A8. What is the process of making decisions in an organization?A) PlanningB) OrganizingC) LeadingD) Decision-making答案：D9. The management concept that emphasizes the importance of employee satisfaction and motivation is known as:A) Scientific managementB) Administrative managementC) Human relations movementD) Systems theory答案：C10. In the context of management, "feedback" is:A) Information about the results of a decision or actionB) The process of setting goalsC) The process of organizing resourcesD) The process of motivating employees答案：A二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. The four main functions of management are planning, organizing, leading, and ________.答案：controlling2. The management theory that focuses on the importance ofthe social and psychological aspects of work is known as the________ theory.答案：human relations3. A management style that involves providing employees with the freedom to make decisions is known as ________ leadership. 答案：autonomous4. The process of ensuring that activities are carried out as planned is called ________.答案：monitoring5. The management principle that states that managers should focus on the most important tasks is known as the ________ principle.答案：80/206. A management technique that involves breaking down a large task into smaller, more manageable parts is known as ________. 答案：task analysis7. The process of identifying the causes of a problem and determining the best course of action to solve it is called________.答案：problem-solving8. The management concept that suggests that organizations should be structured in a way that reflects their goals and objectives is known as ________.答案：organizational design9. The process of measuring the performance of anorganization against its goals is called ________.答案：performance evaluation10. The management theory that suggests that organizations should be viewed as a whole, with each part interacting with the others, is known as ________ theory.答案：systems三、简答题（每题10分，共40分）1. Explain the difference between leadership and management.答案：Leadership is about inspiring and motivating a team to achieve a common goal, while management involves planning, organizing, and coordinating the efforts of a team to accomplish tasks efficiently.2. What is the significance of delegation in management?答案：Delegation is significant in management as it empowers employees, improves productivity, and allows managers tofocus on strategic tasks. It also helps in developing theskills of subordinates and fostering a sense ofresponsibility.3. Describe the role of communication in effective management. 答案：Effective communication is crucial in management as it ensures that information is accurately and timely conveyed, facilitates collaboration among team members, and helps in resolving conflicts. It also aids in setting clearexpectations and feedback mechanisms.4. How can a manager ensure ethical behavior in an organization?答案：A manager can ensure ethical behavior by setting a good example, establishing clear ethical guidelines, providing training on ethical practices, encouraging open communication, and implementing a system for reporting unethical behavior without fear of retaliation.。

考点规范练Journey Across a Vast Land穿越广袤的土地Ⅰ.单句语法填空1.A (grow) number of peasants have decided to move to the cities for better jobs.2.After (arise) in the morning, the first thing he does is to wash his face.3.While waiting for the opportunity to get (promote), Henry did his best to perform his duty.4.In many people’s opinion, that country, though relatively small, is(please) to deal with.5.When I got up early the next day, I found the air on the hill good(breathe).6.Even more difficulties appeared, including the (freeze) weather conditions and the heavy storms.7.To my (astonish), he has made such progress in English this term.8.They went to Toronto because they wanted to visit the (large) Chinatown there.9.We can see misty clouds (rise) from the great Niagara Falls.10.He glanced his eyes down the classified (advertise) while waiting for the bus.Ⅱ.选词填空when the plane was about to take off.2.Looking back, Jackson his success the goal he set, the education he received, and above all, the efforts he made.3.her elder brother, she was always considerate in her treatment of others.4.We should the class time to help students grasp the text’s focus on content.5.When I John over the tea, he said he felt excited at the thought of going home.6.Children often themselves as Superman to draw adults’ attention.7.The old temple, situated on top of the hill, the Tang Dynasty.8.By reducing costs and improving service, the hotel has started toagain.9.After taking some medicine, the sick lady felt muchbetter .10.So I’d like to the next stage.Ⅲ.金句默写1.除了欣赏壮丽的山峰和森林, 她们旅程的亮点之一是能看到种类繁多的动物, 如鹿、山羊、甚至还有一只灰熊和一只老鹰。

50道英文面试问题及答案(3)(总10页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--50道英文面试问题及答案(3)这是一篇由网络搜集整理的关于50道英文面试问题及答案的文档，希望对你能有帮助。

