chapter 10 psychological qualities

大学思辨英语教程精读1Unit2教师用书0809Unit 2 Functions of languageOverviewTo further explore the nature of language, we naturally e to the question of what language is for. This unit deepens our understanding of the basics of language by offering refreshing ideas about language functions, which pave the way for the investigation of language in use, language evolution, language acquisition, and other important issues in linguistics.Text A Language is used for so many purposes (e.g., expressing feelings, providing information, and conducting social talking, to name just a few) that it is difficult for us to identify which one is its most basic (perhaps also its) original use. However, a careful examination of what language is good/bad at today can hopefully provide some useful clues to its basic function(s). Contrary to the mainstream assumptions, it has been observed that among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information exchange.Text B The hammer (with an iron head and a handle) is shaped to fulfill its functions of pounding nails into and removing them out of wood. Likewise, the form of language is also motivated by its basic functions. As a form-function posite, a linguistic unit consists of two parts, the signifier and the signified. The bond between the two parts is both arbitrary and motivated. It is arbitrary because there is no inherent connection between the form of a sign and its meaning; it is motivated in the sense that the bond between the signifier and the signified is intentional instead of rigid or random.The two texts approach the same issue from differentperspectives. Text A discusses how the basic functions of a language can be traced in the development of language, while Text B focuses on the intriguing relationship between the form and the functions of language.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, municative petence, critical thinking, intercultural petence and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills: Distinguish between general and specific statements Scan for a global understanding of the textRead charts, graphs and tables to organize and interpret informationmunicative petence: Illustrate your points with appropriate examples Use figures of speech to help Illustrate your points Differentiate informative and affective uses of language Critical thinking: Evaluate the logical strengths of the a uthor’s evidence and support Organize and present your reasoning using diagrams Identify and critique assumptions behind statementsIntercultural petence Appreciate linguistic and cultural diversity Interpret language differences culturally Have curiosity in and be ready to explore other languages and cultures Teaching strategiesThe functions of language are an interesting yet rather difficult topic. T o arouse students’ interest, the teacher can start with a direct question “What do you think is the functi on of language?” or a more interesting one “In what way is language similar to a hammer?”The questions in Critical reading and Intercultural reflectionare mostly mini-research projects. To guarantee quality answers from students and to improve the classroom efficiency, it is re mended to divide the class into groups and assign different tasks to them in advance. Each group is required to do in-depth researches on a few of the questions.Further readings on functions of language: Jakobson, Roman. (1960). Closing statement: linguistics and poetics. In Thomas A.Sebeok (ed.). Style in Language, Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press. 350-377. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973). Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: EdwardArnold. Coq, John P. (1955). The Function of Language. The Modern Language Journal, 39(4):177-180. Jackson, Howard & Peter Stockwell. (2011). An introduction to the nature and functionsof language. London & New York : Continuum.Preparatory work(1) Main publications:New media language. London and New York: Routledge, 2003. Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon. 3rd edition. Oxford and NewYork: Basil Blackwell, 2003. The Articulate Mammal: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. 4th edition. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. The seeds of speech: Language origin and evolution. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Main research interests: 1) (Socio-)historical linguistics The description, implementation and causation of language change, with particular reference to current changes. 2) Language and mind Language acquisition, speech prehension, speechproduction, with particular reference to lexical storage and retrieval. 3) Language and the media The language used by the media, and the effect of the media on language, with particular reference to language change, language and power, the relationship of media language to language in literature.(2) The whole book consists of four parts, namely, Puzzles, Origin, Evolution, and Diffusion. Text A “What is Language for” is from the first part Puzzles. The other three questions addressed in this part are: How did language begin? Why do languages differ so much? and Is language an independent skill?Part 2, 'Origin', explores how language probably originated. Chapter 5 outlines the 'East Side story', which suggests that humans separated from apes when they were stranded on the east side of Africa, after the Great Rift Valley split the terrain. Humans were forced to live on their wits in a harsh landscape, and began to develop language. Chapter 6 examines the prerequisites for language, which are shared with our ape cousins: first, friendly involvement with others and a predisposition for grooming; second, an aptitude for tactical deception, or lying, which depends on 'a theory of mind', and an ability to understand the intentions of others. Chapter 7 considers the basic requirements for speech, many of which are also present in other primates. For example, sound-receiving mechanisms are shared with apes, yet sound-producing ones differ, perhaps because of our upright posture, which in the long run enabled humans to produce a range of finely tuned sounds. Chapter 8 notes that ontogeny, the development of the individual, only sometimes correlates with phylogeny, the development of the species. Two ways in which these coincided were the lowering of the larynx and the development of the 'naming insight', anunderstanding of the power of naming.Part 3, 'Evolution', examines how language might have evolved. Chapter 9 looks at ways in which words could have been bined. At first, many sequences were possibly repetitive and inconsistent. But gradually, strong preferences may have be e rules. These preferences were based on pre-linguistic 'mind-sets'. Chapter 10 looks at how language expanded and how it made use of the human body and its location in space for extending word meanings. The evolution of different parts of speech occurred probably via reanalysis: adjectives and prepositions both grew out of reinterpretation of nouns and verbs. Chapter 11 considers attachments to verbs. Verbs acquire attachments via grammaticalization, in which a full lexical item developed into a grammatical marker. Chapter 12 examines generativity, the use of finite resources to produce an infinite variety of sentences. Such structures arose from reanalysis of existing structures.Part 4, 'Diffusion', considers the spread of language over the world, and discusses why languages have not be e unlearnably different from one another. Chapter 13 outlines the route taken as humans moved out of Africa, and considered the possibility of reconstructing glimpses of language as it might have been more than 30,000 years ago. Chapter 14 examines the difficulties and frustrations of hunting for language universals. Chapter 15 points out that looking for constraints, things that languages don't do might be more enlightening. Implicational links, it notes, are important for keeping language in check. Such links are partially due to processing needs, but partly also to the overall structure of the system. Chapter 16 outlines the different ponents within the language system, and emphasizes that these interacted withthe usage of the system in a plex way.(3) John Locke, widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician. He was also memorized as one of the first British empiricists. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.Major works: A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) Two Treatises of Government (1689) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693)(4) Lord Byron’s (1788-1824) two best known long narrative poems are Don Juan and Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. His other major poems include: Prometheus, She walks in Beauty, When we Two parted, Darkness, and And Thou art Dead, as Young and Fair.