中国人民大学英语语言与西方文化期末复习要点

英语语言学一、名词解释第一课l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind・2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community・3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning・ The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2<AlIophone 音位变体：The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3<Minimal pair 最小对立体：When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segmentwhich occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair第三课LMorphology 形态学：Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes 派生词素：Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class ofwords are called…3Jnflectional morphemes 曲折词素：Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1 .Syntax 语法句法：A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences・2.Syntactic categories 句法范畴：Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes,called syntactic categories・3>Deep structure 深层结构：Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties,is called deep structure or D・ structure・4.Surface structure 表层结构：Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课LReference 指称：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experienee.2.Homonymy 同音异义：Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both・3・Hyponymy 上下义关系：Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word・第六课l.Pragmatics 语用学：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2eUtterance 话语：a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3<Utterance meaning 话语意义：Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4Jllocutionary act 言夕卜行为：An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker^ intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1 • What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication .It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology: It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language・Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences・Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system・ It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language・Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sou nd.3.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1)Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2)Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understandingnovel messages.3)Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4)Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5)Cultural transmission第二课1.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph]9a phonetician or a philologist? Why?语咅学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么？Phonetics 一description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology ——description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meani ng.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning ・2.What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value ・The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/1/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/ Allophones—actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem tyDe: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem tyDe: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessedSuffix: -istMeaning: denoting a member of a profession or business activityStem type: added to nounsExamples: dramatist: a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease2.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: unmeaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarly approach or language unhappy: nothappy2)prefix: antimeaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medically induced abortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re・meaning:_once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbs examples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1.What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms --- synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2.Explain with examples “homonymy”，“polysemy”，and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e Mdifferent words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they arehomophones・ When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs・ When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms・ The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj ./fast v・Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning・ This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. For example, the word table has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5・ orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6. part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated onHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word・ The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flower Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory第六课1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process・In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics- However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics・2.What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2)directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3)commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4)expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5)declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting,requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class・Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typicalones.The illocutionaiy point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating・The last class "declarations^ has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality・3・ What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged・To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1)The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange)・②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required・(2)The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence・(3)The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4)The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity・③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.。

语言学期末考试重点What is language?“ Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”System: linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly.Arbitrary: e.g. bookSymbolic: people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.V ocal: language is primarily vocal, rather than writtenHuman-specific:Design features of language语言的本质特征Arbitrariness （任意性）Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪”in Chinese. Onomatopoeia: words that sound like the sounds they describe Duality （二重性）Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds which combine to form meaningful units (morphemes, words, such as he, left) which constitute a higher (primary) level.Productivity or Creativity （创造性）Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and canbe instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement（移位性）One can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.e.g. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.Cultural transmission（文化传递性）Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.e.g. a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system.e.g. a Chinese baby born and brought up in Londonan English child brought up in BeijingInterchangeability（互换性）It refers to that man can both produce and receive message.One can be a speaker or a hearerSpecialization （专门性）It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communicationFunction of language(语言功能)Phatic function/communion（寒暄功能）Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.e.g. Greetings, farewell and commentsDirective function （指令功能Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.e.g. open the doorInformative function（信息功能）Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out.Declarative sentences:e.g. I saw her yesterday on the streetInterrogative function （疑问功能）Language is used to ask for information from others.All questions expecting replies serve this function.e.g. what’s your name?what time is it now?Expressive function（表达功能）Language is used to reveal the speaker’s at titudes and feelings.e.g. Oh, my God!Evocative function（唤起功能）Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.e.g. Jokes, advertising, and propagandaPerfomative function（施为功能）Language is used to do things or to perform acts.e.g. I now pronounce you husband and wife.Descriptive and prescriptive grammars （描写式和规定式语法）Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.e.g. A: who is that?B: It’s me. / It’s I.Synchronic and diachronic linguistics （共时与历时语言学）When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developmentsthrough time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.Langue and parole （语言与言语F. de Saussure make an important distinction between langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performance （语言能力和语言应用）According to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.Chapter 2The Sounds of LanguagePhoneticsThe study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics. The study of sounds can be divided into three main areas: Articulatory Phonetics; Acoustic Phonetics; Perceptual or Auditory PhoneticsClassification of English speech soundsSpeech sounds of all languages are broadly classified into vowels and consonants.V owels: there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.Consonants: we are making it difficult or impossible for theair to pass through the mouth.ConsonantsEnglish consonant can be classified according to the manner of articulation and the place of articulation.The manner of articulation: it refers to the type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed).The place of articulation: it refers to the involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant (where the airstream is most obstructed).The manner of articulationPlosives /stops (爆破音)——/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/Fricatives （摩擦音）——/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /θ/, /e/, /∫/, /?/, /h/ Affricates (破擦音) ——/t∫/, /d?/Liquids （流音）——/l/, /r/Nasals （鼻音）——/m/, /n/, /?/Glides (median approximants) （滑音）——/j/, /w/The place of articulationBilabials （双唇音）: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/Labiodentals （唇齿音）: /f/, /v/Dentals （齿音）: /θ/, /e/Alveolars（齿龈音）:/t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /r/, /l/Palatals （上颚音）: /j/, /∫/, /?/, /d?/, /t∫/Velars （软腭音）: /k/, /g/, /?/Glottal （声门音，喉音）: /h/Phonology （音系学/音位学）Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Minimal pairs 最小对立体Minimal pairs: are pairs of words which differ from each otheronly by one sound (occurs in the same place).Minimal sets 最小对立体集Minimal sets: when a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set.On the vowel phonemese.g.feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, footOn the consonantse.g.big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wigSuprasegmentals（超语段音位学）Suprasegmental features refers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of sound segment. The major suprasegmental features in english include word stress, sentence stress, tone, and intonation.STRESS TONE INTONATION。