50道英文面试问题及答案31、Do you work best by yourself or as part of a team Most jobs require both, to varying degrees. As with all answers to job interview questions, think about the position you are applying for. Are the interviewers looking for a team worker Did they mention thisin the advert or is it implicit in the job description If a team player is required, tell the interviewers that you work well in a team. Give an example if you can. You might say: “I prefer towork in teams. I find that better decisions are reached when people work together and share ideas. Of course I’m happy to work alone when required too.”If the job is mostly done alone, you might say: “I work very well by myself because I’m self motivated, organized and conscientious. I’m comfortable worki ng in teams though and recognize that this is better in some situations”.32、What kind of personality do you work best with and why You will dealwith many personalities in any job. If the interviewers know the people you’ll be working with, they might h ave a personality in mind! It’s hard for you to know this however so stick to a safe answer.You might say: “I find I work well with almost everyone but who Iwork best with might depend on the activity. If it’s a project, I prefer to work with someone wh o’s practical and organized becausethis is important. If it’s leading a discussion, working with someone who’s a good facilitator helps.”33、How would you go about establishing your credibility quickly within the teamGaining credibility quickly is important. Make sure you listen, learn, question, understand. You might say: “That’s a good question and I realize it’s important to gain credibility quickly. I believe the best way is to show your colleagues that you respect their experience and want to learn from them as well as about them. You need to listen, ask the right questions and make sure you understand. If they can see you’ll fit in early on, it helps”.34、Tell me about a time where you had to deal with conflict on the job. This is a behavioural i nterview question. If you can’t think of an example,it’s ok to say so. If that’s the case, either say how you woulddeal with it, or use an example where someone you know dealt with conflict well. Most interviewers would look for: -Getting both sides of the argument -Suggesting and agreeing compromise -Showing tactfulness -Showing empathy 35、What irritates you about other people, and how do you deal with it Personal conflictis inevitable in the workplace Try not to say that A or B irritates you. Instead, talk about the characteristics which you find hard, notthe people. You might say: “I find I get on with most people so it’s not normally a problem. It’s rather disappointing when people don’t pull their weight I suppose and this has happened. In t hat instance I spoke to the person in private, explained that they were letting the team down and asked them to make more of an effort. They did.”36、”Can you give me some idea of the salary you’re expecting”is one of those job interview questions that ca n really get you tongue-tied. What do you say Usually, moments later, you realize you’ve accepted a salary far lower than you wanted. Although you were prepared to negotiate your salary, you panicked at the last minute and lost your nerve. As you leave the interview room, your excitement at getting the job is tainted. You can’t help feeling undervalued, even a little duped. Ask for too much and you risk looking unrealistic, over confident, maybe even greedy. Ask for too little and you risk undervaluing yourself and your contribution, and ultimately being underpaid. For many of us, salary is one of the most important factors in taking a job, but it’s often the hardest to deal with. Nerves got the better of her and worried about sounding greedy, she suggested a lower amount. When she was offered the job, there was the salary she suggested, right at the start of the offer letter. She wasn’t surprised but she was disappointed. So how can you avoid this happening to you Research is essential when itcomes to suggesting a reasonable salary. Take time to look though job advertisements for similar positions. Research the WWW or post a question in a forum or on Yahoo! Answers Research the Company too. A large Company, if asked, will probably have more scope to offer you a better benefits package than a smaller one. -Don’t initiate salary discussions or say anything about pay during your jobinterview unless asked -If you’re asked for a figure, suggest a range rather than an actual figure. This gives room to negotiate if a firm job offer is made during the job interview -If you’re offered the job and reach agreement on a salary, make sure thewritten job offer states this amount clearly -And when it comes to the actual salary negotiation here are 6 essential salary -The most important thing to remember when discussing your salary is that it is a negotiation. Like any form of bartering, the first figure you mention in the job interview probably won’t be the figure you agree on. But it’s a place to start.-Be confid ent about what you’re worth. Recognise that you’re bringing something unique to the Company, and that you’re worth the wage you’re requesting. Even if you’ve only jusfinished school or college, you still have something unique to offer and it’s important to bear that in mind as you think about salary negotiation. -Remember also that it’s not easy finding the right person for a job. If you’ve impressed theinterviewers enough to employ you, you have the upper hand and paying a little more to keep you isn’t t oo big a deal. So ask for aslightly higher salary than you expect. -If the job advertisement mentions a salary range, employers will be prepared to pay more for the right candidate. If you’re a little uncomfortable asking for the top figure, choose one just above the mid-range. This gives the impression that you are worth a good wage and is a great place to start. Assuming an advertised salary range of $30,000 to $42,000, you might say this: “I’m expecting a salary in the region of $38,000, based on my knowledge and experience”.Remember that salary is not everything. If the salary is less than you hoped and the Company won’t or can’t go any higher, ask about other benefits which are important to you like training courses, financial help with further study and so on. 37、What specific goals, including those related to your occupation, have you established for your life I want to be working for an excellent company like yours in a job in which I am managing information. I plan to contribute my leadership, interpersonal, and technical skills. My long-range career goal is to be the best information systems technician I can for the company I work for. 38、How has your college experience prepared you for a business career I have prepared myself to transition into the work force through real-world experience involving travel abroad,internship, and entrepreneurial opportunities. While interning with a private organization in Ecuador, I developed a 15-page marketing plan composed in Spanish that recommended more effective ways the company could promote its services. I also traveled abroad on two other occasions in which I researched the indigenous culture of the Mayan Indians in Todos Santos, Guatemala, and participate din a total language immersion program in Costa Rica. As you can see from my academic, extracurricular, and experiential background, I have unconditionally committed myself to success as a marketing professional. 39、Please describe the ideal job for you following graduation. My ideal job is one that incorporates both my education and practical work skills to be the best I can be. Namely combining my education in finance with my working knowledge of customer service operations, entrepreneurial abilities, computer skills, and administrative skills. I want to utilize my analytical expertise to help people meet their financial goals. This is exactly why I am convinced that I would be a very valuable member of the Merrill Lynch team. 40、What influenced you to choose this career My past experiences have shown me that I enjoy facing and overcoming the challenge of making a sale. Without a doubt, once I have practiced my presentation and prepared myself for objections, I feel very confident approaching people I don’t know and convincing themthat they need my product. Lastly, I like sales because my potential for success is limited only by how much of myself I dedicate toward my goal. If any profession is founded on self-determinism, it surely must be sales. 41、At what point did you choose this career I knew that I wanted to pursue information systems technology about my sophomore year in college. It was then that I realized that my hobby (computers) was taking up most of my time. My favorite courses were IT courses. I also realized that I was doing computer-oriented work-study that I enjoyed so much I would have done it for free. 42、What specific goals have you established for your career My goals include becoming a Certified Financial Advisor so I can obtain a better working knowledge of financial research analysis, which would allow me contribute to my client base as a better financial consultant since I would have that extra insight into the companies they are seeking to invest in. Also this is the foundation block to advancing my career to portfolio manager or even branch office manager. 43、What will it take to attain your goals, and what steps have you taken toward attaining them I’ve already done some research on other workers at Merrill Lynch to see how they achieved similar goals. I know that Merrill Lynch encourages the pursuit and will reimburse for tuition of a graduate degree. I plan on pursuing a MBA to give me an even more extensive knowledge of business andfinancial analysis. 44、How did you handle a challenge -During a difficult financial period, I was able to satisfactorily negotiate repayment schedules with multiple vendors. -When the software development of our new product stalled, I coordinated the team which managed to get the schedule back on track. We were able to successfully troubleshoot the issues and solve the problems, within a very short period of time. -A long-term client was about to take their business to a competitor. I met with the customer and was able to change how we handled the account on a day-to-day basis, in order to keep the business 45、When you’re asked what your greatest weakness is, try to turn a negative into a positive. For example, a sense of urgency to get projects completed or wanting to triple-check every item in a spreadsheet can be turned into a strength. . you are a candidate who will make sure that the project is done on time and your work will be close to perfect. Weakness -WhenI’m working on a project, I don’t want just to meet deadlines. Rather, I prefer to complete the project well ahead of schedule. -Being organized wasn’t my strongest point, but I implemented a time management system that really helped my organization skills. -I like to make sure that my work is perfect, so I tend to perhaps spend a little too much time checking it. Howev er, I’ve come to a good balance by setting up a system to ensure everything is done correctlythe first time. -I used to wait until the last minute to set appointments for the coming week, but I realized that scheduling in advance makes much more sense. Strength -When I’m working on a project, I don’t want just to meet deadlines. Rather, I prefer to complete the project well ahead of schedule. -I have exceeded my sales goals every quarter and I’ve earned a bonus each year since I started with my current employer. -My time management skills are excellent and I’m organized, efficient, and take pride in excellingat my work. -I pride myself on my customer service skills and my ability to resolve what could be difficult situations. 46、Howwell can you work in stressful situations -Stress is veryimportant to me. With stress, I do the best possible job. The appropriate way to deal with stress is to make sure I have thecorrect balance between good stress and bad stress. I need goodstress to stay motivated and productive. -I react to situations, rather than to stress. That way, the situation is handled anddoesn’t become stressful.-I actually work better under pressure and I’ve found that I enjoy working in a challenging environment.-From a personal perspective, I manage stress by visiting the gym every evening. It’s a great stress reducer.-Prioritizing my responsibilities so I have a clear idea of what needs to be done when, has helped me effectively manage pressure on the job. -If thepeople I am managing are contributing to my stress level, I discuss options for better handling difficult situations with them. 47、What’s motivates you-I was responsible for several projects where I directed development teams and implemented repeatable processes. The teams achieved 100% on-time delivery of software products. I was motivated both by the challenge of finishing the projects ahead of schedule and by managing the teams that achieved our goals. -I’ve always been motivated by the desire to do a good job at whatever position I’m in. I want to excel and to be successful in my job, both for my own personal satisfaction and for my employer. -I have always wanted to ensure that my company’s clients get the best customer service I can provide. I’ve alwaysfelt t hat it’s important, both to me personally, and for the company and the clients, to provide a positive customer experience. -I have spent my career in sales, typically in commission-based positions, and compensation has always been a strong factor in motivating me to be the top salesperson at my prior employers.48、Salary Negotiations If you’re asked what your salary requirements are, say that they are open based upon the position and the overall compensation package. Or tell the employer you’d like to know more about the responsibilities and the challenges of the job prior to discussing salary. Another option is to give the employera salary range based upon the salary research you’ve done up front. Once you’ve received the offer you don’t need to accept (or reject) it right away. A simple “I need to think it over” can get you an increase in the original offer. And if you’re ambivalent about the position a “no” can bring you a better offer too. I turned down a position I knew I didn’t want, regardless of salary, and received three follow-up phone calls upping the compensation package. 49、Negotiating a Raise Be aware of company policy regarding compensation. Be flexible. Would you consider an extra couple of weeks vacation instead of a raise I know someo ne who’s regularly taken time-off instead of money and now has six vacation weeks a year… Then, ask your supervisor for a meeting to discuss salary. Present your request, supported by documentation, calmly and rationally. Don’t ask for an immediate answer. Your boss is mostly likely going to have to discuss it with Human Resources and/or other company managers. Despite your best efforts, there may simply not be enough money in the budget to increase your salary or compensation package offer. The company may also not want to create inequities by paying one person more than others in a similar position. In that case, you can at least know you tried. Plus, if this is a job you really think that you’re going to love, consider whether the company culture, the benefits, and the job itself are worth it – regardlessof the salary. 50、What Are You Passionate About -One of my greatest passions is helping others. When I was younger, I’ve enjoyed helping mom with household repairs. As I grew older, that habit grew and I desired to help others as well. I like helping people find solutions that meet their specific needs. -I’m passionate about painting. I take an evening art class once a week and try to find time each weekend to paint. Painting is a good way for me to rel ax and even though I don’t have much talent, I do it enjoy it. -I lost my father to pancreatic cancer and ever since then, I have spent time volunteering to help raise awareness and funding for cancer research. I volunteer for PanCan, the advocacy group, and I’m part of their volunteer network. One of the things I’m passionate is to assist in finding a cure, however I can.-I’m passionate about making a difference. When I’m involved with a project at work I want to do my best to achieve success. I feel the same way about what I do in my personal life. -I’m an avid skier and I like to spend weekends and vacations on the ski slopes./。