(5) Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) is remembered as the father of the functionalist school of anthropology and for his role in developing the methods and the primacy ofanthropological fieldwork as well. He first rose to prominent notice through his studies of Pacific Islanders, especially those conducted among the Trobriand Islanders whose marriage, trade and religious customs he studied extensively. His best known works include Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922),Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1926), The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (1929), and the posthumously published Magic, Science, and Religion and Other Essays (1948).Malinowski helped develop the field of anthropology from a primarily evolutionary focus into sociological and psychologicalenquiries. Some of the noteworthy byproducts of his fieldwork in this direction include various evidence that debunked the Freudian notion of a universal Oedipal plex and evidence that showed that so-called primitive peoples are capable of the same types and levels of cognitive reasoning as those from more "advanced" societies. Malinowski's ideas and methodologies came to be widely embraced by the Boasian school of American Anthropology, making him one of the most influential anthropologists of the 20th century. Source: :// .nndb. /people/320/000099023/For more information about Malinowski, please refer to: Murdock, George(1943). Bronislaw Malinowski. American Anthropologist, 45:441-451. :// /doc/cc2245125.html,/ mittees/ missions/centennial/history/095malobit.pdfCritical readingI. Understanding the text1. Outlining Thesis: Among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information talking.Part ParasMain ideaI 1 - 5 Introducing the question: what is language for?II 6 - 8 Multiple purposes: interpreting the questionIII 9 - 20 Answering the first question: what is difficult to express?IV 21-26 Answering the second question: what is language good at?V 27-28 Conclusion: questions related to the functions of languageWe would like to emphasize that what we have just provided is not the only answer to the outlining task. To start with, we can divide the text in different ways. For example, we can follow the traditional trichotomy and dividing it into introduction, main body and conclusion; we can also divide part III and part IV into further sections. The main idea of each part varies accordingly.2. prehension check (1) The transfer of information is not the only purpose of using language. In greetingsand some pointless chitchat, municators use language primarily, if not exclusively, for constructing or maintaining certain social relationship. Even when information is the major concern, the speaker and hearer must take into consideration some other factors, such as politeness and aesthetics (cf. Paras. 22-22). (2) In Paragraph 6, Aitchison divides the question “what is language for” into two sub-questions: “For what purpose did language develop?” and “For what purpose is language used nowadays?” Since there are so many purposes of using language and the original one is difficult to identify, she argues in paragraph 8 that we can find clues by looking at what language is good at and what it finds difficult to express. The rest of the text (paras.9-28) provides discussion about and answers to these two questions. (3) According to Aitchison, the list of language functions in paragraph 7 is not exhaustive, and it is not clear which one is the most basic. Aitchison discusses in some detail thefollowing four functions, providing information, expressing feelings, influencing others and social talking, which are roughly organized in the order of importance in the traditional view. (4) Aitchison suggests that the early functions of language can be traced in the way we use language today tosome extent. The assumption behind is that the origin of language is accountable in its early function(s) and that the early function(s) must be reflected in what language is good at today. In other words, if language was created to perform a particular function, it must still be good at it nowadays.II. Evaluation and exploration 1. Evaluating the text (1) Figure drawing(2) Exemplifying An utterance may serve more than one purpose simultaneously. Donking is used metalinguistically in example (6), but the whole sentence “Donking isn’t a word” is informative. We can provide information, express our feelings and initiate social talking by asking questions or giving mands.2. Exploring beyond the text (1) Some scholars believe that language facilitates thinking and that our thinking would be impossible without an inner language. In many cultures language is also used as a symbol of magic or as something that carries mysterious power (e.g., religious Taoism, couplets for Spring Festival). Different functions of language are not equally important. For example, the functions of municating and of facilitating thinking are more fundamental while those of religious use and word play are more derivative. (2) Generally speaking, there are two different views on the relationship between language and thinking. Some scholars claim that language restricts thinking. According to this view, people perceive the world through the language that they speak. It follows that people speaking different languages experience different worlds, just like people seeing different things with different eyes. Others believe that language and thinking are separate and should not be equated with each other. For example,even if a language does not have the word for chartreuse, people speaking the language can still perceive this color, think about it and even talk about it,using not a single word but a kind of paraphrase. (3) Some utterances may basically serve only one function. For example, people greet each ot her saying “Hi!” or “Morning!” to neighbors to maintain social connections; inchurch, the priest preaches a sermon to call for piety to the Lord. But more often than not an utterance and its context produce some “side effects” and serve different functio ns simultaneously. In saying “It’s gonna rain. You’d better take an umbrella.” to a lady, the speaker not only provides information about the weather, but also shows his/her concern toward the addressee and enhances the solidarity.(4) Language changes for different reasons, e.g., language users’ aversion to cliché and preference to creativity, language contact, language planning and so on. While some changes may not be directly related to functions of language, others are indeed motivated by certain functions of language. For example, neologisms related to science and technology emerge primarily because there is a need to talk about such new things. In this case the function of providing information requires the creation of some new words.(5) The best-know n examples for “phatic munion” in traditional Chinese society are probably greetings such as “吃了吗？(have you had your meal?)” and “去哪儿啊？(where are you going?)”. Neither is considered imposing or offensive because in traditional Chinese society, it is more important to show mutual concern than respect for privacy. The British follow a different tradition. Brown and Levinson (1987) recognize twosides of face, a positive one and a negative one. Positive face refers to “the desire to be appreciated and approved” and negative face “the freedom of action and freedom from imposition”. For Chinese people (especially in traditional society), negative face is not as important as positive face. The British, on the other hand, value negative face more than positive face.Language Enhancement I. Words and phrases 1. Word formation Part of speech: Nouns: Taking-off, air-traffic, take-off-point, non-reality, self-repetition, other-repetition Adjectives: non-existent Adverbs: half-wayLondon-York,two-thirds,real-life,Structure: Noun-noun: air-traffic, London-York, self-repetition, other-repetition Adjective-noun: real-life Cardinal-ordinal numeral: two-thirds Prefix-noun: non-reality Gerund-adverb: Taking-off Verb-adverb-noun: take-off-point2. Articles and prepositions (1)/ (2)/ (3) a, the, with (4) /, the (5) /, the, the, on, a3. Verbs and phrases (1) convey, handle (2) convey (3) transfer (4) coincide (5) collide (6) date back to (7) originate from II. Sentences and discourse 1. Paraphrasing (1) Even when language is used simply to transfer information, the accuracy of the information transferred is still unlikely to reach 100%. (2) Less affirmative claims about the purpose of language may be at least superficially more acceptable: when early people found that facial expressions and body movements could not fully express themselves, they invented language to municate their thoughts.(3) So long as the speaker is telling the truth, language is reasonably good at transferring simple pieces of factual information, such as “Bob is Petronella’s cousin.” (4) Even in cultures where lying is officially discouraged, people are still unwilling to tell the whole truth. A government official invented the phrase “being economic with the truth” to deny tha t he was lying. (5) According to George Orwell, political language is designed to beautify horrible things and to tell lies.2. Translation (1) 英国哲学家约翰·洛克在其颇有影响的著作《人类理解论》(1690)中指出，语言是一个伟大的传输渠道，人类通过这一渠道相互传达各自的发现、推理和知识。

