BIOLOGY GLOSSARY1

Absorption 吸收Accommodation 调节Acid Rain 酸雨Acne 粉刺Active site 活性部位Active transport 主动转运Adaptation 适应Additives 添加剂Adenine 腺口票呤Amylase 淀粉酶Anemia 贫血症Angina 心绞痛Angiosperm 被子植物Anopheles 疟蚊Anorexia 厌食Antagonistic pair 相互拮抗的Anther 花粉囊Antibiotic 抗生素Antibody 抗体Monoclonal 单克隆Antigen 抗原Antiseptic 防腐剂Aorta 主动脉Aphid 蚜虫Coronary Artery 冠状动脉Hepatic Artery 肝动脉Pulmonary Artery 肺动脉Renal Artery 肾动脉Arthritis 关节炎Arthropod 节肢动物Artificial selection 人工选择Athlete,s foot 脚气Atmosphere 大气ATP(Adenosine triphosphate) 三磷酸腺甘Atrium 心房Autotroph 自养生物Axes 轴Axon 轴突Bactericide 杀菌剂Bacteriostatic 抑菌剂Bacterium 细菌Base pair 碱基对Bee 蜜蜂Bicarbonate indicator 碳酸氢盐指示剂Biceps 二头肌Bile 胆汁Biogas 沼气Biological control 生物防治Bioreactor 生物反应器Bladder 膀胱Blind spot 盲点Red blood cell 红细胞white blood cell 白细胞BOD ( Biological Oxygen Demand) 生物耗氧Caffeine 咖啡因Calcium 钙Cambium 形成层(植)Bladder cancer 膀胱癌Colon cancer 结结肠癌Lung cancer 肺癌Skin cancer 皮肤癌Cap (Diaphragm) 子宫帽Capillary 毛细血管Carbohydrate 糖类Carbon cycle 碳循环Carbon dioxide 二氧化碳Carnivore 肉食动物Carrier proteins 转运蛋白Carrier 转运者，载体Carrying capacity 转运能力Cartilage 软骨Catalyst催化剂 Cell division 细胞分裂植物前卫细胞壁 植物纤维 着丝粒 小脑Cellulose cell wallCelluloseCentromereCerebellumCerebral cortex大脑皮层Cervix 子宫颈CFC (Chlorofluorocarbon 含氯氟烃Chlorophyll Chloroplast Cholesterol Choroid Chromatid Chromosome Ciliary muscle Cirrhosis Clinistix叶绿素叶绿体胆固醇脉络膜染色单体染色体睫状肌肝硬化尿糖试纸cobalt chloride paper 氯化钻试纸coil 避孕环color blindness combustion community cone cell constipation consumer色盲燃烧群落视锥细胞便秘cornea cotyledon cuticle cystic fibrosis cytoplasm cytosine DDT消费者角膜子叶表皮囊性纤维化细胞质胞嘧啶滴滴涕（杀虫剂的一种）Deamination Decomposition Denaturation 去氨基分解腐烂变性double helix 双螺旋Down ’s syndrome 唐氏综合症drugs 药物ecology 生态学ecosystem 生态系统egg 卵细胞embryo 胚胎emphysema 肺气肿endocrine gland 内分泌腺endonuclease 核酸内切酶endosperm 胚乳endothermy 温血状态，体温的生理调节 energy 能量environmental resistance 环境的阻力enzyme 酶epidermis 表皮epididymis 附寸睾eutrophication 富营养作用excretion 排泄，分泌factor-8 因子8 （血友病的凝血因子） fair testing 客观的实验fermentation 发酵fermenter 发酵器denitrificationdepression diabetes dialysis diaphragm diarrhea adequate diet balanced diet diffusion digestion diploid disease DNA dominant脱氮作用 抑郁 糖尿病透析横膈膜腹泻足量饮食平衡饮食扩散 消化二倍体疾病脱氧核糖核酸显性fern 蕨类植物fertilization 受精fertilizer 肥料fever 发热fiber 纤维fibrin 纤维蛋白fibrinogen 纤维蛋白质filament 细丝fish