Annu.Rev.Psychol.2000.51:171–200Copyright ᭧2000by Annual Reviews.All rights reserved0084–6570/00/0171–0200$12.00171G OAL T HEORY ,M OTIVATION ,AND S CHOOL A CHIEVEMENT :An Integrative ReviewMartin V .Covington Department of Psychology,University of California at Berkeley,Berkeley,California 94720Key Words self-worth,school reform,self-processes,self-protective mechanismsAbstract The purpose of this review is to document the directions and recent prog-ress in our understanding of the motivational dynamics of school achievement.Based on the accumulating research it is concluded that the quality of student learning as well as the will to continue learning depends closely on an interaction between the kinds of social and academic goals students bring to the classroom,the motivating properties of these goals and prevailing classroom reward structures.Implications for school reform that follow uniquely from a motivational and goal-theory perspective are also explored.CONTENTSIntroduction.......................................................................................171Motives as Drives ...............................................................................173Motives as Goals ...............................................................................173Achievement Goal Theory ....................................................................174Academic Goals .................................................................................174Prosocial Goals .................................................................................178Self-Processes....................................................................................180Self-Worth Theory ..............................................................................181Self-Protective Mechanisms ....................................................................181Developmental Dynamics ......................................................................183Classroom Incentive Structures...............................................................184Ability Games ...................................................................................185Equity Games ...................................................................................189Conclusions:Future Directions for Research..............................................191INTRODUCTIONThe concept of motivation stands at the center of the educational enterprise.Terrel Bell,former Secretary of Education,put the point emphatically:‘‘There are three things to remember about education.The first is motivation.The second one is motivation.The third one is motivation’’(Maehr &Meyer 1997:372).172COVINGTONThis review examines the directions and recent progress in our understanding of the motivational dynamics of school achievement.As we will see,it is the interaction between(a)the kinds of social and academic goals that students bring to the class-room,(b)the motivating properties of these goals,and(c)the prevailing classroom reward structures that jointly influence the amount and quality of student learning, as well as the will to continue learning.Taken in its entirety,the substantial body of research reviewed here provides a relatively complete picture of the motivational dynamics of school achievement.For this reason,this review is more an unfolding narrative than a comprehensive cata-loguing of numerous individual studies—a narrative broad in scope,with many inter-twining themes,that ultimately provides for an overall cohesiveness.The fact that such a story can now be told is a tribute to the tireless,cumulative efforts of hundreds of investigators,many of whom are cited here.This is by no means to suggest, however,that the story is complete.Much has yet to be learned.But we understand enough to recognize gaps in our knowledge and what research steps need be taken next.Basically,our inquiries are placed in a historical perspective around the distinction between motive-as-drives and motives-as-goals(Kelly1955).Thefirst section reviews research inspired by goal theory and in particular the evidence for the prop-osition that,depending on their purposes,achievement goals differentially influence school achievement and the will to learn via cognitive,self-regulation mechanisms.The second section examines the motivational properties of these achievement goals from a drive-theory perspective.This allows us to account for otherwise puz-zling behaviors not easily explained by strictly cognitive,goal-directed interpreta-tions.For example,if the highest goal of many students is to achieve the best grades possible,then why do some of them sabotage their chances for success by procras-tinating in their studies,or by setting unrealistically high goals that doom them to failure?The third section examines how achievement goals are influenced by classroom incentive systems,either to the benefit or to the detriment of achievement.More specifically,two incentive systems that have commanded the attention of researchers over the past several decades are considered.Thefirst system assumes that students are optimally motivated by there being fewer rewards than there are players in the learning game,i.e.turning students into competitors for recognition and further advancement.This model derives much of its justification from the view of motives-as-drives,which typically considers motivation an enabling factor,i.e.the means to superior performance.This scarcity of rewards disrupts learning by encouraging neg-ative achievement goals,such as avoiding failure,rather than positive goals,such as striving for success.Special attention is given to the particularly devastating impact of reward scarcity on disenfranchised students and students of color,as well as on teachers themselves.The second broad incentive system that has recently attracted considerable interest, largely as an alternative to the competitive model,assumes that motivation is optimal when there exists an abundance of payoffs for learning,and payoffs of many kinds, not just tangible,extrinsic rewards like grades or gold stars but also intrinsic sourcesGOAL THEORY,MOTIVATION,ACHIEVEMENT173 of satisfaction,as well as a variety of ways in which to earn these rewards,ways suited to individual learning styles.This model reflects an emphasis on motives-as-goals that draw,not drive,individuals toward action,and generally for ennobling reasons:for the sake of curiosity,exploration,and self-improvement.We consider the evidence for how reward systems inspired by goal theory can encourage both prosocial and positive academic goals.Finally,I end with some implications for school reform that follow uniquely froma motivational and goal-theory perspective and identify some future directions forresearch.Motives as DrivesOver the past half century,two broadly different conceptions of achievement moti-vation have emerged.First came the perspective that views motivation as a drive,i.e.an internal state,need,or condition that impels individuals toward action.In this tradition needs were thought to reside largely within the individual,such that they were spoken of as being trait-like.These drive notions evolved from earlier theories of motivation that emphasized the satisfaction of such basic tissue needs as hunger and thirst(e.g.Woodworth1918).However,because of the limitations of applyinga strictly physiological approach to understanding human behavior,researchers even-tually broadened their focus to postulate learned drives or such psychological motives as the needs for social approval,power,and achievement.The most sophisticated view of achievement motivation as a learned drive was developed in the1950s and early1960s by Atkinson(1957,1964)and McClelland (1961).This theory held that achievement is the result of an emotional conflict between striving for success and avoiding failure.These two motivational dispositions were characterized largely in emotional terms.For example,hope for success and the anticipation of pride at winning or prevailing over others was said to encourage success-oriented individuals to strive for excellence.On the other hand,a capacity for experiencing shame was thought to drive failure-oriented persons to avoid situ-ations where they believed themselves likely to fail.It was the balance—or more aptly the imbalance—between these two factors that was believed to determine the direction,intensity,and quality of achievement behavior.For example,failure-avoiding individuals were thought likely to avoid all but the simplest tasks,unless extrinsic incentives such as money or the threat of punishment were introduced to overcome their resistance.In effect,it was this difference in emotional reactions(pride vs shame)that was thought to answer the question of why some individuals approach learning with enthusiasm and others only with reluctance,and why some choose easy tasks for which success is assured and others tackle problems for which the likelihood of success is exquisitely balanced against the chances of failure.Motives as GoalsOver the years,this approach/avoidance distinction has undergone significant mod-ifications,especially with the rise of the alternative view of motives-as-goals that entice individuals toward action(e.g.Elliott&Dweck1988).Researchers in this174COVINGTONtradition assume that all actions are given meaning,direction,and purpose by the goals that individuals seek out,and that the quality and intensity of behavior will change as these goals change.Obviously,this drive/goal distinction is somewhat arbitrary,i.e.the same achievement behavior can often be construed as either satis-fying a need or the result of pursuing a goal.In this