Question:1.What are the two major cultural influences over the European mind?Multiple-choices1. What integrated the Celtic, Germanic and Slavic cultures with the Roman culture into Western culture?A. The acceptance of Christianity.B. Greece under Alexander.C. Latin language.D. The fall of Greece2. Which of the following classical styles is built with a spiral scroll-like capital?A. the Doric columnB. the Ionic columnC. the Corinthian columnD. the Tuscan column3. Which of the following capitals is not of Greek style?A. the Doric columnB. the Ionic columnC. the Corinthian columnD. the Tuscan column4. A _____ knot can be referred to as an endless or mystical knot, reminding us of the endless nature, an uninterrupted life cycle.A. CelticB. GreekC. GermanicD. Slavic5. Which of the following countries is often known as “the Cradle of Western Civilization”?A. IsraelB. GreekC. ItalyD. Egypt6. _____ was abducted by Zeus in bull form and taken to the island of Crete, where she gave birth to Minos.A. AlcmeneB. DanaëC. EuropaD. IoTrue or false1. Victoria is known as the ancient Greek goddess of victory. T2. Japan, as a developed country, is includ ed in “the West”. T3. The first Greek civilization arose from the old city of Mycenae. FQuestion:1.What are the two major cultural influences over the European mind?Multiple-choices1. What integrated the Celtic, Germanic and Slavic cultures with the Roman culture into Western culture?A. The acceptance of Christianity.B. Greece under Alexander.C. Latin language.D. The fall of Greece2. Which of the following classical styles is built with a spiral scroll-like capital?A. the Doric columnB. the Ionic columnC. the Corinthian columnD. the Tuscan column3. Which of the following capitals is not of Greek style?A. the Doric columnB. the Ionic columnC. the Corinthian columnD. the Tuscan column4. A _____ knot can be referred to as an endless or mystical knot, reminding us of the endless nature, an uninterrupted life cycle.A. CelticB. GreekC. GermanicD. Slavic5. Which of the following countries is often known as “the Cradle of Western Civilization”?A. IsraelB. GreekC. ItalyD. Egypt6. _____ was abducted by Zeus in bull form and taken to the island of Crete, where she gave birth to Minos.A. AlcmeneB. DanaëC. EuropaD. IoTrue or false1. Victoria is known as the ancient Greek goddess of victory. T2. Japan, as a developed country, is included in “the West”. T3. The first Greek civilization arose from the old city of Mycenae. FMultiple-choices1. Which of the following was written by Virgil, a Roman poet?A. UlyssesB. The AeneidC. AntigoneD. Andromache2. What country looks like a boot at the map?A. BritainB. ItalyC. NorwayD. Egypt3. What river was believed to be the river into which Romulus and Remus were thrown as infants?A. Tiber.B. Danube.C. Nile.D. Euphrates4. Which of the following is a Roman goddess?A. MithraB. IsisC. AthenaD. Minerva5. Most of the English letters in the alphabet came from ______.A. GermanicB. Indo-EuropeanC. LatinD. Semitic6. Which of the following does not belong to the Indo-European language family?A. GermanicB. HebrewC. BalticD. Slavic7. Which of the following Latin mottos means the principle of reciprocity?A. Domine, dirige nosB. Lux et VeritasC. do ut desD. Hinc lucem et pocula sacra.8. The Romans admired the ______ art and had a tradition of imitating it.A. GreekB. GaulC. EgyptianD. Babylonian9. Who wrote “I came, I saw, I conquered.”A. Alexander the GreatB. AugustusC. DariusD. Julius Caesar10. Roman conquered Greece in the year of ______.A. 323BCB. 146BCC. 42BCD. 30BC11. Who of the following doesn’t belong to the first triumvirate?A. AntonyB. CrassusC. Julius CaesarD. Pompeii12. In 392 A.D., ______, the Roman Emperor, made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed all the other religions.A. Constantine IB. Theodosius IC. NeroD. TrajanTrue or false1. Tianjin University was founded in the year of MDCCCXCIV.2. The Roman writer Horace once said, “Captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive.”3. Remus was known as the first king of the town which he named Rome, after himself.4. Pax Romana, which means “Roman peace”, was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force established by Julius Caesar.5. In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into the Western and the Eastern.6. In 1453, the Western Roman Empire ended with Romulus.MatchNeptune CronusPlato AresUranus HermesSaturn PoseidonJupiter HadesMars ZeusMercury OuranosMultiple-choices1. Vulgate is the ______ version of the Bible.A. LatinB. HebrewC. GreekD. Germanic2. History goes on ______ generations from David to Christ.A.14B. 28C. 42D. 563. The Arabic for ______ is IbrahimA. AbrahamB. IsraeliteC. HajD. Isaac4. Whose name was derived from the Egyptian by a daughter of Pharaoh?A. Jacob’s.B. Moses’.C. Aaron’s.D. Joseph’s5. By 1693, the whole of the Bible had been translated into about ______ languages.A. 100B. 200C. 300D. 4006. Who of the Roman Empire made Christianity legal?A. AvignonB. Benedict XVIC. Theodosius ID. Constantine I7. According to the Old Testament, Ruth was the great grandmother of ______.A. SaulB. DavidC. SolomonD. Christ8. The name “Israel” first appears in the Hebrew Bible as the name given by God to ______.A. AbrahamB. IsaacC. JacobD. DavidTrue or false1. Megan David/Star of David is in the shape of a Pentagram.2. Jacob’s 12 sons were the ancestors of the 12 tribes of Israel.3. The Old Testament was written in Greek.4. Scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible as the Pentateuch.5. Moses led his people finally back into Canaan.6. After forty days of rain, Noah released a dove to see whether the water had subsided.7. Hanging Garden of Babylon was built in the Neo-Babylonian dynasty.8. Jesus Christ was born in Nazareth.9. Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist at the age of 30.MatchRussian orthodox crossChi RhoGreek crossPapal crossCeltic crossLatin crossMultiple-choices1. What characteristics did the medieval period show?A. Roman controlB. Viking powerC. feudal organizationD. direct democracy2. An instance that the Western Europeans changed one of their old ideas is that _________.A. they changed their starsB. they drank teaC. they favored Arabic numeralsD. they established universities3. Today the boundary between Islam and western Christianity was formerly shaped by _______.A. Sigurd I of NorwayB. Byzantine EmpireC. the CrusadersD. Attila the Hun4. Charlemagne’s cultural revival is sometimes referred to as __________.A. the Carolingian RenaissanceB. the Wandering of the PeoplesC. the Liberation of Jerusalem from Muslim controlD. the return of Latin popularity5. Who assembled the biggest army in the history of the Crusades?A. Andrew II of HungaryB. Louis I of HungaryC. Alexios I Komnenos.D. Pope Urban II6. When was the first Crusade preached by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont?A. In 1071B. In 1095C. In 1099D. In 10667. By the end of the Middle Ages, the Christian Crusaders had captured all the Islamic territories in modern Spain, Portugal, and _________.A. Southern ItalyB. Northern AfricaC. Near EastD. Far East8. What Kingdom made one of the earliest known coats of arms?A. Kingdom of JerusalemB. Kingdom of the FranksC. Kingdom of NaplesD. Kingdom of Lombardy9. Which did not belong to the three classes of Europe under feudalism?A. clergyB. peasantsC. lordsD. knights10. Which of the following does not belong to the seven liberal arts?A. GeometryB. GrammarC. AstronomyD. ArtsTrue or false1. Cambridge is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. F2. The poet who wrote The Divine Comedy was graduated from University of Bologna. T3. At the age of 18, a qualified squire can be knighted. F4. The Carolingian empire was broken into three parts by his three sons. F5. Virgil showed Dante around in the Hell based on The Divine Comedy.T6. The tassel is moved from right to left after a graduate is grante d the bachelor’s degree. T7. All villeins, knights and barons provided money and services to the king when demanded. F8. Knights were pledge to respect women of any birth. FMatch the item on the left column with the one relevant on the right column.1. Copernicus A. France2. Beowulf B. Anglo-Saxon3. The Song of Roland C. Scientific research4. Roger Bacon D. Solar system1. D2. B3. A4. C。