farming 养鱼业flaccidity 软弱，枯萎fetus 胚胎food chain 食物链food preservation 食物保存fossil fuel 矿物燃料fruit 果实fUngus 真菌，菌类gall bladder 月旦囊gamete 酉己子gene probe 基因探针gene transfer 转基因gene vector 基因载体gene 基因genus 类，属geotropism 向地性global warming 全球变暖glucagon 胰高血糖素glucose 葡萄糖glycogen 糖原gonorrhea 淋病Graafian follicle 格拉夫卵泡，囊状卵泡graphs 线图greenhouse effect 温室效应grey and white matter 灰质和白质guanine 鸟口票吟gut 消化道，内脏habitat 栖息地hemoglobin 血红蛋白hemophilia 血友病haploid 单倍体的hay fever 花粉热，干草热heat 热度，热量hepatitis 肝炎herbicide 除草剂herbivore 食草类动物heroin 海洛因heterotroph 异养生物heterozygous 咋合的homeostasis 平衡状态，稳态homologous pair 同源染色体对homozygous 纯合子的，同型结合的hormone 荷尔蒙horticulture 园艺human growth hormone 人类生长激素humerus 肱骨humidity 潮湿的，温度Huntington,s disease 杭廷顿氏舞蹈病hybridoma 杂交瘤hydrochloric acid 盐酸hyperglycemia 多糖症，高血糖症hypoglycemia 低血糖hypothalamus 丘脑下部hypothermia 体温过低hypothesis 假设active 主动passive 被动natural 天然artificial immunity 人工免疫independent assortment 自由组合，独立分配influenza 流行性感冒insect 昆虫insecticide 杀虫剂Uinsulin 胰岛素iron 铁irradiation 放射，照射IUD (intra-uterine device ) 子宫内器件joint 关节karyotype 染色体组型key 关键kidney 肾脏kingdom 界，王国kwashiorkor 夸休可尔症，恶性营养不良lacteal 乳汁lactic acid 乳酸large intestine 大肠lead 铅leaf 树叶lens 晶体ligament 韧带ligase 连接酶light 光照limewater 石灰水limiting factor 限制因素Linnaeus 林奈lipase 脂肪酶lipid 脂类liver 肝脏loop of Henle 亨利氏襻louse 虱子LSD 麦角酸二乙基酰胺(致幻药)lung 肺lymphocyte 淋巴细胞lysozyme 溶菌酶magnesium 镁malnutrition 营养不良mammal 哺乳动物mammary gland 乳腺marasmus 消瘦，衰弱medulla 脊髓meiosis 减数分裂Mendel,s law孟德尔遗传定律meninges 脑膜meningitis 脑膜炎menstrual cycle 月经周期menstruation 月经meristem 分裂组织，生长点mesophyll 叶肉metabolism 新陈代谢methane 沼气，甲烷microorganism 微生物micropyle 珠孑1mineral ions 矿物离子mitochondria 线粒体mitosis 有丝分裂moss 苔藓mould 霉菌mouth 口腔movement 运动muscle 肌肉mutagen 诱变剂mutation 突变myelin sheath 髓鞘natural selection 自然选择negative feedback 负反馈nephron 肾单位nervous system 神经系统neuron 神经元neurotransmitter 神经递质night blindness 夜盲nitrate 硝酸盐nitrification 硝化作用nitrogen fixation 固氮作用nitrogen cycle 氮循环nitrogen 氮气node of Ranvier 郎飞氏结nucleotide 核苷nucleus 细胞核obesity 肥胖esophagus 食道estrogen 雌激素oil 油optic nerve 视神经osmosis 渗透osteoporosis骨质疏松ovary 卵巢，子房oviduct 输卵管ovulation ovule 胚珠oxygen debt 氧债oxygen 氧ozone 臭氧painkiller 止痛药pancreas 胰腺parasite 寄生虫pasteurization 巴氏灭菌法pathogen 病原体penicillin 青霉素penis 阴茎pepsin 胃蛋白酶peristalsis 蠕动pest 害虫pesticide 