sense,neither view discounts the validity of the other;rather they are complementary and each is additive to our understanding.For instance,goal theory leaves largely unaddressed the question of why individuals choose one goal over another,an issue that remains a central focus of need-achievement theory.On the other hand,goal theory offers a practical sur-rogate for a concept—motivation—whose nature is not yet fully understood and for which many differing perspectives have been put forward over the years(for a his-torical review,see Maehr&Meyer1997).By rewarding some goals and not others, teachers can change the reasons students learn,which is to say change their motives.Thus,by this analysis,we need not awaitfinal,all-encompassing definitions or ulti-mate clarification before taking eminently practical steps to solve more immediate, pressing problems that are basically motivational in nature. ACHIEVEMENT GOAL THEORYAcademic GoalsThe most recent embodiment of the motives-as-goals tradition is achievement goal theory(e.g.Ames1992,Dweck1986,Urdan1997,Urdan&Maehr1995).The basic contention of achievement goal theory is that depending on their subjective purposes, achievement goals differentially influence school achievement via variations in the quality of cognitive self-regulation processes.Cognitive self-regulation refers to stu-dents being actively engaged in their own learning,including analyzing the demands of school assignments,planning for and mobilizing their resources to meet these demands,and monitoring their progress toward completion of assignments(Pintrich 1999,Zimmerman1990,Zimmerman et al1994).In effect,then,one’s achievement goals are thought to influence the quality,timing,and appropriateness of cognitive strategies that,in turn,control the quality of one’s accomplishments.Two general kinds of goals that closely follow the original approach/avoidance designation of need theory have been made a particular focus of study:learning goals and performance goals,respectively.Although researchers have favored different designations for learning goals,such as task-goals(Anderman&Midgley1997, Kaplan&Midgley1997,Midgley et al1998,Nicholls1984)or mastery goals(Ames 1992,Roberts1992),there is general agreement that irrespective of these variations, learning goals refer to increasing one’s competency,understanding,and appreciation for what is being learned.Likewise,there is general agreement that performance goals,whether referred to as ego-goals(Nicholls1989,Thorkildsen&Nicholls1998) or self-enhancing goals(Skaalvik1997),involve outperforming others as a means to aggrandize one’s ability status at the expense of peers.GOAL THEORY,MOTIVATION,ACHIEVEMENT175 The specific hypothesis put forward by achievement goal theorists is twofold:first,that learning goals favor deep-level,strategic-processing of information,which in turn leads to increased school achievement;and second,that performance goals trigger superficial,rote-level processing that exerts a stultifying influence on achieve-ment.These twin hypotheses have stimulated a considerable body of research in recent years,the bulk of which examines one link at a time in the proposed trichot-omous sequence,with a few studies testing the entire sequence simultaneously(e.g. goals r cognitions r achievement).Goals r Cognitions First,consider briefly the evidence for thefirst link of this proposed causal sequence,namely that achievement goals influence the quality of self-regulated learning exhibited by students.Regarding learning goals,both correlational and laboratory studies indicate that students who espouse a learning-goal orientation report engaging in more self-regulated learning than do those students who endorse these same learning goals but to a lesser degree(Ames1992,Dweck&Leggett1988,Pintrich&De Groot1990, Pintrich&Schrauben1992).These differences in self-regulation include a greater effort among learning-oriented students(a)to monitor their understanding of what is being learned—in short,recognizing when they know something sufficient to the demands of the task and when they do not(Meece&Holt1993,Middleton& Midgley1997),(b)to employ organizing strategies such as paraphrasing and sum-marizing(Archer1994),and(c)to make positive,adaptive attributions for one’s occasional failures to understand.In this latter connection,learning-oriented students tend to believe that effort is the key to success and that failure,despite trying hard, does not necessarily imply incompetence but simply not having employed the right learning strategies(Nicholls1984,Pintrich&Schunk1996).The benefits of adopting a learning orientation also extend to affective reactions.For example,learning goals are positively associated with pride and satisfaction in success and negatively asso-ciated with anxiety in the event of failure(Ames1992,Jagacinski&Nicholls1984, 1987).The evidence concerning the presumed relationship between adopting perfor-mance goals and the quality of self-regulated learning is more complex and less consistent than that just summarized for learning goals(for commentary,see Har-ackiewicz et al1998).Although researchers have generally reported that performance goals are positively associated with superficial,rote rehearsal strategies and are unre-lated or negatively associated with deep-level processing(e.g.Karabenick&Collins-Eaglin1997,Pintrich et al1993),it is also true that no clear pattern has emerged from those studies exploring the association between performance goals and either task persistence(e.g.Bouffard et al1995,Pintrich et al1993)or the degree of effort extended(e.g.MacIver et al1991,Wentzel1996).This failure to confirm the expec-tation that effort level and persistence are negatively associated with performance goals likely occurs because,initially,researchers did not distinguish,as some sub-sequently have(e.g.Elliot&Harackiewicz1996),between performance/approach goals and performance/avoidance goals.When performance goals are properly parsed176COVINGTONinto their respective approach and avoidance components,the evidence suggests that those performance-oriented students who approach success invest considerable effort in highly sophisticated study strategies,which is not surprising given their goal of outperforming others(Wolters et al1996).By contrast,performance-oriented subjects whose goal is to avoid failure reflect a pattern of reduced effort and task persistence (Bouffard et al1995).By not trying,this latter group is thought to create face-saving excuses for having done poorly(Pintrich1999).Thus,from a self-protective point of view,performance-oriented students,whether approach or avoidant,are driven by fears of incompetency,with the former group striving to avoid failure by succeeding and the latter group setting up failures when necessary,but in ways that deflect the implication that they are incompetent.Cognitions r Achievement Does the quality of different cognitive processing strat-egies translate into different achievement outcomes,thus confirming thefinal link in the trichotomous goal theory framework?The available evidence also supports this contention.A number of studies conducted in the years prior to the advent of goal theory had already established a convincing case for deep-level processing as the optimal condition for achievement in a variety of subject-matter areas,including English composition and science(for a review,see Covington1992).Moreover, recent anecdotal observations provide indirect corroboration for these linkages.For example,Borkowski&Thorpe(1994)report that underachieving students are impul-sive and inaccurate in their self judgements regarding prior knowledge of a topic to be learned and in judging their own capacities,given specific task demands.Con-versely,academically successful minority high school students demonstrate a greater degree of self-regulation and willingness to persist on task than their less-successful peers(CR Wibrowski1992).Cultural variations in the cognitive,self-regulation element of this trichotomous sequence have also been reported.For instance,Purdie&Hattie(1996)found that compared with Anglo high school students,native Japanese favor memorizing and rote rehearsal strategies when studying and,incidentally,rely on feelings of obligation to others as the primary motivating imperative(see also Rosenthal&Feldman1991).By contrast,Anglo students are more likely to favor self-testing as a means to assess their level of understanding,as well as to create plans and goals for both motivating and organizing their studies.As to the cognition/achievement linkage itself,the high-est achievers in both the Anglo and Japanese groups tended to employ all the above-mentioned strategies—in effect,studying in more-complex ways—compared with the study practices of the low achievers in both groups.Goals r Cognitions r Achievement Several multiple-regression studies have con-firmed the entirety of this trichotomous framework.Elliot et al(1999)report that the presence of performance/avoidance goals was associated with superficial processing and disorganizing tendencies(i.e.inefficient use of study time),factors that in turn were linked to decreases in subsequent academic performance.It is interesting to note that adopting a performance/approach goal also was associated with superficialGOAL THEORY,MOTIVATION,ACHIEVEMENT177 processing,but in this case inefficiency was offset by a tendency for extra rehearsal so that the net effect was a gain in performance.By contrast,adopting learning goals was positively associated with deep-level processing,persistence,and high effort,a combination that also led to increases in achievement.Parenthetically,achievement