U1:1.views on intercultural communicationTwo different views on intercultural communication: “people are people”VS. “contact is not equal to communication”2. 3 major socio-cultural elements influencing perception and communicationCultural value, world view , social organizations.3.What is globalization?Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and gover nments of different nations。

a process driven by international trade and investment and aided b y information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political sys tems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.4.What are the stumbling blocks in intercultural communication?(1)assumption of similiarities: people expect that simply being human and having commonrequirements of food,shelter,security and so on makes everyone alike.(2)Language differences.: “yes”and “no” cause trouble.(3)Nonverbal misinterpretatons: misinterpretation of observable sians andsymbols—gesture ,postures, body movenment.(4)Preconceptions and stereotypes: Arabs are “inflammable”may cause U.S.students to keeptheir distance .(5)Tendence to evaluate: to approve or disapprove ,to statements and actions of other personor group.(6)High anxiety/ tension.U2:1.What is culture?Culture is a very extensive concept, it is very difficult to define it strictly and accurately, because culture involves too much. Culture is a complex system of behavior, values, beliefs, traditions and artifacts, which is transmitted through generations.What are the five basic needs for human beings?(1)physiological needs (things that make us alive,food water air)(2)safety needs (physical safe and psychologicallly secure)(3)belongingness needs (needs tobe accepted by others and to belong to a group )(4)esteem needs ( recognition, reputation,self respect )(5)self-actualization needs (actualize onself and to reach one’s full potential)2.What are values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviors? How are they linked?(1)Values are what people go to war over or conduct bussiness by. Values tell us how to weighthe worth of something, they can indicate a relative hierarchy.(2)Attitudes are feelings about things .it is a tendency to respond the same way to the sameobject or situation or idea. Attitudes is learned and can change.(3)Beliefs are convictions or certainties based on subjective and often personal ideas ratherthan on proof or fact.(4)Links: values underlie attitudes and also shape beliefs. Attitudes are based on beliefs as wellas values.values enable us to evaluate what matters to us or apply standars to our attitudes and beliefs.value→belief →attitude. For example , you have an attitude toward eating rawfish,which is positive and is based on the belief that expert prepararion of sushi and sashimi by Japanese chefs results in culinary delicacies ,or you have an attitude that is negative,based on the belief that raw fish can contain parasites that cause unpleasant consequences in the human digestive system. You can even have both attitudes at the same time.if you do ,then probably you value both fine eating experiences and physical health.3.What are the elements of communication?①context: physical setting, psychological ,historical,culture ,the communication norms②participants: senders who form messages and communicate with symbols, receiverswhoprocess and react the massages.③Massages: meanings, symbols ,encodings and decodings④Channels :a variety of sensory channels⑤Noise ;internal external and semantic noise.⑥Feedback : the verbal and nonverbal responses4.What are norms?Norms are the guildelines that we establish for conducting transactions. Norms tell us what kinds of messages and behavior are proper in a given context or with a particular person or group of people. People acquire communication norms from their experiences in life.5.What is the difference between encoding and decoding?Encoding is the process of transforming ideas and feelings into symbols and organizing them. Decoding is the process of tansforminf meeages backe into ideas and feelings.Transforming and organizing Transforming and intepretingideas and feelings--------------------→symbols/massages------------→ideas and feelings↓↓Encoding decoding6.What is the difference between external noise, internal noise and semantic noise? external noise : Sights and sounds and other stimuli in the environment that draw people’s attention away from intended meaning.internal noise : Thoughts and feelings that interfere with the communication process. Feelings of anger or anxiety ,stereotypeor prejudice in your mind.semantic noise: the meanings we assign to words depend on our own experience, other people may at times decode a word or phases differently from the way we intend.7.What is communication?Communication is a process involving the exchange of messages and the creation of meaning.U3:1.What are the five basic questions at the root of any culture’s value system?(1)what is the character of innate human nature?-----human nature(2)what is the relation of man to nature?------t he relationship of man to nature.(3)What is the temporal focus of human life?----sense of time /time orientation.(4)What is the mode of human activity?-------activity orientation.(5)What is the mode of human relationships?----social relationships2.What are the key principles of Confucianism?(1)social order and stability are based on uneqal relationships between peopleincluding leaders and followers ,father and son ,husband and wife , older brother and younger brother,and friends .(2)family :follow rules for ordering(3)proper social behavior consists of not treating others as you would not like to be treatedyouself.,learn to be sensitive to other’s feels(子所不欲勿施于人)(4)people should be skilled ,educated hardworking,thrifty ,modest, patient and persevering. 3.How do living situations account for value differences between different cultures?For example,Japanese live in a little of arable land ,even mainly valcanoes.thus,they built their homes together very closely in order to make use of every available land and they can work together in planting and harvesting of rice effectively . In this situation, japanenes’central social valuebecause of living close proximity that gave very little privacy was that an idividual does not matter. However, in the U.S. it is common to see a pattern of a single farmhouse surrounded by firelds.the nearnest neighbor was perhaphs two miles distant.inevitably, the central social values were self-reliance and independence.4.What are cultural values?The commonly held standards of what is acceptable or unacceptable, important or unimportant, right or wrong, good or bad, true or false, workable or unworkable, etc., in a community or society.Values represent a learned organization of rules for making choices and for resolving the conflicts.5.What are the five dimensions to consider when doing studies of cultural differences(culturevalue)?(1)Idividualism versus collectivism (involves people’s relationship sto the largersocial groups;social relationship)Idividualism;key words include independence,privacy,self,and all important ICollectivism believe in obligations to the group, we consciouceness and an emphasis on belonging.(2)uncertainty avoidance(how to adapt to changes and cope with uncertainties,) Greece(plan everything0 versus Singapore (like uncertainty)(3)power distance(all people in a culture do not have equals levels of status or socialpower.) Malaysia versus New Zealand(4)masculinity versus femininity(work harder to get achievement ,wealth versuscaring for the others and the quatity of life) Japan versus Thailand(5)orientation to time (a long-term orientation schedule for work and life versus ashort-term orientation toward changing events)6.What are the differences between a high-context culture and a low-context one?Low-context interaction emphasizes direct talk, person-oriented focus, self-enhancement mode, and the importance of “talk”: high- context interaction, in contrast stresses indirect talk, status-oriented focus , self- esffacement mode, and the importance of nonverbal signals and even silence.U4:1.What is the relationship between language and culture?Culture and language are interwined and shaped each other. Each time we select words ,form sentence, and send a message ,either oral or written,we also make cultural choices. Cultural literacy(特定领域的能力或知识) is necessary to understand the language being used.