杀虫齐U petal 花瓣PH 氢离子浓度phagocyte 吞噬细胞phenotype 显型pheromone 信息素phloem 韧皮部phosphate 磷酸盐photosynthesis 光合作用phototropism 趋光性Pill 口服避孕药pituitary hormones 脑垂体placenta 胎盘pulmonary 肺的radiation 放射radiotherapy 放射治疗radius 镭receptacle 容器，花托recessive 隐性的rectum 直肠reflex action 反射动作reflex arc 反射弧refrigeration 冷藏，制冷rennin 高血压蛋白酶，肾素reptile 爬行动物resistance 抵抗力，阻力respiration 呼吸aerobic respiration 需氧呼吸anaerobic respiration 厌氧呼吸respirometer 呼吸计restriction enzyme 限速酶retina 视网膜rhizobium 根瘤菌ribosome 核糖体rickets 软骨病，佝偻rod cell 视杆细胞root 根root nodule 根瘤roughage 粗粮：Salmonella 沙门氏菌属saprotroph 腐生菌schizophrenia 精神分裂症SCP ( single cell protein) 单细胞蛋白质scrotum 阴囊scurvy 坏血症seed 种子selective breeding 选择育种sepal 萼片sewage 废水，污水sex 性别shiver 颤抖sickle cell anemia 镰状细胞血症skeleton 骨骼skin 皮肤sludge 泥浆，污泥small intestine 小肠smoke 吸烟solvent abuse 溶剂滥用species 种类，类型sperm 精子spermicide 杀精剂U sphincter 括约肌spider 蜘蛛spinal cord 脊索sporulation 抱子形成stamen 雄蕊starch 淀粉stem 茎，干sterilization 灭菌，消毒stigma （花的）柱头stomach 胃stomata 口，气孔style 花柱sucrose 蔗糖surrogacy 代理sweating 排汗synapse 突触synovial fluid 骨膜液，关节液tables 表格tendon 腱testis 睾丸testosterone 睾酮，睾丸素thymine 胸腺嘧啶tobacco 烟草tooth decay 龋齿toxin 毒素transcription 转录transgenic organism 转基因生物体translation 翻译，转换transpiration 蒸发，蒸腾作用transplant 移植triceps 三头肌turgidity 肿胀，浮肿typhoid 伤寒ulna 尺骨umbilical cord 脐带unit 单位urea 尿素ureter 输尿管urethra 尿道uterus 子宫vaccine 疫苗vacuole 液泡vagina 阴道，叶鞘valve 心瓣膜variable 变量，变数vas deferens 输精管vascular bundle 维管束vasectomy 输精管切除术vasoconstriction and vasodilation 血管收缩和舍予张vegetative propagation 无性繁殖vein 静脉hepatic portal vein 肝门静脉umbilical vein 脐静脉vena cava 腔静脉ventricle 心室vesicle （器官的）囊，泡villus 绒毛vinegar 醋剂，醋virus 病毒vitamins 维生素vulva 女阴water potential 水势能water 水weed killer 除草剂wilting 萎蔫X chromosome 乂染色体xylem 木质部Y chromosome Y 染色体yeast 酵母yellow spot 黄斑zygote 受精卵。

InsidetheLivingCell:Structure andFunctionofInternalCellPartsCytoplasm:TheDynamic,MobileFactory细胞质：动力工厂,,,ions,solubleproteins,andothermaterialsneededforc ellfunctioning.生命的大部分特征表现在细胞质的特征上;细胞质大部分由半流体物质组成,并由细胞膜原生质膜包被;细胞器悬浮在其中,并由丝状的细胞骨架支撑;细胞质中溶解了大量的营养物质,离子,可溶蛋白以及维持细胞生理需求的其它物质; TheNucleus:InformationCentral细胞核：信息中心Theeukaryoticcell nucleus isthelargestorganelleandhouse sthegeneticmaterialDNAon chromosomes.Inprokaryotestheh ereditarymaterialisfoundinthe nucleoid.