gains were equal for both learning-oriented and performance/approach students(also see Elliot&Harackiewicz1996),which suggests that achievement per se,even superior performances,may be less important to the larger objectives of schooling than the means by which superior status is achieved.More specifically,successful achievement driven by fear can make learning an ordeal,no matter how well one does academically.Several other investigations corroborate the Elliot et al(1999)study by confirming a direct association between student goals on the one hand and academic outcomes on the other(e.g.Meece&Holt1993,Pokay&Blumenfeld1990).Perhaps most noteworthy for establishing causal,not merely correlational,relationships is a study reported by Schunk(1996)in which young children who were directed to work under a learning-goal set demonstrated greater task involvement and greater subsequent achievement than children who worked under a performance-goal set.In an additional series of studies,Roney et al(1995)manipulated approach and avoidance orientations with college students by inviting some to focus on the specific number of anagram problems they would try to solve(approach)and others to estimate the number they would be unable to solve(avoidance).Subjects operating under an approach set performed better and were more persistent in working on unsolvable anagrams.Simi-lar differences have been produced by other investigators using a variety of approach/ avoidance primers,including solving problems while imagining either positive or negative selves(Ruvolo&Markus1992)or operating under a self-initiated vs an obligatory achievement set(Roney&Sorrentino1995).Little is known about the ethnic and cultural correlates of the trichotomous goal-theory framework.To date,most research has focused on ethnic variations in achieve-ment attributions.Basically,Asian youngsters,in particular Chinese Americans(Hess et al1987,Whang&Hancock1994)and native Japanese(Hamilton et al1989), tend to attribute their successes to trying hard and their failures to lack of effort whereas Anglo American students tend to divide their attributional explanations more evenly between good luck,ability,and effort(for a review,see Holloway1988). Similar patterns favoring effort attributions for achievement have also been found among native-born Mexicans(Snyder1994).Although attributional mechanisms are clearly implicated in the pursuit of achieve-ment goals,they are not the same as goals.One of the few investigations concerned with the compound relationship between academic goals,ethnicity and school achievement involved comparisons among Anglo,Aboriginal(Australian),and Native American(Navaho)high school students(McInerney et al1997).Thefindings generally corroborated the previously cited work in that learning goals were positively associated with school grades,whereas performance goals were essentially uncor-related with grades.Most important was the fact that this pattern was common to all three ethnic groups.It would appear that diverse ethnic groups may be more similar178COVINGTONthan different,perhaps not only in their preferred goals but also in the causal impact of these goals on academic achievement.In summary,the accumulated evidence overwhelmingly favors the goal-theory hypothesis that different reasons for achieving,nominally approach and avoidance, influence the quality of achievement striving via self-regulation mechanisms.Although much remains to be learned about these relationships,especially regarding potential ethnic and gender variations,this trichotomous framework nonetheless pro-vides the basis for a rapprochement with motivational issues(see below).Moreover, this framework openly invites a consideration of additional goals,which typically have not been considered part of traditional academic achievement.It is to this point that we now turn.Prosocial GoalsThe bulk of research inspired by achievement goal theory has focused on academic outcomes.A separate line of inquiry with different origins and emphases,but that will almost certainly contribute to a deeper understanding of academic achievement, focuses on the interpersonal world of students and on the expression of social goals, including peer acceptance and respectability.From the time that McClelland(1955) and others(e.g.V eroff1969)first identified the need for approval as an important social motivator in the drive-theory tradition,investigators have recognized a broad range of social concerns and behaviors as important aspects of school-related moti-vation,including the willingness to cooperate,to comply with rules,and to help others.Recently,investigators have located the need to achieve a sense of belonging, integrity,and the respect of others in the larger context of goal theory(e.g.Farmer et al1991).Such prosocial goals as gaining acceptance share much in common with academic goals(Schneider et al1996).Like academic goals,the pursuit of social goals can help organize,direct,and empower individuals to achieve more fully.For example,the desire of individuals to achieve for the sake of the group is a well-known phenomenon,and it forms the basis for much of the success of cooperative learning(Hertiz-Lazarowitz et al1992).Moreover,like many academic goals,espe-cially those associated with intrinsic curiosity and creative expression,prosocial goals are also valued in their own right,apart from any justification that they may contribute to academic success.This valuation is part of the larger commitment of American schools to encourage moral character and social responsibility among upcoming generations.Currently,our understanding of how the pursuit of social goalsfits into the larger dynamics of classroom achievement is not nearly as advanced as our understanding of the role of academic goals in this regard.Nonetheless,the prosocial literature appears sufficiently developed to support several generalizations proposed by Wentzel (1996)and others(e.g.Wentzel&Wigfield1998).First,it is clear that the pursuit of such social goals as making friends and being responsible to others is given high priority by children of virtually all ages(AllenGOAL THEORY,MOTIVATION,ACHIEVEMENT179 1986,Ford1992),often even higher than the pursuit of academic goals(Wentzel 1991a,1992).Second,the pursuit of these prosocial goals is closely related to students being liked and respected by their peers(Wentzel1994).Conversely,students who are identified by their peers as being less well-liked report trying to achieve these same prosocial goals less often.Teachers,too,are judged in much the same manner. According to Wentzel(1996),teachers who are well liked by students are rated as willing to treat children’s ideas with respect,to give of their time and resources unstintingly,and to provide positive encouragement and feedback.Third,prosocial behavior including being cooperative,compliant,and willing to share is positively associated with academic success(Wentzel1989,1991b,1993). The reasons for this relationship are not entirely clear,except to say that,motiva-tionally speaking,both prosocial goals and academic achievement are intimately linked.One possible moderator involves level of academic effort.For example,tutor-ing others is not only a valued expression of prosocial cooperation,but the benefits to the tutor of consolidating his/her own understanding of the subject matter in the process also bode well for subsequent achievement.Wentzel(1996)found indirect support for the prosocial/effort portion of this potential linkage with achievement in a study of seventh-grade English classes.The amount of time students spent on their homework(effort)depended on the degree to which they endorsed socially respon-sible goals,such as helping peers understand their assignments.Longitudinal analyses of the same data also indicated that increases in effort levels from the sixth-grade to eight-grade depended not only on the degree to which students pursued social goals within that time period,but also on the pursuit of learning goals as well.This latterfinding serves to illustrate a fourth andfinal point:Not only do prosocial goals likely influence achievement in their own right,but as was just implied by the Wentzel study,they also likely act jointly with academic goals to influence achieve-ment.At the moment,the precise nature of such a complex causal network of goals is not well understood,and interest in this possibility has far outrun the available evidence(see Wentzel1993,Wentzel&Wigfield1998).Whatever the dynamics eventually prove to be,however,varying combinations of goals will likely exert negative as well as positive influences on academic achievement.For instance, whether the willingness to share becomes a positive factor in the achievement equa-tion will almost certainly depend on which academic goals predominate.As only one example,Wentzel(1996)reports that the tendency of students to pursue social goals, like sharing,is positively related to learning goals but not to performance goals.This finding likely reflects the fact that by their very nature,learning goals—exploring, experimenting,and discovering—depend heavily on the acquiescence,if not the active cooperation,of others whereas the main objective of performance goals—doing better than others—is patently contrary to positive social values,involving as they do sabotage,deception,and a reluctance to cooperate(Covington1992).Other academic/social goal combinations will likely act in positive,compensatory ways,such as when,for example,an otherwise boring subject matter is mastered merely for the social value of doing so.Andfinally,there is the possibility of a direct。