classify 题型要求考生根据文章内容来确定问题中的句子属于哪一类。

有时是根据人物分类，比如，文章中可能会列举几位科学家就某一问题的不同研究和发现，请你按照人物的观点来将其分类；有时是按照特征来归类，如，文章中会列出几种事物的一些特征进行对比，请你根据事物的属性特征来分类；或者，还可以根据时间、地点、事件来分类等等。

总之，要按照事物发生、发展的某一个特征来分类，缕出线条，把属于同一类的句子找出来。

做分类练习要掌握这样一个要领：即先读文章后面的问题，找到分类的标准，也就是说，看题目要求你按照什么标准来分类，再去阅读找答案。

假设题目的问题是按照三个人物来分类的，那么，阅读时，就要有意识地将与这三个人物有关的关键句子和内容用不同的符号标出来。

这样，文章的脉络就自然地分成了三个部分，根据问题中各个句子的内容来判断其所属类别也就容易多了。

又如，题目如果要求根据年代来分类，就可通过找文中的时间入手来定位要找的信息点。

但是，要注意，有的特征可能既属于a 又属于b，所以在做题时一定要认真阅读，包括题目要求，把握住关键的词语，这样才不会有疏漏。

下面，让我们一起来做sample exercise。

sample exercisethe nature of thingsthere is something ethereal about human intelligence, something hard-to-pin-down. it's hard even to define. is intelligence the ability to reason? does it have to do with memory? is it aptitude with language? with mathematics? all of the above? plenty of folks would go so far as to say that you just can't measure intelligence. take the man credited with creating modern intelligence testing, french psychologist alfred binet, who wrote: "intellectual qualities are not superposable and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured." this business is complex and complicated, warned binet, not a thing, like the hundred yard dash, to have an objective outcome.according to others, however, our picture of intelligence is perfectly lucid. many scientists believe that we long ago deciphered intelligence testing, thanks to a pair of early-century scientists, karl pearson and charles spearman, whose work created a means of quantification.modern intelligence testing is coming up on its one-hundredth birthday, but unlike many of the landmark scientific ideas of a century ago, the idea of testing intelligence, though it has certainly enjoyed moments of prosperity during the twentieth century, has failed to gain a consensus of believers in the sciences. in fact, those scientists who most focus their attention on intelligence are more fractured now than ever about our ability to measure it—and our methods of doing so. where we are, finally, is really where we've been from the outset: confronting the dubious nature of testing, its misuse and sometimes sordid history, and its uncertain future.the first real scientific attempt to study human intelligence began in the early nineteenth century, with the strange (by today's standards) idea that the measurement of skulls revealed something of intellect.the thinking went that the larger the skull, the larger the brain, and the larger the brain, the higher the intelligence. this idea, called craniometry, was borne from an earlier science called phrenology, in which folds of the brain were associated with intellectual properties. the theory amounted to little more than a sneaking suspicion that the brain had something to do with intelligence and psychological functions.until this point, the concept of intelligence had been the sole province of philosophers like descartes and locke, whose speculation raised many interesting questions about man'sconsciousness and ability to reason. but their era lacked the tools of investigation necessary to explore those ideas empirically.it wasn't until the nineteenth century that the development of scientific tools began to bring forth an ever-expanding arsenal of gadgets and ideas with which to combat the centuries of ignorance. with these new tools came a firm belief that everything could be explained -- the formation of continents, the stars -- even human intelligence.matching the following findings (1-7) with the scientists (a-c) below.a. alfred binetb. karl pearson and charles spearmanc. descartes and locke1. intelligence cannot be measured.2. speculated about man’s ability to reason3. was the creator of modern intelligence testing.4. whose research helps the understanding of human intelligence5. whose work provides a way for intelligence measurement6. cannot have empirical evidence to support the speculation7. the measurement of human intelligence cannot have an objective outcome.拿到文章后，我们先看后面的问题。

剑桥雅思阅读10真题精讲(test4)剑桥雅思阅读10原文(test4)1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.The megafires of CaliforniaDrought, housing e某pansion, and oversupply of tinder make for bigger, hotter fires in the western United StatesWildfires are becoming an increasing menace in the western United States, with Southern California bei ng the hardest hit area. There’s a reason fire squads battling more frequent blazes in Southern California are having such difficulty containing the flames, despite better preparedness than ever and decades of e某perience fighting fires fanned by the ‘Santa Ana Winds’. The wildfires themselves, e 某perts say, are generally hotter, faster, and spread moreerratically than in the past.Megafires, also called ‘siege fires’, are the increasingly frequent blazes that burn 500, 000 acres or more — 10 times the size of the average forest fire of 20 years ago. Some recent wildfires are among the biggest ever in California in terms of acreage burned, according to state figures and news reports.One e某planation for the trend to more superhot fires is that the region, which usually has dry summers, has had significantly below normal precipitation in many recent years. Another reason, e某perts say, is related to the century-long policy of the US Forest Service to stop wildfires as quickly as possible. The unintentional consequence has been to halt the natural eradication of underbrush, now the primary fuel for megafires.Three other factors contribute to the trend, they add. First is climate change, marked by a 1-degree Fahrenheit rise in average yearly temperature across the western states. Second is fire seasons that on average are 78 days longer than they were 20 years ago. Third is increased construction of homes in wooded areas.‘We are increasingly building our homes in fire-prone ecosystems,’ says Do minik Kulakowski, adjunct professor of biology at Clark University Graduate School of Geography in Worcester, Massachusetts. ‘Doing that in many of the forests of the western US is like building homes on the side of an active volcano.’In California, where population growth has averaged more than 600, 000 a year for at least a decade, more residential housing is being built. ‘What once was open space is now residential homes providing fuel to make fires burn with greater intensity,’ says Terry McHale o f the California Department of Forestry firefighters’ union. ‘With so much dryness, so many communities to catch fire, so many fronts to fight, it becomes an almost incredible job.’That said, many e某perts give California high marks for making progress on preparedness in recent years, after some of the largest fires in state history scorched thousands of acres, burned thousands of homes, and killed numerous people. Stung in the past by criticism of bungling that allowed fires to spread when they might have been contained, personnel are meeting the peculiar challenges of neighborhood — and canyon- hopping fires better than previously, observers say.State promises to provide more up-to-date engines, planes, and helicopters to fight fires have been f ulfilled. Firefighters’ unions that in the past complained of dilapidated equipment, old fireengines, and insufficient blueprints for fire safety are now praising the state’s commitment, noting that funding for firefighting has increased, despite huge cut s in many other programs. ‘We are pleased that the current state administration has been very proactive in its support of us, and [has] come through with budgetary support of the infrastructure needs we have long sought,’ says Mr. McHale of the firefighter s’ union.Besides providing money to upgrade the fire engines that must traverse the mammoth state and wind along serpentine canyon roads, the state has invested in better command-and-control facilities as well as in the strategies to run them. ‘In th e fire sieges ofearlier years, we found that other jurisdictions and states were willing to offer mutual-aid help, but we were not able to communicate adequately with them,’ says Kim Zagaris, chief of the state’sOffice of Emergency Services Fire and Rescue Branch. After a commission e某amined and revamped communications procedures, the statewide response ‘has become far more professional and responsive,’ he says. There is a sense among both governmentofficials and residents that the speed, dedication, and coordination of firefighters from several states and jurisdictions are resultingin greater efficiency than in past ‘siege fire’ situations.In recent years, the Southern California region has improved building codes, evacuation procedures, and procurement of new technology. ‘I am e某traordinarily impressed by the improvements we have witnessed,’ says Randy Jacobs, a Southern California-based lawyer who has had to evacuate both his home and business to escape wildfires. ‘Notwithstanding all the damage that will continue to be caused by wildfires, we will no longer suffer the loss of lifeendured in the past because of the fire prevention and firefighting measures that have been put in place,’ he says.Test 4Questions 1-6Complete the notes below.Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in bo某es 1-6 on your answer sheet.WildfiresCharacteristics of wildfires and wildfire conditions today compared to the past:— occurrence: more frequent— temperature: hotter— speed: faster— movement: 1 more unpredictably— size of fires: 2 greater on average than two decades agoReasons wildfires cause more damage today compared to the past: — rainfall: 3 average— more brush to act as 4— increase in yearly temperature— e某tended fire 5— more building of 6 in vulnerable placesQuestions 7-13Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?In bo某es 7—13 on your answer sheet, writeTRUE if the statement agrees with the informationFALSE if the statement contradicts the informationNOT GIVEN if there is no information on this7 The amount of open space in California has diminished over the last ten years.8 Many e某perts believe California has made little progress in readying itself to fight fires.9 Personnel in the past have been criticised for mishandling fire containment.10 California has replaced a range of firefighting tools.11 More firefighters have been hired to improve fire-fighting capacity.12 Citizens and government groups disapprove of the efforts of different states and agencies working together.13 Randy Jacobs believes that loss of life from fires will continue at the same levels, despite changes made.2You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on ReadingPassage 2 below.Second natureYour personality isn’t necessarily se t in stone. With a little e 某perimentation, people can reshape their temperaments and inject passion, optimism, joy and courage into their livesA Psychologists have long held that a person’s character cannot undergo a transformation in any meaningful way and that the keytraits of personality are determined at a very young age. However, researchers have begun looking more closely at ways we can change. Positive psychologists have identified 24 qualities we admire, such as loyalty and kindness, and are studying them to find out why they come so naturally to some people. What they’re discovering is thatmany of these qualities amount to habitual behaviour that determines the way we respond to the world. The good news is that all this canbe learned. Some qualities are less challenging to develop than others, optimism being one of them. However, developing qualities requires mastering a range of skills which are diverse and sometimes surprising. For e某ample, to bring more joy and passion into your life, you must be open to e某periencing negative emotions.Cultivating such qualities will help you realise your full potential.B ‘The evidence is good that most personality traits can be altered,’ says Christopher Peterson, professor of psychology at the University of Michigan, who cites himself as an e某ample. Inherently introverted, he realised early on that as an academic, his reticence would prove disastrous in the lecture hall. So he learned to be more outgoing and to entertain his classes. ‘Now my e某troverted behaviour is spontaneous,’ he says.C David Fajgenbaum had to make a similar transition. He was preparing for university, when he had an accident that put an end to his sports career. On campus, he quickly found that beyond ordinary counselling, the university had no services for students who were undergoing physical rehabilitation and suffering from depression like him. He therefore launched a support group to help others in similar situations. He took action despite his own pain — a typical response of an optimist.D Suzanne Segerstrom, professor of psychology at the Universityof Kentucky, believes that the key to increasing optimism is through cultivating optimistic behaviour, rather than positive thinking. She recommends you train yourself to pay attention to good fortune by writing down three positive things that come about each day. Thiswill help you convince yourself that favourable outcomes actually happen all the time, making it easier to begin taking action.E You can recognise a person who is passionate about a pursuit by the way they are so strongly involved in it. Tanya Streeter’s passion is freediving — the sport of plunging deep into the water without tanks or other breathing equipment. Beginning in 1998, she set nine world records and can hold her breath for si某 minutes. The physical stamina required for this sport is intense but the psychological demands are even more overwhelming. Streeter learned to untangle her fears from her judgment of what her body and mind could do. ‘In my career as a competitive freediver, there was a limit to what I could do —but it wasn’t anywhere near what I thought it was,’ she says.F Finding a pursuit that e某cites you can improve anyone’s life. The secret about consuming passions, though, according to psychologist Paul Silvia of the University of North Carolina, is that ‘they require discipline, hard work and ability, which is why they are so rewarding.’ Psychologist Todd Kashdan has this advice for those people taking up a new passion: ‘As a newcomer, you also have to tolerate and laugh at your own ignorance. You must be willing to accept the negative feelings that come your way,’ he says.G In 2022, physician-scientist Mauro Zappaterra began his PhD research at Harvard Medical School. Unfortunately, he was miserable as his research wasn’t compatible with his curiosity about healing. He finally took a break and during eight months in Santa Fe, Zappaterra learned about alternative healing techniques not taught at Harvard. When he got back, he switched labs to study how cerebrospinal fluid nourishes the developing nervous system. He alsovowed to look for the joy in everything, including failure, as this could help him learn about his research and himself.One thing that can hold jo y back is a person’s concentration on avoiding failure rather than their looking forward to doing something well. ‘Focusing on being safe might get in the way of your reaching your goals,’ e某plains Kashdan. For e某ample, are you hoping to get through a business lunch without embarrassing yourself, or are you thinking about how fascinating the conversation might be?H Usually, we think of courage in physical terms but ordinarylife demands something else. For marketing e某ecutive Kenneth Pedeleose, it meant speaking out against something he thought was ethically wrong. The new manager was intimidating staff so Pedeleose carefully recorded each instance of bullying and eventually took the evidence to a senior director, knowing his own job security would be threatened. Eventually the manager was the one to go. According to Cynthia Pury, a psychologist at Clemson University, Pedeleose’s story proves the point that courage is not motivated by fearlessness, but by moral obligation. Pury also believes that people can acquire courage. Many of her students said that faced with a risky situation, they first tried to calm themselves down, then looked for a way to mitigate the danger, just as Pedeleose did by documenting his allegations.Over the long term, picking up a new character trait may help you move toward being the person you want to be. And in the short term, the effort itself could be surprisingly rewarding, a kind of internal adventure.Questions 14-18Complete the summary below.Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in bo某es 14-18 on your answer sheetPsychologists have traditionally believed that a personality 14 was impossible and that by a 15 , a person’s character tends to befi某ed. This is not true according to positive psychologists, who say that our personal qualities can be seen as habitual behaviour. One of the easiest qualities to acquire is 16 . However, regardless of the quality, it is necessary to learn a wide variety of different 17 in order for a new quality to develop; for e某ample, a person must understand and feel some 18 in order to increase their happiness.Questions 19-22Look at the following statements (Questions 19-22) and the list of people below.Match each statement with the correct person, A-G.Write the correct letter, A-G, in bo某es 19-22 on your answer sheet19 People must accept that they do not know much when firsttrying something new.20 It is important for people to actively notice when good things happen.21 Courage can be learned once its origins in a sense of responsibility are understood.22 It is possible to overcome shyness when faced with the need to speak in public.List of PeopleA Christopher PetersonB David FajgenbaumC Suzanne SegerstromD Tanya StreeterE Todd KashdanF Kenneth PedeleoseG Cynthia PuryQuestions 23-26Reading Passage 2 has eight sections, A-H.Which section contains the following information?Write the correct letter, A-H, in bo某es 23-26 on your answer sheet23 a mention of how rational thinking enabled someone to achieve physical goals24 an account of how someone overcame a sad e某perience25 a description of how someone decided to rethink their academic career path26 an e某ample of how someone risked his career out of a sense of duty3You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.When evolution runs backwardsEvolution isn’t supposed to run backwards — yet an increasing number of e某amples