真核细胞的细胞核是最大的细胞器,细胞核对染色体组有保护作用原核细胞的遗传物质存在于拟核中;细胞核含有一或二个核仁,核仁促进细胞分裂;核膜贯穿许多小孔,小分子可以自由通过核膜,而象mRNA和核糖体等大分子必须通过核孔运输;Organelles:SpecializedWorkUnits细胞器：特殊的功能单位Alleukaryoticcellscontainmostofthevariouskindsoforg anelles,,theendoplasmicreticulum,theGolgicomplex,vacu oles,lysosomes,mitochondria,andtheplastidsofplantcell s.所有的真核细胞都含有多种细胞器,每个细胞器都有其特定功能;本节主要介绍核糖体,内质网,高尔基体系,液泡,溶酶体,线粒体和植物细胞中的质体;,"reading";核糖体的数量变化从几百到几千,核糖体是氨基酸组装成蛋白质的重要场所;完整的核糖体由大亚基和小亚基组成;核糖体沿着mRNA移动并阅读遗传密码,翻译成蛋白质;一条mRNA上可能有多个核糖体,称多聚核糖体;大多数细胞蛋白是由细胞质中核糖体生产;输出蛋白和膜蛋白通常与内质网有关;The endoplasmicreticulum,alacyarrayofmembranoussacs, tubules,andvesicles,maybeeitherroughRERorsmoothSER.,w hichisstuddedwithpolysomes,alsoseemstobethesourceofth enuclearenvelopeafteracelldivides.内质网,带有花边的生物囊,有管状,泡状之分,以及光滑和粗糙面区别;两种都与蛋白质的合成和运输有关;粗糙内质网上分布许多核糖体,也可能提供细胞分裂后所需的细胞膜;SERlackspolysomes;.光滑内质网上无核糖体,主要作用是脂肪和类固醇的合成以及细胞内有毒物质的氧化;两种内质网合成的产物在其中进行分流或运输到细胞外;Transportvesiclesmaycarryexportablemoleculesfromthe endoplasmicreticulumtoanothermembranousorganelle,.运输小泡能够将可运输分子从内质网运输到高尔基复合体上;在高尔基复合体中修饰,包装后输出细胞或传递到细胞质中的其他场所;细胞中的液泡好象是中空的,但实际上充满了液体和可溶分子;最典型的液泡存在于植物细胞中,储备水,糖以及其它分子;动物中的液泡起吞噬和胞饮作用; Asubsetofvacuolesaretheorganellesknownas lysosomes,w hichcontaindigestiveenzymespackagedinlysosomesintheGo lgicomplex.溶酶体是液泡亚单位,含有消化酶,降解大部分生物大分子;消化食物微粒和降解损伤的细胞残片;,线粒体是细胞中化学产能的场所;另外,植物细胞中的质体在光合作用中利用光能产生碳水化合物,线粒体内嵴上提供了很大的表面积并分布着产ATP酶;线粒体自我复制,并且可能是自由生活的原核生物在进化中形成的后代; Therearetwotypesofplastids:leucoplasts,whichlackpigm entsandserveasstoragesitesforstarch,proteins,andoils; andchromoplasts,质体有两种类型：白色体,缺乏色素,是淀粉,蛋白质和油的储备场所；色质体,含有色素;叶绿体是最重要的色质体,含有与光合作用有关的叶绿素;叶绿体的内部结构是由多层膜形成的叶绿体基粒,其中包埋在基质中的基粒称子座;TheCytoskeleton细胞骨架Alleukaryoticcellshaveacytoskeleton,所有的细胞都有细胞骨架,网络结构的纤丝充满了它所能触及的全部空间并且对细胞器提供支持作用;细胞骨架大部分由微丝组成,微丝主要由可收缩的肌动蛋白组成;动植物细胞的许多种类型细胞内运动与肌动蛋白有关;第二类蛋白是肌球蛋白,它与肌肉细胞的收缩有关;细胞骨架的另一个主要结构成分是微管,由球状的微管蛋白组成,象脚手架一般维持细胞的稳定形态;细胞骨架的中间丝提供了细胞质伸缩动力;机械酶,例如,肌球蛋白,动力蛋白,驱动蛋白与微丝,微管相互作用产生动力而引起细胞运动;CellularMovements细胞运动Althoughthecytoskeletonprovidessomestability稳固tocells,itsmicrotubules英maikrutju:bju:l andfilaments丝状物andtheirassociatedproteinsenablecellstomovebycreeping 爬行orgliding滑动.Suchmovementsrequireasolid固体的substratetowhichthecellcanadhere附着andcanbeguidedbythegeometry dimitri几何形状iɡ zibit展览chemotaxis,kemtksis趋药性theabilitytomovetowardorawayfromthesourceofadiffusing 扩散chemical.