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第一部分阅读(共两节,满分50分)第一节(共15小题：每小题2.5分,满分37.5分)阅读下列短文,从每题所给的A、B、C、D四个选项中选出最佳选项。

AChoosing SubjectsWhen making course option decisions at our school,we recommend the following things be taken into consideration.Why students should choose a subject Why students should NOT choose a subjectAbility The student has a natural talent for a particular subjectarea.The student thinks that it will be an easyoption.Interest The student enjoys studying the subject,which will helpkeep them motivated when things get tough.The student’s friends are doing it so theythink it will be fun.Future It relates to the student’s career plan and will help themdevelop relevant skills for their future.The student did not have time to researchtheir options properly.Advice The student has discussed their options with their teachersand parents and they have agreed it is a good idea.The student is only doing the subjectbecause someone else told them to do it.University entrance requirements are set by the British university admissions and will differ depending on theuniversity and courses selected.It is important to thoroughly research courses before choosing A-Level subjects and staff are available to guide students and parents in this area.Careers and future optionsStudents are given an opportunity to broaden their knowledge and understanding of the nature and demands of a variety of careers.They will receive career talks and presentations from a variety of employers and have the opportunity to visit universities.Further researchAs part of the option process.students are encouraged to carry out additional research to help them with their selection.1.What should a student consider for choosing a subject?A.Friends’preferences.B.Difficulty of subjects.C.Teachers’expectations.D.Relation to occupations.2.What is included in the subject-selecting process?A.Engaging students in college tours.B.Offering lectures on A-Level subjects.C.Guaranteeing a suitable future job.D.Conducting various scientific research.3.Where is the text probably taken from?A.An exam paper.B.A teaching plan.C.A school brochure.D.An academic article.BDo you know how much India struggles to gather the waste plastic water bottles?According to a Central Pollution Control Board(CPCB)report from2012,India generates15,000tonnes of plastics a day,of which the gathered ones only achieve60%.The trashed-but-not-gathered plastic waste leads to land and water pollution. posing serious threat to the environment.After seeing that,Ankur Chawla,a drink expert,undertook research to find a solution,after which he realised the biggest problem the country faced was disposing of plastic waste.To address it,he wanted to come up with a solution where they do not add to the problem of waste.Fortunately,Ankur was not alone.He met Bhrigu Seth who was into green farming.Both of them found that they shared a common goal and it didn’t take long for them to draft a plan of action.It is estimated that over90percent of aluminium(铝)drink cans in India are recycled.Instead,70percent of the cans are manufactured through recycled waste.After going through challenges at hand,the pair made up their minds.Before taking the next step.both co-founders visited five-star hotels and took samples of water in aluminium cans,asking them whether they would give it a shot if something like that comes in the market.The pair received an overwhelmingly positive response.They then determined to launch Responsible Whatr,natural spring water drink packed in an aluminium can to solve the problem of waste plastic water bottles.As one of India’s first natural spring water drink,Responsible Whatr offered an environmentally friendly and endlessly recyclable aluminium can.It’s a non-alcoholic drink that was launched with a vision for an eco-friendly future and an agenda to reduce single-use plastic pollution.Going forward,Ankur and Bhrigu aim to cooperate with airports and ecommerce gates which would help them in directly reaching the homes of high networth individuals(HNIs).They also plan to tie up with corporate firms and cinema halls and join hands with NGOs that are fighting for the conservation of beaches and oceans.4.What inspired Ankur to conduct his research?A.Plastics remained the major bottle material.B.Uncollected plastics caused severe pollution.C.Plastics accounted for most of the daily waste.D.The amount of plastic waste was beyond control.5.What was Ankur and Bhrigu’s solution to the problem?A.Creating a new packaging design.B.Developing an alternative to plastics.unching a rubbish sorting program.D.Increasing the recycling of plastic cans.6.What was Responsible Whatr aimed at?A.Removing plastic pollution.B.Promoting aluminium cans.C.Advertising non-alcoholic drinks.D.Advocating a sustainable approach.7.How do Ankur and Bhrigu plan to expand their market?A.By cooperating with NHIs.B.By introducing new products.C.By targeting profitable NGOs.D.By establishing diverse channels.CA new finding from Cambridge scientists has shown that an artificial intelligent(AI)system can acquire features of the brains of humans in order to solve tasks.“Not only is the brain great at solving complex problems,but it does so while using very little energy.In ournew work we show that considering the brains’problem-solving abilities alongside its goal of spending as few resources as possible can help us understand why brains look like they do,”said Jascha Achterberg,a scholar at the University of Cambridge.In a study published in Nature Machine Intelligence,Achterberg and his colleagues created an artificial system intended to model a simplified version of the brain.Instead of real neurons(神经元)in brains,the system used computational nodes(节点).The researchers gave the system a simple task to complete,where it had to combine multiple pieces of information to decide upon the shortest route to get to the destination.One of the reasons the team chose this particular task is that to complete it,the system needs to maintain a number of elements-start location,end location and intermediate steps-and once it has learned to do the task reliably,it is possible to observe,at different moments in a trial,which nodes are important.Initially,the system does not know how to complete the task and makes mistakes.But when it is given feedback it gradually learns to get better at the task.The system then repeats the task until eventually it learns to perform it correctly.Co-author Professor Duncan Astle said,“This simple task forces artificial systems to produce some quite complicated characteristics.Interestingly,they are characteristics shared by biological systems.I think that tells us something fundamental about why our brains are organised the way they are.”The team also believes their findings are likely to be of interest to the AI community,too,where they could allow for the development of more efficient systems.8.Which best describes the brains of humans according to the text?A.Intelligent.B.Efficient.C.Adaptive.D.Imaginative.9.Why did researchers assign the route-finding task?A.To require decision-making process.B.To complete it without any effort.C.To result in various node sizes.D.To involve specific procedures.10.What can we infer about the system from the last two paragraphs?A.It shows limits of artificial intelligence.B.It needs human instructions to progress.C.It performs complicated tasks by learning.D.It has much in common with human brains.11.What is the research team’s attitude toward the finding?A.Cautious.B.Enthusiastic.C.Hopeful.D.Skeptical.DMost people would be terrified of entering waters with crocodiles(鳄鱼),but not Sao Chan.Like others living in a jungle village,the73-year-old farmer says the Siamese crocodiles found in the waterways may look ferocious,but they should not be treated with prejudice.“If we come close to them,they just run away,”Chan says.He’s right.There have been extremely few reported attacks by Siamese crocodiles on humans in the world, and reportedly none anywhere in Cambodia.Instead,it’s the crocodiles that have every reason to fear people.Once common throughout Southeast Asia,the particularly shy Siamese crocodile,which can grow up to10feet long,was for decades hunted for its skin and meat to such an extent that,in the early1990s,the species was thought to be extinct in the wild.Some of them survived in the Cardamoms,however,where populations of the reptiles,likely numbering fewer than200individuals in total,were rediscovered in2000.Since then,local people have conducted regular patrols (巡逻)to protect them from threats.While the patrols and other conservation efforts have helped prevent the extinction of the Siamese crocodiles,concerns about the species’long-term survival have remained because population numbers have stayed largely flat since their rediscovery.In2022,conservationists have introduced more Siamese crocodiles into the wild than ever before,not just in the Cardamoms but for the first time into a wildlife reserve in the northern part of the country,where the crocodiles historically were found.Advances in genetic testing have identified crocodiles suitable for release,and satellite tracking of reintroduced crocodiles has improved protection efforts.“We have a long way to go,but the potential comeback of the Siamese crocodile could be Cambodia’s most successful conservation story,”says Pablo Sinovas,who leads a nonprofit reintroducing the animals.“Its survival isn’t just an ecological necessity,but a symbolic matter of urgency if we have any hope of preserving nature on Earth.”12.What does the underlined word“ferocious”in Paragraph1mean?A.Violent.B.Friendly.C.Ugly.D.Abnormal.13.What put Siamese crocodiles on the edge of extinction?A.Habitat loss.B.Water pollution.C.Human activities.D.Poor adaptability.14.Why are protectors worried about Siamese crocodiles?A.They are regularly disturbed by touristsB.Their quantity isn’t increased as expected.C.The locals lack awareness of protecting themD.They fail to adjust to unfamiliar surroundings15.What plays a great role in crocodiles’reintroduction?A.Frequent patrols.B.Modern technology.C.Economic advances.D.Genetic transformation.第二节(共5小题：每小题2.5分,满分12.5分)根据短文内容,从短文后的选项中选出能填入空白处的最佳选项。