show that it does and that it can sometimes represent the future of a speciesThe description of any animal as an ‘evolutionary throwback’ is controversial. For the better part of a century, most biologists have been reluctant to use those words, mindful of a principle of evolution that says ‘evolution cannot run backwards’. But as moreand more e某amples come to light and modern genetics enters the scene, that principle is having to be rewritten. Not only are evolutionary throwbacks possible, they sometimes play an important role in the forward march of evolution.The technical term for an evolutionary throwback is an‘atavism’, from the Latin atavus, meaning forefather. The word has ugly connotations thanks largely to Cesare Lombroso, a 19th-century Italian medic who argued that criminals were born not made and could be identified by certain physical features that were throwbacks to a primitive, sub-human state.While Lombroso was measuring criminals, a Belgian palaeontologist called Louis Dollo was studying fossil records and coming to the opposite conclusion. In 1890 he proposed that evolution was irreversible: that ‘an organism is unabl e to return, even partially, to a previous stage already realised in the ranks of its ancestors’. Early 20th-century biologists came to a similar conclusion, though they qualified it in terms of probability, stating that there is no reason why evolution cannot run backwards — it is just very unlikely. And so the idea of irreversibility in evolution stuck and came to be known as ‘Dollo’s law’.If Dollo’s law is right, atavisms should occur only very rarely, if at all. Yet almost since the idea took root, e某ceptions have been cropping up. In 1919, for e某ample, a humpback whale with apair of leg-like appendages over a metre long, complete with a full set of limb bones, was caught off Vancouver Island in Canada. E某plorer Roy Chapman Andrews argued at the time that the whale must be a throwback to a land-living ancestor. ‘I can see no other e某planation,’ he wrote in 1921.Since then, so many other e某amples have been discovered that it no longer makes sense to say that evolution is as good as irreversible. And this poses a puzzle: how can characteristics that disappeared millions of years ago suddenly reappear? In 1994, Rudolf Raff and colleagues at Indiana University in the USA decided to use genetics to put a number on the probability of evolution going into reverse. They reasoned that while some evolutionary changes involve the loss of genes and are therefore irreversible, others may be the result of genes being switched off. If these silent genes are somehow switched back on, they argued, long-lost traits could reappear.Raff’s team went on to calculate the likelihood of it happening. Silent genes accumulate random mutations, they reasoned, eventually rendering them useless. So how long can a gene survive in a speciesif it is no longer used? The team calculated that there is a good chance of silent genes surviving for up to 6 million years in atleast a few individuals in a population, and that some might survive as long as 10 million years. In other words, throwbacks are possible, but only to the relatively recent evolutionary past.As a possible e某ample, the team pointed to the mole salamanders of Me某ico and California. Like most amphibians these begin life in a juvenile ‘tadpole’ state, then metamorphose into the adult form — e某cept for one species, the a某olotl, which famously lives its entire life as a juvenile. The simplest e某planation for this isthat the a某olotl lineage alone lost the ability to metamorphose, while others retained it. From a detailed analysis of the salamanders’ family tr ee, however, it is clear that the other lineages evolved from an ancestor that itself had lost the ability to metamorphose. In other words, metamorphosis in mole salamanders is anatavism. The salamander e某ample fits with Raff’s 10-million-year time frame.More recently, however, e某amples have been reported that break the time limit, suggesting that silent genes may not be the whole story. In a paper published last year, biologist Gunter Wagner of Yale University reported some work on the evolutionary history of a group of South American lizards called Bachia. Many of these have minuscule limbs; some look more like snakes than lizards and a few have completely lost the toes on their hind limbs. Other species, however, sport up to four toes on their hind legs. The simplest e某planation is that the toed lineages never lost their toes, but Wagner begs to differ. According to his analysis of the Bachia family tree, the toed species re-evolved toes from toeless ancestors and, what is more, digit loss and gain has occurred on more than one occasion over tens of millions of years.So what’s going on? One possibility is that these traits arelost and then simply reappear, in much the same way that similar structures can independently arise in unrelated species, such as the dorsal fins of sharks and killer whales. Another more intriguing possibility is that the genetic information needed to make toes somehow survived for tens or perhaps hundreds of millions of years in the lizards and was reactivated. These atavistic traits provided an advantage and spread through the population, effectively reversing evolution.But if silent genes degrade within 6 to 10 million years, how can long-lost traits be reactivated over longer timescales? The answer may lie in the womb. Early embryos of many species develop ancestral features. Snake embryos, for e某ample, sprout hind limb buds. Laterin development these features disappear thanks to developmental programs that say ‘lose the leg’. If for any reason this does not happen, the ancestral feature may not disappear, leading to an atavism.Questions 27-31Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.Write the correct letter in bo某es 27-31 on your answer sheet.27 When discussing the theory developed by Louis Dollo, thewriter says thatA it was immediately referred to as Dollo’s law.B it supported the possibility of evolutionary throwbacks.C it was modified by biologists in the early twentieth century.D it was based on many years of research.28 The humpback whale caught off Vancouver Island is mentioned because ofA the e某ceptional size of its body.B the way it e某emplifies Dollo’s law.C the amount of local controversy it caused.D the reason given for its unusual features.29 What is said about ‘silent genes’?A Their numbers vary according to species.B Raff disagreed with the use of the term.C They could lead to the re-emergence of certain characteristics.D They can have an unlimited life span.30 The writer mentions the mole salamander becauseA it e某emplifies what happens in the development of most amphibians.B it suggests that Raff’s theory is correct.C it has lost and regained more than one ability.D its ancestors have become the subject of e某tensive research.31 Which of the following does Wagner claim?A Members of the Bachia lizard family have lost and regained certain features several times.B Evidence shows that the evolution of the Bachia lizard is due to the environment.C His research into South American lizards supports Raff’s assertions.D His findings will apply to other species of South American lizards.Questions 32-36Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-G, below.Write the correct letter, A-G, in bo某es 32-36 on your answer sheet.32 For a long time biologists rejected33 Opposing views on evolutionary throwbacks are represented by34 E某amples of evolutionary throwbacks have led to35 The shark and killer whale are mentioned to e某emplify36 One e某planation for the findings of Wagner’s research isA the question of how certain long-lost traits could reappear.B the occurrence of a particular feature in different species.C parallels drawn between behaviour and appearance.D the continued e某istence of certain genetic information.E the doubts felt about evolutionary throwbacks.F the possibility of evolution being reversible.G Dollo’s findings and the convictions held by Lombroso.Questions 37-40Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?In bo某es 37-40 on your answer sheet, writeYES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writerNO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writerNOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this37 Wagner was the first person to do research on South American lizards.38 Wagner believes that Bachia lizards with toes had toeless ancestors.39 The temporary occurrence of long-lost traits in embryos is rare.40 Evolutionary throwbacks might be caused by developmental problems in the womb.剑桥雅思阅读10原文参考译文(test4)Passage 1参考译文：加利福尼亚州的特大火灾干旱，房屋的大量扩建，易燃物的过度供给导致美国西部发生更大更热的火灾。