(1)all languages have social questions and information questions.For exemple: in Ameirca English ,the question “How are you” is a social question,the Americans register the phrase as “hello”. But in Germany and Russia ,the phase is an imformation qustion .the speaker atually wants to get an answer to it.(2) language reflects the environment in which we live .For exemple, in the Amazon area snow is not part of the environment. Therefore , people in that region do not have a word for snow . however , most Americans ,who live an environment where Iit snows most months of the year, use terms such as snow , sleet , slush, blizzard and ice. (3)language reflects cultural values. a way of thinking .when we translate concepts from a foreign language and cultural with words ,we have to choose the priority words in oder to communicate effectively. Cultural kowledge is impotant as linguistic knowledge.For example ,Amerians are frustrated with the manana mentality(西班牙语的明天心态) of Spanish-speaking countries : for American tomorrow means midnight to midnight ,a very precise time period , To Mexicans ,manana means in the future,soon.（4,）Different cutures use identical words that have rather different meanings.For example, for Amercans ,adminisration in the university context means department chair or dean,for Frenches adminisration means upper level clerical staff . What Americans consider to be an adminstrator, Frenches consider faulty.（5）language changes overtime.words and prases that are used commonly at one time may be discontinued or their meaning my change overtime.For example, the word gay means happy lightened. In recent decades ,however the word has taken on the meaning” homosexual”.English speaking countries do n’ t use the original meaning anymore..Communication across cultures and language is difficult and full of hurdles and pitfalls. Even if two people from different countries spesk a common language ,they may misinteptet the cutural signal. If that happens ,in all likelihood , there will be a cutural problem rhather than a language problem.2.What is the relationship between environment and language?(2) language reflects the environment in which we live .For exemple, in the Amazon area snow is not part of the environment. Therefore , people in that region do not have a word for snow . however , most Americans ,who live an environment where Iit snows most months of the year, use terms such as snow , sleet , slush, blizzard and ice.3.How does language change over time?language changes overtime.words and prases that are used commonly at one time may be discontinued or their meaning my change overtime.For example, the word gay means happy lightened. In recent decades ,however the word has taken on the meaning” homosexual”.English speaking countries do n’ t use the original meaninganymore..4.Denotations and connotationsDenotations: denotations of a word or phrase are the meanings that relate it to the objects or concepts referred to the actual or fictional “things”that are symbolized.For example, the denotation of the English word “bird”is a tow –legged,winged,egg-laying creature.Connnotations: connnotations refer to the additional meanings that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning .These meanings show people’s attitudes or feelings toward what the word or phase refers to.For example: consider the word “dog” in English and 狗in Chinese. They can be said to have the same denotative meaning；however,people from different cutures may have different connotative reactions to these words ,compare “a homeless dog” (流浪狗) with 丧家之犬5.What are the ways of expressing “no”? Why do people in countries like Japan and Chinaoften refuse to say “no” directly?(1)be vague(2)be silent or ask a question(3)change the topic or leave(4)tell a white lie or refuse to answer the question. Say one cannot answer(5)put the reaponsibility to the trird party or offering an alternative.The reason: In Japan and China’s culture ,to refuse an invitation or request with “no”, or a similar phrase, is felt to be impolite. It is thought to be selfish and unfriendly.6.How does language affect people’s perception and experiences?The language we use may to some exten determine the way we perceive and experience the world.(!)in japan language varies substantially in different social situatons like sddressing superior peers and inferiors.(2) the Thailand language（3）splanish language reveals male dominance through use of gendered nouns and pronouce. A group of man referred to as ello, agroup of wemen referred to as ellas7.What are the five intended types of equivalence when doing translation?(1)lexical equivalence 例子;there is no equivlent to the English color word blue in Russian.Russia only have the according words of light blue and dark blue that an be translated into English.(2)Idiomatic equivalence : “raining cats and dogs”(3)Grammatical equivalence ；’in Filipino language ,there is no equivalent of the english verb“to be”.(4)Experience equivalence(5)Conceptual equivalence8.Why do people say language is always ambiguous?(1)we can never fully control the meanings of the things we say and write in the way ofpaticipants interpret(2)language can never fully express our meanings whether in writing or speaking(3)whether the participants share the same assumptions and knowledge about the world ornot.U5:1.What is a rich point?Conversation is a rich point ,a rich point is something in one culture that makes it difficult to be connected with another culture.2.What basic differences can we still find between the English-speaking people and theChinese people concerning compliment and response?In English countrries, the “best way “to respond to a compliment is to accept it. Rejection of compliments is often regarded as a symptom of problem, such as low self-esteem. In contrast to english ,the best way rasponse to compliments in Chinese is traditionally thought to be a rejection or denial. A denial is the routinized response to a compliment.3.What are the differences between “high involvement”style and “high considerateness”style?High involvement styles tend to : (1) talk more ；（2）interrupt more ; (30 expect to to be interrupted (4) talk more loudly at times and (5) talk more quickly than those from cultures favoring “high considerateness styles.High considerateness styles；(1) speak one at times (2)use polite listening sounds;(3) refrain from interrupting; and (4) give plenty of positive and respectful responses to their conversation partners ;4.Directness & indirectness‘get to the point! Don’t beat around the bush” & have many ways to say “no” directly5.Different communication patternsPeople’s communication patterns differ the way people converse.Americans hold a conversation, it seems like they are having a PingPong game.one person has the ball and then hits it to the other side of the table. The other player hits the ball back the game continutesJapanes conversationstyle is like a bowling game,answer to questions are carefully thought out rather than blurted out ,enven long silences are tolerated. Give a answer to a question must be given enough time .6.Cross-cultural verbal communication stylesOur verbal communication styles reflects our cultural and personal values and sentiments.