2022年考研考博-考博英语-西南财经大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题The hopes, goals, fears and desires （）widely between men and women, between the rich and the poor.问题1选项A.alterB.varyC.transferD.shift【答案】B【解析】考查固定搭配。

alter改变，更改；vary改变，变化；transfer转移，转变；shift转移，变换。

句意：希望、目标、恐惧和欲望在男人和女人之间、富人和穷人之间大不相同。

这几个词都有改变的意思，但是只有vary能和后面的between搭配，意为“在...之间变化、有差异”，所以选项B正确。

2.单选题To be （）with you, I think you’re making a dreadful mistake by refusing to cooperate.问题1选项A.frankB.pertinentdD.vivid 【答案】A【解析】考查固定搭配。

to be frank为固定搭配，意为“老实说，坦率地说”。

句意：坦率地跟你说，我认为你拒绝合作是犯了一个可怕的错误。

选项A正确。

3.单选题My boss has failed me so many times that I no longer place any （）on what he promises. 问题1选项A.assuranceB.probabilityC.relianceD.conformity【答案】C【解析】考查名词词义辨析。

assurance “保证，担保”；probability“可能性，机率”；reliance“信赖，信心”；conformity“遵守，适合，符合”。

句意：我老板已经让我失望太多次，我不会再对他的承诺抱任何希望。

高一英语心理学理论单选题70题(答案解析)1.The study of the mind and behavior is called_____.A.philosophyB.psychologyC.sociologyD.biology答案：B。

选项A“philosophy”是哲学；选项B“psychology”是心理学，符合题意；选项C“sociology”是社会学；选项D“biology”是生物学。

本题考查心理学的英文表达。

2.Psychologists study_____.A.physical healthB.mental processes and behaviorC.chemical reactionsD.planets and stars答案：B。

心理学家研究心理过程和行为。

选项A“physical health”是身体健康；选项C“chemical reactions”是化学反应；选项D“planets and stars”是行星和恒星。

3.Which of the following is NOT a branch of psychology?A.cognitive psychologyB.astronomyC.social psychologyD.developmental psychology答案：B。

选项A“cognitive psychology”认知心理学；选项C“social psychology”社会心理学；选项D“developmental psychology”发展心理学都是心理学的分支。

选项B“astronomy”是天文学，不是心理学分支。

4.The process of taking in information through the senses is called_____.A.perceptionB.memoryC.learningD.thinking答案：A。