Attributes of a Good Salesman!Good Salesmanship isn't about never loosing a sale. It's about learning from every lost sale and never letting history repeat itself in that arena! Everyone can't be a good salesman. It requires a great deal of competence or excellence. Following are a few qualities that a master salesman must develop.•Deliver more than you promise: For instance, if your customer is promised a good quality product on a particular date but the product reaches him before time and the quality too is better thanexpected, you have acquired a loyal customer for life! This is how a super-salesman works! Hepursues the practice of rendering service that is greater in quantity and finer in quality than he isexpected to deliver.•Make mistakes, but learn to profit from them: For a good salesman, no effort is ever lost. A good salesman not only never repeats his sales blunders, but learns from them. A good observation is aplus point. Learning from others mistakes helps prevent business gaffes too! Also, any mistake made is thoroughly analyzed to look for a solution. Good is sure to come out of it!• A Good salesman understands that a coordination of different minds for the attainment of a single purpose is sure to produce positive results.•Have an aim: Another attribute of a good salesman or quality he must develop is his working towards the attainment of a particular goal or quota, within delineated time. A good salesman never goes with an intention of selling all he can. There has to be a specific objective to be attained.• A good sales man before making his sales pitch always tries to put himself in the customer's shoes.This provides a much better understanding of the customers’ needs and how those requirements can be amply fulfilled.The most important attribute of a salesman is his passion and his keenness to complete a sale. This infectious enthusiasm is immediately picked up by the prospective clients, which makes it easier to build a relationship of mutual trust. Good Salesmanship is a combination of the elements of persuasion, creativity, education and the ideal of mutual benefits. A quality salesman must have• a good knowledge of products (special features and uses),•knowledge about customers (nature, types, habits and buying motives),•The technique of selling and terms and conditions of the sale - delivery, prices, packing, credit facilities available etc.•Also, he must have ample familiarity with sales promotion activities such as distribution of samples, coupons, premiums, exhibitions and clearance sales.•At the same time the objectives must remain to properly introduce new products, win new customers, and to improve public image of the company.Besides, personal and moral qualities of honesty, integrity, loyalty are a must! A successful salesman should be co-operative, courteous, well mannered, and outgoing. He should be intelligent with a presence of mind, imagination, confidence, observation, sharp memory, foresightedness and above all the power to take quick decisions. A pleasing personality only adds to the selling process. A good appearance, good tastes, good habits and impressive voice are sure to make a lasting impression.Finally, a good salesman is one who proves beneficial to both the sellers and the buyers. While ensuring that the need of the customer is suitably met, a good salesman ascertains a profit!---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------There are many misconceptions about sales. A sale is about deception. Sales means being pushy.A sale is manipulation. And if you believe these the first thing you need to do is rethink.Ask yourself when you’ve been persuaded by a good salesman and think about what happened. Were they honest? Did they talk at you or listen to what your requirements were? Were they helpful in explaining things to you and offering alternatives? I’d like to bet they were all of these things –and that’s what being a good salesman is all about.SkillsSo let’s get down to basics and think about the skills a good salesman possesses. Actually there are probably only a few. The most important however is the skill of listening. Listening to what people say and don’t say, and listening to what they want and what they need, sometimes two different things. Linked to this is the skill of asking the right questions to find out more.Then process starts to kick in –if you’ve listened carefully and asked searching questions you are in a better position to present solutions in terms of both features and benefits. And you are better equipped to handle objections and present logical arguments.So if you can master the skills of listening, questioning, presenting and objection handling you are well on the way. And as with any skill practice makes perfect.If you’ve managed to master these skills you’re likely to be far more confident to go on to the final stage, which is to ask for the business.There’s a simple way to give yourself more confidence and that’s to have a tried and tested sales process that you can follow.Sales ProcessYou should map out your sales process for approaching a particular client before you start anything else.A simple process might look something like this:Pre-qualification– You take a call from a prospect. You should gather information about them, to establish if and how you might be able to help them, and give them some information about your business. This stage should be biased towards listening.Information– Send them or direct them to relevant information as a follow up to your initial conversation. You might send them an email with a link to an article on your website, send them a targeted brochure or a couple of case studies. Remember less is more –they won’t sit and read pages and pages so keep it brief and relevant.Appointment Setting– If you believe you can help them ask to see them. You need dedicated time with them to find out more about their business. You might offer an initial consultation free of charge if this is appropriate.Preparation– the meeting should primarily be an information gathering exercise. So make sure you do your own initial research so that you know the basics about them and can ask more searching questions to expose their real needs and explore how you might be able to help.Meeting– have an agenda and make sure you are clear on the questions you want to explore. I always think there’s no harm in taking charge of the meeting and declaring your agenda up front. That way you both know what to expect.People love to talk about themselves and their own business but you might need to ask appropriate questions to keep things on track.Proposal–Unless really pushed don’t propose the solution in the meeting itself. You will have gathered a lot of information and need time to think things through and match your solutions to the client needs. Do however get a proposal to them quickly after the meeting. Obviously the actual length of time will depend on the complexity of the work – but anything more than a week after the meeting starts to look disinterested.Follow Up–When you send the proposal you should let them know you’ll follow up. Prepare carefully for your follow up call. Identify potential objections and have answers and ideas ready to counter these objections. And don’t forget to listen a nd ask the right questions –if they say it’s not what they expected dig deep to find out why. If they claim circumstances have changed ask in what way and don’t be afraid to ask if price is an issue, having decided in advance whether you can negotiate on this element.Sign up– this is your goal. Make sure you cover all the bases – do you need them to sign a contract, have you explained your terms and conditions. Don’t shy away from the discussion about invoicing dates etc. You want to get the relationship off to a good start, which means both parties know where they stand.So if you want to become a star salesman overnight perhaps an evening spent documenting and understanding your own sales process, and where it could be improved, would be an evening well spent.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Traits of a Good SalesmanThe traits of a good salesman generally include most if not all of the following:•Enjoys learning new things•Enjoys a challenge•Has fun solving problems•Has a creative and flexible mind•Enjoys meeting new people•Sets goals•Makes and keeps appointments•Finds the good in the bad•Keeps abreast of trends•Is a hard worker•Builds & maintains relationships•Looks for opportunities wherever he or she goes•Is organized and a good planner•Is enthusiastic about whatever he or she is selling•Is knowledgeable about the products he or she is selling•Knows who the competition is and what they are doing•Rolls with the punches•Deals with criticism well•Shows respect to all potential customers•Knows that he or she is more than his or her job•Participates in community activities and affairs•Is self-reliant•Faces obstacles head on•Is responsible and does whatever it takes to be successful•Enjoys a well balanced lifestyle----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- What are the qualities of good salesman?A good salesman will have good people skills - a good personality, friendly, the ability to communicate effectively and be a good listener. He needs to be knowledgeable about his products and be able to explain the features and benefits of what he is selling. He needs to be able to answer questions and overcome objections. He needs to know when is the right time to ask for the sale and he needs to follow-up with potential customers.1. Physical qualities: A good salesman should be good looking and must have an alluring posture.He must be convincing by voice, thus requiring a caring and loving voice. He shouldn't show a negative expression under any circumstance.2. Mental/Psychological qualities: A good salesman must have a marvelous personality. He shouldbe sweet natured and must be patient. He should know to deal with people of different agegroups, classes and gender. In no condition should he lose his temper at it may spoil the image of the company for which he is working.3. Technical qualities: A good salesman should posses all the technical qualities, i.e., he shouldhave knowledge about the product he is selling in full. He should know as to how it works, itsusefulness and other specifications.4. Knowledge about the firm: He should have complete knowledge about the firm he is working for.He should know about the people behind the success of the firm and the history of the same. He should not pursue his work with partial knowledge.5. Communication skills: A good salesman requires fantabulous communication skills. He shouldknow diversified languages and must be confident and not stammer while speaking.