(1)diect and indirect verbal interaction styles,in the direct verbal styles, statements clearlyreveal the speaker’s intention. Say what you mean “don no beat around the bush(2)person-oriented(treat other people with casualness and informality )and status-orientedverbal styles(uphold formality in the human relationship)(3)self-enhancement (boast one’s accomplishments and ablilities) and self-oriented verbal styles(signal modesty or humanity)7.What cultural implications are there underlying the difference betweenspeaker-responsibility and listener-responsibility in organizational structure?187In Speaker-responsible language, the speaker provides the structure and therefore much of the specific meaning of the statement. Because the speaker want to tell the listener exactly what is goning to be talked about,and what the speaker wants the listener to know. Prior knowledge of the speaker’s intent is necessary.In listener-responsible language, speakers need to indicate only indirectly what they are discussing. The listener is forced to construct the meaning and usually does so ,based on shared kownledge between the speaker and the listener.U6:1.Values shown in nonverbal communication: intonation, body language (hand movement,eye contact, smile, touch)2.Baptics (touch)There are many kinds of touch to commonly used in the western world. The study of how we use touch in communication is called baptic.3.Gender and nonverbal communicationWhat we know as gender is a set of “acts”or social performences that people are repearedly compelled to enact.Touch, in the us,wemen friends and relatives may walk arm-in-arm, dance together and hug one another .touch between heterosexual males is generally more restricted.Height ,height equels power and wemen are not supposed to be more powerful than man, taller women may attempt to diminsh themselves,so as to retreat as little space as possible.Gaze, looking directly into person’s eyes can connote an aggressive threat, a sexual invitation,or a desire for honest and open communication. in some culture, children are taught that to look adults in the eyes is a sign of disrespect. In mixed-sex paries,women are more likely than men to avert their eyes.Gesture and demeanor ,or “act like a lady”.Artifactual (objects)message , when worn ,they have beed used to signify a wear’s gender, culture, and socioeconomic class. From the moment at which families or hospital assign infants pink or blue blankets,artifacts annouce and contribute to the shaping of children’s experience of gender.. maant of us have our notions of masculine and femininity resting on the nonverbal message we display.4.Functions of nonverbal communicationOur nonverbal communication haves many uses and functions in communication. Repeating: a nonverbal message can repeat a verbal one. Eg; place fingers to his lips to mean “stop”Complementing : using of the voice and facial expression to express appology. Subsituting, regulating ,contradictiing5.ParalanguageParalanguage (辅助性语言) lies between verbal and nonverbal communication. It involves sounds but not words. (语音和语调，感叹词的使用，美国中的插入语：you know ,okay, well ,the wors simply build a bridge to what the speaker says next.U7:1.Private space & public space2.Conversational distance3.The layout of a city reflects its social structure and cultural values.美国NewYork is arrranged in a grid pattern of right-angled street,any corner can becomen a center ,reflect more equality and independence.French is star pattern everthing should be surrounded the center of highly centrealized government.4. 3 perspectives on a culture’s conception of time(1)Informal time :,conception of late and attitutude to the conversation time.(2)Past ,present ,and future: behavior and time are linked.Chinese proverb ；consider the past and you will know the present.Americans are constanly planning for the future.(3)monochronic and polychronicM-time people: do one thing at atime ,concentrate on the job,take the deadline,schedules seriously , adhere to plans,show great respect for privacy.P-time people；do many things at once ,change the plans ofen easily and often,5.German use of space美国与德国的比较，germans sense their own space as an extension of the egoU8:1.perceptions/images related to the term “gaijin” in Japaneseblond hair and blue eyes outgoning.2.ethnocentrism & ethnorelativismethnocentrism (民族中心主义)is nagetively judging aspects of another culture by the standars of one’s own culture. It is the technical name for the view of things in whivh one’s own group is the center of everything,and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.Ethnorelativism involves the view that all cultures areof equal value and the values and behaviors of a culture can only be judged using that culture as a frame of reference..no one cultural trait is right or wrong ,it is merely diferent from alternative cultural traits.3.stereotype : a tereotype is over simplified idea about a person ,group,.cultural stereotypeabout americans “we and they “.many american view jew and arab as a menace and demon and they may avoid to talk to them and escape them when they meet them on the way.4.What is perception? The three-step process of perceptionPerception is the means by which you make sense of your physical and social world.(1)selection,(2) organazation (3)interpretation5.What are cultural patterns?6.Racial prejudice7.the 3 ways in which stereotypes are formed(1)we may categorize people or things by the most obvious characteristics they possess.(2)We may apply a set of characteristics to a whole group of people..(3)We may give the same treatment to each member of the group.8.the 4 dimensions of stereotypesA rereotype is an overgeneralized and oversimplified belief we use to categorize a group of people.（1）direction (positive or negative statements, american honest, ambitious)（2）intensity ：the strenth of a belief about agroup of people（3）accuracy(4)content9.What is prejudice? The five common forms of prejudiceAn attitude based on erroneous beliefs or preconceptions is called prejudice.Vebal abuse,. Physical avoidance, discrimination, physical attack and massacre.U9:1.What is cultural shock? What are the symptoms?cultural shock refers to the transition period and the accompanying feelings of stress and anxietya person experiences during the early period unpon entering a new culture.(1)physiological such as headache and sleeplessness(2)emotional such as anxiety,and feeling helpless and loneliness(3)communication such as frustration and excessive complainting,withdrawal from relationshipand conversation.2.model that explains the normal cycles or stages of early adaptation and culture shock predeparture stage :everything is beatiful ,awful, okadaption and reentry3.What is reverse culture shock?The shock suffered by expatriates returning home after lengthy overseas assignments. It is caused by the fact that the cultural norms of the ex-pat's overseas assignment become natural to them, over their home country's own traditions and customs.suggestions for culture shock adaptationcontrol emotion be patient meet people try new things give youself period of rest and thought, work on your self-concept observe bady language ,learn the verbal language4.5. 2 major views of culture shock: the disease view (hepless victim leave the cuture quickly)&self-awareness view (positive learning experience)6.7.positive cross-cultural learning experiences8.9.overcoming ethnocentrism in communication10.Who are “sojourners”? What is cross-cultural adaptation? What are challenges to sojourneradaptation?People who cross cultural boundaries are referred to as sojourners.including immigrants ,refugees ,studentsCross-cutural adaptation refers to how a sojourner chooses to cope with cutural changes. Challenges to sojourner adaptation include ethnocentrism, language barriers, disequilibrium(fit into the host culture0，length of stay, level of knowledge11.key qualities of a mindful state of being(`1) creation of new categories (2)openness to new information (3)awareness of more than one perspective.U101.2.betweenness of identity3.metaphors of US cultural diversity4.5.steps to improve intercultural communication6.7.attributes of a competent intercultural communicator 8.9. 3 cognitive processes of perceptiondescription, interpretation, evaluation。