尽管细胞骨架提供了细胞的某些稳定性,微丝,微管及相关蛋白能使细胞爬行或滑动;这种运动需要固体基质依托并通过表面几何形状的改变而运动;某些细胞具备趋药性,即趋向或逃离扩散开的化学源; Certaineukaryoticcellscanswimfreelyinliquidenvironmen ts,propelledbywhiplike cilia sili纤毛or flagella英fldel 鞭毛.Bothciliaandflagellahavethesameinternalstructure:n inedoubletspairsofmicrotubulesarearrangedinaringandex tendthelengthoftheciliumorflagellum,基体动力蛋白sidearmsthatextendfromoneofthemicrotubulesofeachdoublet成对的东西.某些真核细胞能在液体液体中自由运动,由纤毛或鞭毛推动;纤毛和鞭毛具有同样的内部结构：九个双微管环形排列,纵向延伸,环中心是两个或以上微管组成;纤毛或鞭毛从细胞表面的基体出生长,双微管的动力蛋白臂从一侧延伸到另一侧而引起运动;Nutrients,proteins,maiusin肌凝蛋白proteinsattachedtoorganelles细胞器,小器官pushagainstmicrofilamentsarrayed rei展示集合,收集fromtubutinsubunitsnearorganellescalled centrioles movethechromosomes.大部分植物细胞的营养,蛋白质和其它物质由细胞质流运输;这个过程是由于依附在细胞器上的肌球蛋白反推排列在细胞周围的微丝形成的;绝大部分细胞质运动由微丝和微管完成;在细胞分裂期间,中心粒周围的由微管蛋白亚基装配形成的纺锤体微管移向染色体;Glossarycytoplasm细胞质Thelivingcontentsofacellboundedexternallybytheplasmalemma,in cludinganaqueousgroundsubstance hyaloplasm,cellsap,orcellmatr ix containingorganellesandvariousinclusionsbutexcludingthenuc leusandvisiblevacuoles.cytoskeleton细胞骨架Ofeukaryoticcells,aninternal"skeleton".Itsmicrotubulesandoth ercomponentsstructurallysupportthecell,.nucleus细胞核,核复数nuclei Theorganelleoftheeukaryotecellthatcontainsthechromosomesandh enceultimatelycontrolscellularactivityandinheritancethrought heactivityofthegeneticmaterial,DNAchromosome染色体,.nucleoid拟核,类核,核质体TheDNA-containingareaofaprokaryotecell,analogoustotheeukaryo tenucleusbutnotmembranebounded.nucleoli核仁单数nucleolus Nuclearstructurescomposedofcompletedorpartiallycompletedribo somesandthespecificpartsofchromosomesthatcontaintheinfon-nat ionfortheirconstruction.nuclearenvelope核膜,核被膜Adoublemembranetwolipidbilayersandassociatedproteinsthatisth eoutermostportionofacellnucleus.ribosome核糖体Smallstructurescomposedoftwoproteinandribonucleicacidsubunit sinvolvedintheassemblyofproteinsfromaminoacids.polysome多核糖体Ofproteinsynthesis,severalribosomesalltranslatingthesamemess engerRNAmolecule,oneaftertheother.endoplasmicreticulum内质网Foldedmembranesandtubesthroughouttheeukaryoticcellthatprovid ealargesurfaceuponwhichchemicalactivitiestakeplace. Golgicomplex高尔基复合体Astackofflattened,smooth,membranoussacs;thesiteofsynthesisan