2022-2023学年浙江省杭州市S9联盟高二（下）期中英语试卷学校:___________姓名：___________班级：___________考号：___________第I卷（选择题）一、阅读理解（本大题共15小题，共37.5分）AParis may be best-known as the city of love，but it's also the city of book lovers!Here are three literary landmarks you should add to your travel bucket list.Shakespeare and Company37 Rue de la B cherieThis Paris bookshop was opened in 1919 by American Sylvia Beach，on the encouragement of her French partner，Adrienne Monnier.When it opened，it primarily sold English-language books，and it attracted various iconic English-speaking clients，including Gertrude Stein and Ernest Hemingway.The shop was closed during the Second World War.After the war，a US ex-serviceman George Whitman opened a bookshop called Le Mistral，which he stocked with many books bought from Beach.He was a big admirer of hers，and he continued her practice of hospitality（好客）by allowing writers to sleep in the shop overnight in return for help around the shop in the day.After Beach's death，Whitman renamed his shopShakespeare and Company，and today it is owned by his daughter Sylvia. Abbey Bookshop29 Rue de la ParcheminerieOne of Paris's most famous English-language bookstores，the Abbey Bookshop was established in 1989 by Canadian Brian Spence.It's a labyrinth（迷宫）of books that spill out onto the pavement outside.Spence claims to have over 40，000 books，most of them second-hand.He often shares a cup of coffee and a story with his customers.Le Procope13 Rue del'Ancienne Com édieLe Procope was opened in 1686 by Sicilian chef Francesco Procopio dei Coltelli.Located across the road from a theatre，it became a hot spot for actors，playwrights and poets.Voltaire was said to drink 40 cups of coffeea day while he worked at a table at the cafe.1. What do the first two bookstores have in common？______A. Both are famous for hospitality.B. Both offer accommodation for writers.C. Both mainly sell English-language books.D. Both are very popular with famous actors.2. Which bookstore has the longest history？______A. Abbey Bookshop.B. Le Procope.C. Shakespeare and Company.D. La B cherie.3. Who is the text intended for？______A. Book lovers.B. Famous writers.C. Iconic playwrights.D. US ex-servicemen.BI am a boy who likes reading and I read all kinds of books.When I do this，I have ended up with two speeds—fast and slow depending on how worthwhile I find the book.I like to analyze and ponder over the words and contents of the books，which can sharpen my mind.When I read the book Intrinsic Motivation（《内在动机》），I ask myself，"What kind of book is it？"Well，first of all，I have to say Dan Pink writes well，which is probably not surprising as he is a speechwriter for an American leader.The text is neither academically difficult nor very casual.It states information clearly without effort.The subject matter of the book is motivation，and it starts with a discussion of how external motivation is less effective for modern knowledge work，where wide intelligent decision-making and innovation are important.The book shows that the tricky nature of how we are truly motivated is filled with plenty of examples and descriptions of research.For example，it is shown how payment can signal that a task is undesirable and so reduce intrinsic motivation.The heart of the book is the analysis of intrinsic motivation，in particular through the three key elements ofautonomy，mastery and purpose.The rest of the book then takes an applied position，showing how these principles can be applied in the workplace.The book ends up with a comprehensive summary，covering the contents from several different angles and providing an easy future reference.This is the sort of book I like most.Unsurprisingly，perhaps，I took quite a long time to read and re-read this excellent book.It covers the subject of motivation strongly and well，and is now one of my definitive references in a rather large library.4. What does the underlined phrase "ponder over"in paragraph 1 mean？______A. Cut down.B. Refer to.C. Think about.D. Go through.5. What is paragraph 2 mainly about？______A. The features of worthwhile books.B. The meaning of external motivation.C. The author's advice for reading books.D. The author's understanding of the book.6. How does the book mainly explain the nature of intrinsic motivation？______A. By giving examples.B. By making assumptions.C. By making comparisons.D. By listing figures.7. What is the text？______A. A science report.B. An academic paper.C. A travel journal.D. A book review.CNowadays nearly everyone has suffered from a bad attack of forgetfulness when a password is needed.The company computer.The home computer.Banking and ATM machines.Websites.Car and home security systems.The list goes on.It does not take long to accumulate a dozen or more passwords.Writing them down on paper or simply using the same password for anything and everything is how most people deal with the overload.The negative aspect of this is that both ways make it easier for hackers（黑客）to attack computer privacy.Researchers are now trying to do something about this by moving forward what may be an answer to the password puzzle：pictures.Many companies are looking into various ways that images can be used to replace the standard，easily-forgotten letters and numbers.Pictures are much easier to remember.Researchers are also working on picture passwords that will make it more difficult for the average hacker.Take，for instance，the screens available through a New York company，Pass logix.One picture shows a standard bar scene.The password is created by making up a drink from the various items pictured.The order in which the items are selected becomes the password.Researchers atthe University of California，Berkeley，who have studied the habit of computer users say laziness plays a major role in most people's choice of passwords.However，forgetting passwords is a common problem of the computer era.It's more of a problem than hacking，in fact，particularly for big companies that must seek help for their computer-using employees—often round the clock.How much does it cost a company each time an employee forgets a password？No one knows，but people who are pushing the picture passwords believe they will save companiesa lot of money because recalling images is so much easier.8. What troubles people nowadays according to the text？______A. Choosing their passwords is so difficult.B. There are too many passwords to remember.C. Hackers can easily invade computer privacy.D. Most people have to overwork in the computer era.9. What might lead to people choosing pictures as passwords？______A. Their imagination.B. Their workload.C. Their laziness.D. Their intelligence.10. Why forgetting passwords becomes a big problem？______A. It will cost an arm and a leg.B. It will often leads to hacking.C. It may affect employees' work.D. It may expose private information.11. Which of the following might be the best title for the text？______A. Passwords，a Product of the Computer Era.B. Pictures，a Solution to the Password Puzzle.C. Hackers，the Invader of Computer Privacy.D. Forgetfulness，a Big Headache of People.DUS author Henry Rollins once wrote："Loneliness adds beauty to life."Indeed，in the eyes of artists，loneliness never seems to go out of style.There are paintings that show loneliness，songs that are inspired by loneliness，and many works of literature that center around this theme.In the eyes of UK economist Rachel Reeves，however，loneliness is far from romantic.Instead，it's "a giant evil"that becomes a serious problem in the country.So just how serious is it？On Jan 17，UK Prime Minister Theresa May appointed politician Tracey Crouch as the country's very first "Minister for Loneliness".Her job is to tackle（处理）the loneliness that the country's been feeling—a problem which，according to UK government research，is affecting more than 9 million people in the country，and is more harmful to one's physical and mental health than smoking 15 cigarettes a day.And the problem hasn't just appeared recently.Back in 2014，the UK was given the title of the"loneliness capital of Europe"byThe Telegraph.But this doesn't mean that the problem only affects the British.In fact，we're all suffering from loneliness now more than ever，in spite of most of the world now having access to the internet，which has enabled us to be more connected than ever.What we need，according to Kim Leadbetter，sister of the late UK politician Jo Cox，is to have"proper human connections"."Our lives nowadays are so busy.We spend the vast majority of our time on our phones，on our laptops.We need to press pause on that and actually sit down and speak to human beings，"Leadbetter said at an event last year.But the first steps toward fighting this problem are to accept its existence and not be ashamed or afraid of it.After all，without loneliness，many beautiful paintings，songs，and literary works wouldn't even exist.And"evil"or not，being lonely is simply part of the experience of being a human.12. Why Rachel Reeves is mentioned in paragraph 1？______A. To raise a question.B. To introduce the topic.C. To give an explanation.D. To arouse the readers' interest.13. What can know about loneliness according to the text？______A. It has become a problem worldwide.B. It does more harm mentally than physically.C. It is mainly caused by the wide use of the Internet.D. It didn't attract the public's attention until recently.14. What is Leadbetter's advice to deal with loneliness？______A. To call our friends regularly.B. To face the problem bravely.C. To stop using electronic products.D. To meet people face to face more often.15. Which of the following would the author probably agree with？______A. Loneliness is a giant evil of society.B. Artists owe their success to loneliness.C. It is hard to find a solution to loneliness.D. Loneliness is just a normal part of our life.二、阅读七选五（本大题共5小题，共12.5分）With everything going on in the world these days，it's no wonder so many of us are struggling to sleep.Almost 40 per cent of people surveyed in 13 countries have reported sleep issues over the past two years，according to research in the Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine.The following tips may help you.Test your pillowIf you bought your pillow in 2020，guess what？（1）______ The National Sleep Foundation recommends replacing them every one totwo years.A pillow past its prime can cause neck and shoulder pain—and restless sleep.To buy the right pillow，determine your sleep style.If you sleep on your back，look for a thinner pillow.（2）______Get an hour of sunlight each dayMorning sunlight is important for good sleep.To get more rays，aim for 15 to 30 minutes of direct light in the morning.（3）______ The light cues your brain that it's time to be awake and prevents you from producing melatonin before bedtime.When you're inside，open the shades.Skip salty snacks before bedWant to reduce those annoying nighttime trips to the bathroom？（4）______ When people cut down on salt，their average bathroom trips decreased from twice a night to once.And those who consumed more salt woke up more frequently to go to the bathroom.Tackle your troubles before dinner（5）______ Tough discussions are less likely to disturb your sleep if you initiate them earlier rather than later.If you start an argument after dinner，your quarreling can continue until bedtime.Some research even suggests that going to bed angry may make you unhappy the next morning.A.It's already old.B.Cut back on peanuts and crisps.C.Pick a pillow based on your sleeping position.D.If you sleep on your side，a thicker pillow is better.E.Next，take two 15-minute outdoor breaks during the day.F.If you need to handle some troubles，don't wait until nighttime.G.Avoid heavy or large meals within a couple of hours of bedtime.16. A. A B. B C. C D. D E. E F. F G. G17. A. A B. B C. C D. D E. E F. F G. G18. A. A B. B C. C D. D E. E F. F G. G19. A. A B. B C. C D. D E. E F. F G. G20. A. A B. B C. C D. D E. E F. F G. G三、完形填空（本大题共15小题，共15.0分）A woman called Courtney has recently caught the attention of the Internet.She shared the （1）______ of how she became homeless.Courtney explained how disaster struck when she（2）______ her job in the exact same week that her husband did too.The couple at first moved in Courtney's sister's but，（3）______ ，the living situation didn't work out.The pair ended up living on the （4）______ .They slept in parks while completing the necessary process for shelter accommodation.After finally getting （5）______ ，the couple faced further challenges.It was difficult to find work that（6）______ the shelter's requirements. Since her first video，Courtney has gathered a following of almost 70，000 people on the Internet where she（7）______ the necessities ofbeing a homeless person.Her videos were recently spotted by Chelsey，a （8）______ woman who has given a lovely gift.Chelsey realized she could be of more （9）______ .Chelsey said，"I started following her story and thought it （10）______ to help.I knew people tend to send money or supplies，but I wanted to send her an opportunity.Cash is （11）______ ，but I knew if I sent her a laptop，she could find virtual job opportunities on the Internet while searching for a （12）______ job."Just a few weeks after sending Courtney the laptop，Chelsey realized she was in need of some assistance with her project.She （13）______ to pay Courtney to work for her.Courtney is now helping Chelsey write blog posts about the stories about her project.Chelsey continued，"We should be（14）______ in an unkind world，and give people opportunities，just because that you' re （15）______ doesn't mean you' re not human."21. A. story B. success C. feelings D. thoughts22. A. got B. lost C. quit D. did23. A. gradually B. surprisingly C. unfortunately D. immediately24. A. streets B. trains C. bridges D. roofs25. A. punished B. approved C. injured D. bored26. A. made B. asked C. raised D. met27. A. shares B. writes C. remembers D. collects28. A. middle-aged B. well-behaved C. good-looking D. warm-hearted29. A. awareness B. confidence C. value D. assistance30. A. simple B. peaceful C. necessary D. difficult31. A. common B. great C. rare D. dirty32. A. full-time B. labour-saving C. life-long D. past-time33. A. hesitated B. pretended C. decided D. hoped34. A. content B. happy C. kind D. calm35. A. quiet B. homeless C. old D. different第II卷（非选择题）四、语法填空（本大题共1小题，共15.0分）36. Located in the Nanwan Peninsula，14 km from Lingshui Town，Hainan Province，Nanwan Monkey Island is the only tropical island nature reserve（1）______ macaques（猕猴）in China and the world，so people call it"Monkey Island".Nanwan Monkey Island is beautiful and（2）______ （charm）.There are clean and entrancing beaches，so typical of Hainan，with colorful coral reefs.Monkey Island is（3）______ （surround）by the sea on three sides and has a vast expanse of blue waves.The（4）______ （rock）on the island are like an anchor thrown into the vast South China Sea，（5）______ has a mild climate and abundant rainfall，and coconut，pineapple，and other fruit trees are everywhere.（6）______ plants here are evergreen and flowers and fruits can（7）______ （find）all year round，（8）______ （provide）a typical tropical scenery.It is not only for the （9）______ （grow）and reproduction of macaques，（10）______ can provide a plentiful supply of food for the monkeys.五、书面表达（本大题共2小题，共40.0分）37. 假设你是李华校学生会将举办以"Let's Go Outdoors"为主题的英语演讲比赛。