Chapter 1 Language culture and thought1 properties of languageLanguage is systematic :which means that it is rule governedLanguage is arbitrary :Language consists of arbitrary symbols There is no logical relationship between words and the objects actions or concepts these words are used to refer to(onomatopoeic words and compounds)Language is symbolic :Words are associated with objects actions and ideas through convention Language is vocal :This statement means that speech is the primary medium of language Language is uniquely human :Language is human specific Only human beings possess what can be called language in the true sense of the termLanguage is used for communication :Communication is the primary function of language Language is used to understand and describe the world :Language is the carrier and container of cultural information :Human beings have been interacting with the world and accumulated their experience and knowledge about the world which are interpreted as cultural information2 Definitions and properties of culture2.1 Definitions of cultureIn English "culture"is a loan word from Latin in which it mainly meant"cultivating or tilling the land"2.1.1 Culture in its broad senseCulture in its broad sense is also called "large C culture" or "academic culture"Materials man has got to satisfy his needs :Everything manufactured in factories or grown on farmlandSocial institutions and organizations man ha establishedKnowledge about nature and man himself and artistic developmentLanguage and other communication systemsCustoms habits and behavioural patternsValue systems world views national traits aesthetic standards and thinking patterns2.1.2 Culture in its narrow senseCulture in its narrow sense is also called "small c culture"or "anthropological culture"Culture can be defined as lifeway of a population2.2 Properties of cultureCulture is human specialCulture is a social phenomenon :This statement emphasizes the contrast between society and natureCulture is a national phenomenon :Each nation has been living in its unique geographical and historical framework in which a unique culture has been establish and is developingCulture is also a historical phenomenon ;Each generation inherits the culture established by its forefathersCulture is general and abstract3 Relationship between language culture and thought3.1 Relationship between language and cultureLanguage is part of cultureLanguage is the carrier and container of cultureAs a mirror of culture language is strongly influenced and shaped by cultureLanguage also exerts its influence on cultureLanguage and culture is closely related each influencing and shaping the other3.2 thoughtThought is the function and product of the human brainThought also refers to patterns of ideas characteristic of a social group3.3 Relationship between language and thoughtLanguage is an instrument used in the communication of thoughtLanguage is closely related to thinkingLanguage is influenced and shaped by thoughtLanguage is used for conveying ideas its structure and function must reflect these ideas Language also exerts strong influence on thought3.4 Concluding remarks on the relationship between language thought and cultureThe three aspects interact each influencing and shaping the other two4 Intercultural communicationIntercultural communication is concerned with communication among people from different cultural backgroundsIntercultural communication mainly deals with verbal and nonverbal interacting and related factors in intercultural communicationChapter 2 Words and Meaning1 What are words and meaning1.1 WordWords are units of expression which language users can intuitively recognize in either speech or writing1.2 Meaning1.2.1 Conceptual meaningConceptual meaning is the basic meaning presented by meaningful linguistic units,the central factor in linguistic communicationThe relationship between a word and an object in the real world or a concept in our mind to which the word refer is the conceptual meaning of the word1.2.2 Connotative meaningConnotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has in addition to the purely conceptual meaning (woman statesman politician)1.2.3 Social meaningSocial meaning or stylistic meaning is what a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances (language users settings topics) (domicile residence abode home)1.2.4 Affective meaningAffective meaning is communicated when the feelings or attitudes are expressed in language1.2.5 Reflected meaningReflected meaning arises in words of multiple conceptual meaning (the Comforter the Holy Ghost intercourse ejaculation erection)1.2.6 Collocative meaningCollocative meaning consists of associations a word gets from those words that are often used together with it (pretty handsome)1.2.7 Thematic meaningThematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes a message ordering focus emphasis1.2.1--1.2.6 :heading associative meaning2.words and conceptual meaning2.1 Words and culture-specific conceptual meaning2.1.1 Words and geographyThe United States of America 美利坚合众国The Mississippi 密西西比河Superior 苏必利尔湖Niagara Falls 尼亚加拉大瀑布Rocky Mountains 落基山脉Washington 华盛顿poke 美洲商陆terrapin 北美泥龟The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国The Thames 泰晤士河the Channel 英吉利海峡England 英格兰London 伦敦The Commonwealth of Australia 澳大利亚联邦New South Wales 新南威尔士州Great Barrier Reef 大堡礁Great Victoria Desert 大维多利亚沙漠Canberra 堪培拉koala 考拉熊kangaroo 袋鼠2.1.2 Words and historyAmerican historyThe May flower五月花号The Revolutionary war or War of Independence 独立战争Continental Congress 大陆会议Emancipation Proclamation 解放宣言Homestead Ac 宅地法案Scalp 波代发头皮Lynch 私刑Cowboy 牛仔Hippie 嬉皮士British historyDuck a nobleman holding the highest hereditary title outside the royal family 公爵Knight a man