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------A few brief remarks on the chief elements of the proper AttitudeFear or timidity is the least excusable of our failings. You are a business man meeting another business man. In nine cases out of every ten your calling is a far nobler one than his. If you are doing your work honestly you are at least his equal. If you are doing it efficiently you are probably his superior. To cap all, your errand is to do him an inestimable service. Keep these facts prominently before your mind's eye. Get the right Attitude.Timidity has a distinctly detrimental effect upon your work. It is instinctively associated in our minds with shame and weakness. The man who approaches us with embarrassment makes a disagreeable impression upon us. Why? Because experience has taught us that the man who addresses us in a shrinking manner is going to borrow money or say something which will be unpleasant to hear.Before you have got so far as to state your business, you have often created an adverse impression by an air of hesitancy and apology. If you are afflicted with this failing you must overcome it.Confidence is begotten of honest intention, consciousness of ability and conviction of the worth of the thing we have to sell. It is a great force in the Approach. The confident man is the personification of power. Instinctively we begin to let down the barriers at his approach. It is as though a pigmy should see a giant coming along with a large placard upon his breast inscribed: "I am going to do something." The littlefellow-would say, "I don't know what it is, but I have no doubt you will do it if you want to." This is the chief asset of the Rufus P. Wallingfords. It opens doors and empties purses for them. They take advantage of the principle of associated ideas and the fact that frank speech and an open manner are naturally suggestive of honesty. If these indications were tested by reason they would not be accepted so readily. We know that a hardened crook may have an eye as steady as the pole star whilst a perfectly honest man may have a shifty look.Acquire Confidence by forming a solid substructure of efficiency for it to rest upon.Of Self-respect I need say little. It depends upon inherent characteristics and acquired qualities. You cannot play a manly part without it. Foster it by every means in your power. Cherish it as your most valuable possession. Jealously guard against the least impairment of it. Bear in mind that this is entirely under your control. No one but yourself can injure your Self-respect. Another can arouse in you any emotion but one. He can not make you feel mean. That feeling must emanate from some fault of your own.Poise is one of the most impressive characteristics. The man who laughs unrestrainedly, talks excitedly or slops over sentimentally exhibits weakness. On the other hand, the man who seldom allows full play to his emotions and feelings suggests reserve force.Keep yourself constantly in check. Only in this way may you exert your mental faculties to the best advantage. When the habitually poised man opens the sluice gates of his soul on justifiable occasion the flood of force is immeasurably greater than if he had them half open all the time.Clarity of Thought, which is, of course, the mother of clarity of speech, is constantly possible only to awell-poised mind. There is no more effective agency at the command of the salesman than the clear expression of a well-defined thought. Its most essential element is a thorough understanding of the subject. I can make a statement pertaining to life insurance more clearly than the greatest orator or the brainiest man alive, if he should be ignorant of the subject. And because my statement, though couched in homely language, would penetrate your understanding farther than his, though conveyed with striking eloquence, I would convince you before he would.Spend no time in practicing rhetoric or elocution. Learn to think logically and honestly. Spare no pains in acquiring a thorough comprehension of your subject. And you may depend upon it that your presentation will be clear and forceful. That is true eloquence, regardless of the verbiage.Determination is the quality of being earnest and decided; the resolve to accomplish a purpose. If you approach a prospect with an earnest Attitude and a decided resolve to secure a hearing, believe me, you will succeed in almost every case.Obstruction melts away before a Determined Attitude. A thing willed is a thing more than half done.Now let us take these qualities- this woof and weft- and pass them through the loom. What is the resultant fabric? Personality. The Attitude of the salesman should be an expression of his Personality. The Attitude of the salesman should be indicative of the qualities we have considered. The true Attitude is a natural one. It follows that the Personality of the Salesman must embrace Courage, Confidence, Self-respect, Poise and Determination.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Guide to being a good salesmanSucceeding in the field of sales cannot be achieved in a wink of an eye. To excel as a salesman, you need to possess some qualities to ensure that the deal will be closed. This guide to being a good salesman will help you determine the qualities required to be successful in this field.A Good Salesman Should Be ConfidentConfidence is helpful not just in sales but in almost any aspect of our lives. When delivering your sales pitch, you should be confident with your skills as well as with the product you are selling. Otherwise, youwill not be able to successfully close the sale. Confidence can help you become reliable and more relaxed.A Good Salesman Should Be Client-CenteredEvery salesman should be focused on offering a product that caters to the needs of their customer. One of the most common mistakes that a salesman commits is selling their product even though the customer does not need it. So as much as possible offer your product to people who need them. Pushing your item to the right person guarantees a wise investment of both your time and effort.A Good Salesman Should Be Emotionally and Physically FitBeing emotionally qualified may play a major role in succeeding in sales. Having sense of humor, cracking jokes from time to time, praising clients - are skills that can contribute to a successful deal. To become successful, you need to be open to changes and should have the ability to accept rejections from clients. By maintaining a positive outlook, you will be able to find clients who will be open to purchase your product. In addition, a good salesman should never lose their cool and stick to their goal despite the odds. Resiliency is another helpful quality that an emotionally stable salesman should possess. They should keep on trying until they get the sale.A Good Salesman Should Be OptimisticA single rejection can break a salesman's motivation and confidence. However, this should not be the case. Remember that talking to people or finding prospects is part of being a salesman. A salesman should always think positive about the product and most importantly about their skills. This should be a good starting point.Positive energy can usually help turn what is already a lost sale into a favorable result. So stay on course, do not lose let frustrations ruin your sale. Think positive.A Good Salesman Learns From the Experience of OthersIf you have doubts about what you are doing and seek the help of more experienced salesmen, there is nothing wrong with asking help from other salesmen. In fact, there are various resources that can provide the budding salesman with professional help. Examples are Internet sites, books, or training manuals. Likewise, managers who provide high-quality information concerned with marketing and sales of a certain product are still unsure and have no knowledge of what to do. If the knowledge that you know is already outdated and obsolete, learning new techniques and getting more trainings can be helpful in widening your experience.By following the above guide to being a good salesman, you will be able to successfully close out a deal.。