dpackagingofcertainmoleculesineukaryoticcells.vacuole液泡Storagecontainerwithinthecytoplasmofacellhavingasurroundingm embrane.phagocytosis吞噬作用Theprocessbywhichthecellwrapsaroundaparticleandengulfsit. pinocytosis胞饮作用Theprocessbywhichacellengulfssomemoleculesdissolvedinwater lysosome溶酶体Aspecializedorganellethatholdsamixtureofhydrolyticenzymes. mitochondrion线粒体复数mitochondria Amembranousorganelleresemblingasmallbagwithalarg erbagresemblingasmallbagwithalargerbaginsidethatisfoldedback onitself;servesasthesiteofaerobiccellularrespiration.plastid质体Anorganellepresentinallplantsexceptbacteria,blue-greenalgae, andfungi;itisenclosedbytwomembranestheenvelopeandhasvariousf unctionschloroplast叶绿体.stroma基质,子座复数stromata Regionwithinachloroplastthathasnochlorophyll.microfilament微丝,纤丝Long,fiberlikestructuresmadeofproteinandfoundincells,oftenin closeassociationwiththemicrotubules;providestructuralsupport andenablemovement.actin肌动蛋白,actininteractswithanotherprotein,myosin,tobringaboutcontrac tion.myosin'maiesin肌球蛋白Aproteinthat,withactin,constitutestheprincipalelementoftheco ntractileapparatusofmuscle.microtubute微管Small,hollowtubesofproteinthatfunctionthroughoutthecytoplasm toprovidestructuralsupportandenablemovement.tubulin微管蛋白Aproteinthatisthemajorconstituentofmicrotubules.dynein动力蛋白,动素Agroupofatleastfourdistinctproteinsfoundintheflagellaandmicr otubulesofeukaryoticcellsandpossessingATPaseactivity. chemotaxis趋化性Alocomotorymovementofanorganismorcellinresponseto,anddirecte dby,andirectionalstimulus.cilia纤毛Numerousshort,hairlikestructuresprojectingfromthecellsurface thatenablelocomotion.flagella鞭毛单数flagellumLong,hairlikestructuresprojectingfromthecellsurfacethatenabl elocomotion.basalbody基体Abodyidenticalinstructuretoacentriole,foundalwaysatthebaseof aciliumoreukaryoteflagellum.centriole中心粒Anorganellelocatedclosetothenucleusinmostanimalandlowerplant cellsbutabsentfromprokaryotesandhigherplants.PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis occursonlyinthechlorophyllchlorophyll叶绿素-containingcellsofgreenplants,algae藻,andcertainprotists原生生物,,然而cellular细胞的respiration呼吸ishighlyexergonic 吸收能量的andreleasesenergy,photosynthesis光合作用requiresenergyandishighlyendergonic.