given the rank of knighthood by the British monarch in recognition of merits in public service 骑士Glorious Revolution 光荣革命Castle 光荣革命Fort 要塞或壁垒式的贸易站2.1.3 Words and politicsPresident 总统the elected head of the government in the USACongress 国会the federal legislature of the USASupreme Court 最高法院the highest judicial body in the USADemocratic Party 民主党Republican Party 共和党Queen 女王the female monarch of the UK Prime Minister 首相the leader of the British government Parliament 议会the supreme legislative body of the United KingdomLabour Party 工党Conservative Party 保守党Governor-General 总督2.1.4 Words and the ChristianityTrinity Bible Catholic Orthodox Eastern Church Reformation Protestant Puritan Mass2.1.5 Words and HolidaysChristmas box(圣诞节礼) Christmas Card(圣诞贺卡) Christmas tree(圣诞树) Christmas pudding(圣诞布丁) Christmas rose(圣诞玫瑰) Christmastide(圣诞节节期) Thanksgiving Day(感恩节) Boxing Day(节礼日) Easter(复活节) St. Valentine’s Day(情人节) April Fool’s Day(愚人节) Anzac Day(新澳军团日)2.1.6 Words and living stylesHot dog(热狗) Hamburger(汉堡包) Sandwich(三明治) Pudding(布丁) Salad(沙拉) Whisky(威士忌) Cocktail(鸡尾酒) Drive-ins 汽车的Diners (用餐) Baseball (垒球) Rugby(橄榄球)Hockey(曲棍球) Water skiing(滑水) Polo(马球) Golf(高尔夫球) Striptease(脱衣舞)Lovestore(色情商店) X-rated sexploitation movies() Late-late TV shows2.2 English words that correspond partially in conceptual meaning with their translation equivalents in Chinese.Intellectuals (知识分子) Social sciences (社会科学)A Yard(院子) Quadrangle Courtyards (四合院)Drugstore(AE) Chemist’s shop (BE)(药店)Chauvinist pig :a guy who believes that woman are inferiorDude athlete macho stud hunk Don Juan playboy egotist fratty bagger :guys who think they are really cool woman-pleaser types conceited type of peopleTurkey nerd jerk prick bastard pimp skinhead redneck dog :they are people a woman may not want to be seen with or want to talk toW imp, sissy, homosexual, queer, gay, hippie: 奇怪的, 同性恋者.Couchwarmer:Ladies’ manMan, boy, guy, fellow, gentleman, boyfriend, fiancé, lover, sweet heart: 指男性的2.3 English words and what may be mistaken for their equivalents in Chinese.Greenhouse(温室) Busywork(耗时而无价值的工作) Busman’s holiday(消磨于与日常工作类似这活动的假日) Busybody(爱管闲事的人) Housewarming(乔迁之喜) Donkeywork(单调的日常工作) Police action(维和行动) Lowboy(矮脚抽屉柜) Free love(公开同居) First Lady(第一夫人) High school(中学) Rest room(公共建筑物内的洗水间,厕所)Equalitarianism or egalitarianism(平均主义) Lover(情人) Disinterested(公正的,不偏不倚的) Cooker(炊事用具)Wester(西风)Chinese, even between brothers and sisters. For example: “大哥” “二哥” “二姐”When addressing strangers, the Chines e people resort to “同志” “师傅” “先生” “小姐” “老爷爷” “伯父” “阿姨” “伯母” “大哥” “大嫂” “大兄弟” “大姐” “小朋友”2. Greetings and farewells2.1 GreetingsEnglish : use these sentences “how do you do” “how are you” , “hello” or “hi” are frequently used greeting among colleagues, classmates, friends and family members. For Chinese learners of English it is important to note that many casual greetings in Chinese cannot be carried over into English used as greetings when they meet English speakers. “吃饭了吗”, “上哪儿呀” “去哪了2.2 FarewellsEngl ish people: when they meet first time: I’m pleased to meet you or it’s nice to meet/know you. It’s nice to have met you. And when they part, they usually say “good-bye, Bye-bye, so long” or “see you later/ tomorrow/on the next Monday.”Chinese people: usua lly “再见” “再会” “一会儿见” “明天见” “下星期一见”. And when the visit is over and the guest is seen to the door or gateway by the host, and exchange of utterances like “请留步” “请走好”3. IntroductionEnglish: introduce a young person to an older one, a man to woman, an inferior to a superior, the guest to the host, and a individual to a group. We mention the woman’s name first unless the man is much older than the woman or very famous. When shake hands, the man should take off the gloves, but the women needn’t. women first ex tends her hand if they shake hands at all. And add a sentence to descriptive note to bring them closer to each other. Use “how do you do” or “nice to meet/know you”4. Compliments and responsesEnglish: the response to compliments are almost use “thank you” “I am glad to hear that” “I am glad you like it .”Chinese: but in Chinese. Modest is a virtue. So although they glad to hear the compliments. But they tend to refuse the compliments.5. Making telephone callsEnglish: when they make a call, we must tell the person who answer the call the name, company and what you will do. If the person answer is not available, you can leave a message to him. And when we receive the call, we must tell people the company’s name and ask if there is anything we can do to help.Chinese: we just said”喂”, we don’t want to tell other our private informationHello, this is Mary speaking. Who’s calling?Good morning. James hereThis is Toky Electronics. What can I do for ?Stone Company. What can I do for you ?Reception. Can I help you?Who’s calling, please?May I have your name, please?Would you tell me your company’s name, please?Just a moment, SirYes, just a second.Hold on a moment. I’ll see if he’s inHold the line. I’ll find out if he’s in his office.If you do not mind waiting for a while, I’ll see if he is available.I’m sorry he is out. May I take a message, so that he can call you?I’m sorry he is occupied right now. Would you like to leave a message?Thank you for calling.Thanks and repliesIn both English and Chinese there are expressions of gratitude.E: thank you, Many thanks, thank you very much, thank you all the same, I’m really appreciative of your time, it’s very kind of you to offer help, I’m grateful for what you have done for me, I can’t thank you enough e tc. English people speaks more frequently than Chinese. Even used among the family members. The reply is often used “Not at all” “don’t mention it” “you’re welcome” “it’s my pleasure” “it’s ok”C: “谢谢” “谢谢你” “非常感谢” “万分感谢” “真不知道该怎么感谢你才好” “多谢了”“谢谢你的好意。