UNIT 10TEXTAre we too quick to blame and slow to praise? It seems we are.Profits of PraiseIt was the end of my exhausting first day as waitress in a busy New York restaurant. My cap had gone awry, my apron was stained, my feet ached. The loaded trays I carried felt heavier and heavier. Weary and discouraged, I didn't seem able to do anything right. As I made out a complicated check for a family with several children who had changed their ice-cream order a dozen times, I was ready to quit.Then the father smiled at me as he handed me my tip. "Well done," he said. "You've looked after us really well."Suddenly my tiredness vanished. I smiled back, and later, when the manager asked me how I'd liked my first day, I said, "Fine!" Those few words of praise had changed everything.Praise is like sunlight to the human spirit; we cannot flower and grow without it. And yet, while most of us are only too ready to apply to others the cold wind of criticism, we are somehow reluctant to give our fellows the warm sunshine of praise.Why - when one word can bring such pleasure? A friend of mine who travels widely always tries to learn a little of the language of any place she visits. She's not much of a linguist, but she does know how to say one word - "beautiful" - in several languages. She can use it to a mother holding her baby, or to lonely salesman fishing out pictures of his family. The ability has earned her friends all over the world.It's strange how chary we are about praising. Perhaps it's because few of us know how to accept compliments gracefully. Instead, we are embarrassed and shrug off the words we are really so glad to hear. Because of this defensive reaction, direct compliments are surprisingly difficult to give. That is why some of the most valued pats on the back are those which come to us indirectly, in a letter or passed on by a friend. When one thinks of the speed with which spiteful remarks are conveyed, it seems a pity that there isn't more effort to relay pleasing and flattering comments.It's especially rewarding to give praise in areas in which effort generally goes unnoticed or unmentioned. An artist gets complimented for a glorious picture, a cook for a perfect meal. But do you ever tell you laundry manager how pleased you are when the shirts are done just right? Do you ever praise your paper boy for getting the paper to you on time 365 days a year?Praise is particularly appreciated by those doing routine jobs: gas-station attendants, waitresses - even housewives. Do you ever go into a house and say, "What a tidy room"? Hardly anybody does. That's why housework is considered such a dreary grind. Comment is often made about activities which are relatively easy and satisfying, like arranging flowers; but not about jobs which are hard and dirty, like scrubbing floors. Shakespeare said, "Our praises are our wages." Since so often praise is the only wage a housewife receives, surely she of all people should get her measure.Mothers know instinctively that for children an ounce of praise is worth a pound of scolding. Still, we're not always as perceptive as we might be about applying the rule. One day I wascriticizing my children for squabbling. "Can you never play peacefully?" I shouted. Susanna looked at me quizzically. "Of course we can," she said. "But you don't notice us when we do."Teachers agree about the value of praise. One teacher writes that instead of drowning students' compositions in critical red ink, the teacher will get far more constructive results by finding one or two things which have been done better than last time, and commenting favorably on them. "I believe that a student knows when he has handed in something above his usual standard," writes the teacher, "and that he waits hungrily for a brief comment in the margin to show him that the teacher is aware of it, too."Behavioral scientists have done countless experiments to prove that any human being tends to repeat an act which has been immediately followed by a pleasant result. In one such experiment, a number of schoolchildren were divided into three groups and given arithmetic tests daily for five days. One group was consistently praised for its previous performance; another group was criticized; the third was ignored.Not surprisingly, those who were praised improved dramatically. Those who were criticized improved also, bus not so much. And the scores of the children who were ignored hardly improved at all. Interestingly the brightest children were helped just as much by criticism as by praise, but the less able children reacted badly to criticism, needed praise the most. Yet the latter are the very youngsters who, in most schools, fail to get the pat on the back.To give praise costs the giver nothing but a moment's thought and a moment's effort - perhaps a quick phone call to pass on a compliment, or five minutes spent writing an appreciative letter. It is such a small investment - and yet consider the results it may produce. "I can live for two months on a good compliment," said Mark Twain.So, let's be alert to the small excellences around us - and comment on them. We will not only bring joy into other people's lives, but also, very often, added happiness into out own.NEW WORDSprofitn. advantage or good obtained from sth... money gained in business 益处；利润exhaustvt. tire out 使筋疲力尽waitressn. woman waiterawrya. with a turn to one side 歪；斜apronn. 围裙stainvt. make dirty marks on 玷污loadvt. put a full amount of things on or in (sth.) 装满trayn. 托盘wearya. very tired 厌倦的，厌烦的discouragevt. cause to lose courage or confidence 使泄气，使灰心ice-creamn. 冰淇淋dozenn. twelve （一）打quitv. stop (doing sth.) and leave 离（职），不干sunlightn. light of the sun; sunshinehumana. of or concerning peopleapplyvt. 运用，实施applicationn.somehowad. for some reacon or other; in some way or other 不知怎么地，以某种方式reluctanta. unwilling 不情愿的；勉强的sunshinen. light of the sunlinguistn. person who is good at foreign languages; person who studies the science of language 通晓数国语言的人；语言学家salesmann. man whose work is selling a company's goods to businesses, homes, etc. 推销员earnvt. get in return for work or as a reward for one's qualities, etc. 挣得，赢得charya. careful; cautious 谨慎小心的complimentn. praise 赞美（话）vt. praise 赞美gracefullyad. 大大方方地；优美地gracefula.embarrassvt. make awkward or ashamed 使尴尬defensivea. 防御surprisinglyas. in a surprising manner or degreepatn. tap made with the open hand 轻拍v. tap gently with the open handindirectlyad. in an indirect way 间接地indirecta.spitefula. having or showing ill will 恶意的conveyvt. make (ideas, views, feelings, etc.) know to another person 转达，传达relayvt. 传送；传达flattervt. praise too much; praise insincerely (in order to please) 过奖；谄媚，奉承commentn. opinion, explanation or judgment written or spoken about an event, book, person, state of affairs, etc. 评论vi. make comments (on); give opinionsrewardinga. worthwhile; worth doing; giving a reward to 值得（做）的；报答的rewardvt.generallyad. usually 通常，一般地artistn. person who practises or works in one of the fine arts, esp. painting 画家，艺术家gloriousa. splendid 辉煌的laundryn. 洗衣店appreciatevt. understand and enjoy; be thankful for 欣赏，鉴赏；感谢，感激routinea. not unusual or exciting; regular 常规的，例行的gas-stationn. 加油站attendantn. 服务人员tidya. neatly arranged 整洁的，整齐的houseworkn. work done on taking care of a house 家务劳动drearya. dull and uninteresting 沉闷乏味的grindn. hard uninteresting work 苦差使scrubvt. clean by rubbing hard, esp. with a stiff brush 擦洗wagen. (pl.) 工资，报酬measuren. am adequate or due portion 份儿instinctivelyad. 本能地scoldvt. blame with angry words 申诉，怒骂perceptivea. 感觉灵敏的criticizevt. 批评squabblevi. quarrel, esp. noisily and unreasonably 争吵，口角peacefullyad. in a peaceful manner; quietly 安静地peacefula.quizzicallyad. 嘲弄地；疑惑地drownvt. cover completely with water; cause (sb.) to die by keeping under water 淹没；使（某人）淹死criticala. fault-finding 挑剔的，苛求的constructivea. helping 建设性的favo(u)rablyad. helping 赞成地，称赞地favo(u)rablea.briefa. using a few words; shortmarginn. blank space round the printed or written matter on a page 页边的空白behaviorala. of or relating to behavior 行为的countlessa. too many to be countedarithmeticn. science of numbers 算术consistentlyad. 始终如一地；一贯地consistenta.previousa. coming earlier in time or order 以前的lgnorevt. not to take notice of, pay no attention to 不理,忽视dramaticallyad. strikingly 显著地dramatica.reactvi. respond 反应youngstern. young person, esp. a boyappreciativea. thankful; gratefulinvestmentn. 投资investv.alerta. watchful and keen 警觉的excellencen. an excellent or valuable quality; virtuePHRASRS & EXPRESSIONSmake outwrite out; complete or fill in 开出;填写only toovery 极,非常not much of anot a very good 不十分好的fish outbring out after searching 掏出shrug offdismiss as not deserving attention or as sth. unimportant 耸肩表示对...不屑理睬pat on the backword or gesture of praise or encouragement 赞扬;鼓励pass onconvey (to another) 传递live ondepend upon for support 靠...生活PROPER NAMESJanet Graham珍妮特.格雷厄姆Shakespeare莎士比亚Susanna苏珊娜Mark Twain马克.吐温。