⼤学英语跨⽂化复习资料⼤学英语跨⽂化复习资料第⼀章：⽂化(1) Culture (from intercultural communication perspective): is the deposit of knowledge, experience, belief, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.（从跨⽂化交际学⾓度定义⽂化：⽂化是个⼈和群体在种族发展过程中所获得的知识、经验、信仰、价值观、⾏为、态度、阶级、宗教、时间观、⾓⾊、空间观、宇宙观和艺术品的集合。

）(2) Culture Identity:refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group.（⽂化⾝份：认为⾃⼰归属于某⼀⽂化或民族群体的感觉。

）(3) Subculture: refers to a culture that exists within dominant culture, and is often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region.（亚⽂化：指存在于主流⽂化中的⽂化，其划分通常基于经济地位、社会阶层、民族、种族或地理区域。

）(4) Co-culture: refers to groups or social communities exhibiting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are significantly different enough to distinguish them from the other groups, communities, and the dominant culture.（共⽂化：指具有独特的交际特征、感知特点、价值观、信仰和⾏为，区别于其他群体、社团以及主流⽂化的群体或社团。

外国语言文学导论期末重点外国语言文学导论第一节：语言和文学语言：语言是符号系统，是以语音为物质外壳，以语义为意义内容的，音义结合的词汇建筑材料和语法组织规律的体系。

语言是一种社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具，是进行思维和传递信息的工具，是人类保存认识成果的载体。

语言具有稳固性和民族性。

（语言的重要性；人类对语言的崇拜）文学：文学是指以语言文字为工具形象化地反映客观现实的艺术，包括戏剧、诗歌、小说、散文等，是文化的重要表现形式，以不同的形式（称作体裁）表现内心情感和再现一定时期和一定地域的社会生活。

文学是一种对语言使用的重新认识，它以一种特殊的方式，将日常语言，通过各种修辞手法，将世界呈现在我们面前。

对于一部好的文学作品，无论其年代多么久远，读者和作者之间能通过语言这座桥梁产生共鸣。

两者间的关系：从时间顺序上来看，似乎是先有语言，然后才有文学：苏美尔人创造的“楔形文字”，距今五千多年。

所谓学术上来讲，是先有文学，然后再有语言研究。

语言对文学的影响“语言是文学的第一要素”，没有语言就没有文学。

最好的文学作品是用最优美的语言写成的。

语言修养是文学家的起码条件。

——高尔基诗人卡西尔说，诗人不可能创造一种全新的语言。

他必须使用现有的词汇，必须遵循语言的基本规则（工具论）。

不同的文学样式对语言材料的各种功能在使用上各有侧重。

戏剧侧重于语言的会话功能，小说侧重于语言的叙事功能，诗歌则侧重于语言的抒情功能语言的演变对文学的影响（如诗歌）句式变化上古汉语中（弹歌）这类原始歌谣，一词为一字，两字一拍，全篇四句八字：断竹，续竹，飞土，逐肉；西周《诗经》：关关雎鸠,在河之州。

窈窕淑女,君子好逑。

唐宋：五言体和七言体格律变化：萨丕尔在语言论说，大概没有别的东西比诗的声律更能说明文学在形式上依靠语言了。

语言的表达局限对文学的影响。

文学是用语言写成的，文学的物质媒介是语言。

文学在一定程度上依赖语言，同时又是超语言的（难以言传，以及语言的言外之意）。

外国语言与文学研究知识点外国语言与文学研究是一门综合性学科，涵盖了多个学科的内容。

它旨在研究外国语言、文学和文化，并深入探讨它们在全球的发展和影响。

本文将介绍外国语言与文学研究的主要知识点，包括语言学、文学理论、文化研究等方面。

一、语言学语言学是外国语言与文学研究的重要组成部分，它研究的是人类语言的结构、演变和使用规律。

在外国语言学研究中，主要包括以下知识点：1. 语音学：研究语音的产生、传播和接受规律。

语音学的基本单位是音素，通过对音素的研究，可以了解不同语言中的语音差异。

2. 词汇学：研究词汇的构成、分类和变化规律。

词汇学的基本概念包括词、词根、词素等。

3. 句法学：研究句子的结构和组织规律。

句法学的基本概念包括词序、词性、语法功能等。

4. 语义学：研究语言的意义系统和语义规则。

语义学的核心概念包括词义、句义、语境等。

5. 文体学：研究不同文体的语言特点和表达方式。

文体学的常见研究对象有叙事文、议论文、诗歌等。

二、文学理论文学理论是外国语言与文学研究的另一重要方面，它关注文学作品的创作、解读和评价。

在外国文学理论研究中，常见的知识点包括：1. 文学批评理论：研究对文学作品进行批评和评价的方法和原则。

文学批评理论的代表性流派有形式主义、结构主义、后现代主义等。

2. 文学风格与艺术手法：研究作家在创作中运用的风格和手法，如象征主义、现实主义、意识流等。

3. 文学流派与时代背景：研究不同文学流派的产生和发展，以及与时代背景的关联。

如浪漫主义、现代主义、后现代主义等。

4. 文学作品解读：研究对文学作品进行深入解读的方法和策略。

如文本分析、符号学解读等。

5. 外国文学史：研究外国文学的历史发展和重要代表作品。

外国文学史的学科体系包括古代文学、现代文学、当代文学等。

三、文化研究文化研究是外国语言与文学研究的重要组成部分，它研究的是不同文化之间的差异和交流。

文化研究常见的知识点包括：1. 文化概念与要素：研究文化的定义、构成要素和形式表现。

英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性: One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammarwhich studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties. It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language. 2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules forpeople to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2) Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be moreinterested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and th e i r f i n d d i f f e r e n c e s . / p > p > P h o n o l o g y d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o u n d s y s t e m s o f p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s a n d h o w s o u n d s f u n c t i o n t o d i s t i n g u i s h m e a n i ng . / p > p > A p h o n e t i c i a n w o u l d b e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s c o s s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l n o t c o s d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n i n g . / p > p > 2 . W h a t i s p h o n e ? H o w i s i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m a p h o n e m e ? h o w a r e a l l o p h o n e s r e l a t e d t o a p h o n e m e ? / p > p > P h o n e i s a p h o n e t i c u n i t , i t h a s n o m e a n i n g . / p > p > P h o n e m e i s a p h o n o l o g i c a l u n i t w i t h d i s t i n c t i v e v a l u e . / p > p > T h e p h o n e m e / l / c a n b e r e a l i z e d a s d a r k / l - / a n d c l e a r / l / , w h i c h a r e a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e p h o n e m e / l / / p > p > A l l o p h o n e s - - - a c t u a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f a p h o n e m e i n d i f f e r e n t p h o n e t i c c o n t e x t s . / p >。