光合作用只发生在含有叶绿素的绿色植物细胞,海藻,某些原生动物和细菌之中;总体来说,这是一个将光能转化成化学能,并将能量贮存在分子键中,从化学和动能学角度来看,它是细胞呼吸作用的对立面;细胞呼吸作用是高度放能的,光合作用是需要能量并高吸能的过程;,calledthe light-dependentreactions,watermoleculesaresplit 裂开oxidized,02isreleased,在面前,called light-independentreactions,CO2isreducedviatheadditi onofHatoms.光合作用以二氧化碳和水为原材料并经历两步化学反应;第一步,称光反应,水分子分解,氧分子释放,ATP和NADPH形成;此反应需要光能的存在;第二步,称暗反应,二氧化碳被还原成碳水化合物,这步反应依赖电子载体NADPH以及第一步反应产生的ATP;色素forthelightdependentreactionsareembedded深入的内含的inthe thylakoid类囊体membrane膜隔膜ofchloroplasts叶绿体.Thedarkreactionstakeplaceinthestroma.基质两步反应都发生在叶绿体中;光反应需要的大部分酶和色素包埋在叶绿体的类囊体膜上;暗反应发生在基质中; HowLightEnergyReachesPhotosyntheticCells光合细胞如何吸收光能的"excess"excitationenergyistransmittedtoothermoleculesandst oredaschemicalenergy.生物分子能捕获可见光谱中的光能;植物细胞中叶绿素在不同光波下吸收部分吸收光谱;在吸收分子中,光的作用使分子中的电子发生重排;光子的能量激活了分子的能量状态,使其从稳定态进入不稳定的激活态; Allphotosyntheticorganismscontainvariousclassesofchlorophy llsandoneormore carotenoid accessory所有的光合作用生物含有不同等级的叶绿素和一个或多个类胡萝卜素光合作用的辅助色素;称作天线复合体的色素分子群存在于类囊体中;激活色素分子的光能进入叶绿素反应中心,其直接参与光合作用;大部分光反应细胞器拥有两套反应中心,P680和P700,每个光系统都含有一个电子受体和电子供体;这些集合体就是大家熟识的光合系统Ⅰ和光合系统Ⅱ;TheLight-DependentReaction:ConvertingSolarEnergyintoChemical -BondEnergy光反应：光能转化成化学键能Ⅱ.Inthisinitialeventwatermoleculesarecleaved,oxygenisrele ased,光反应的光系统将光能转化成化学复合物ATP和NADPH;当光激活光系统Ⅱ的光反应中心时,通过一系列的氧化还原反应实现能量的传递;反应开始时,水被分解,氧被释放并提供电子;电子首先传递给质体醌,然后通过一系列载体形成的电子传递链;每传递4个电子,形成2个ATP;最后一个受体存在于光反应系统Ⅰ的反应中心里;此处光子激活电子,电子传递给铁氧还蛋白;铁氧还蛋白再氧化,并且辅酶NADP+还原成NADPH;早期产生的ATP和NADPH进入暗反应;;plantsalsoderiveadditionalATPthrough cyclicphotophosphoryl ation,inwhichsomeelectronsareshuntedbackthroughtheelectrontr ansportchainbetweenphotosystemsⅡandⅠ.由电子传递链偶连产生ATP的过程称为光合磷酸化;通过光合系统Ⅱ流经光合系统Ⅰ的电子路径称非循环式光合磷酸化；植物通过循环式光合磷酸化获得额外的ATP,一些电子在光合系统Ⅰ和Ⅱ之间的电子传递链中回流;TheLight-IndependentReactions:BuildingCarbohydrates暗反应：碳水化合物的形成Inthelight-independentreactionsofphotosynthesis,whicharedr ivenbyATPandNADPH,由ATP和NADPH驱动的暗反应中,二氧化碳转化成碳水化合物;即卡尔文循环;二磷酸核酮糖固定二氧化碳,由二磷酸核酮糖羧化酶催化;Oxygen:AnInhibitorofphotosynthesis氧：光合作用的抑制因子Highlevelsofoxygeninplantcellscandisruptphotosynthesisandc analsocause photorespiration-aninefficientfunofthedarkreactio nsinwhich02is fixedratherthanC02andnocarbohydrateisproduced. ReprievefromPhotorespiration:TheC4PathwayMostplantsare C3plants;theyexperiencedecreasedcarbohydratepro ductionunderhot,,however,大部分植物是碳3植物,在高温干旱条件下,由于光呼吸作用而使碳水化合物的合成降低;而在大多数的碳4植物中,由于叶脉的特殊构造和独特的化学路径使植物依然很茂盛;这是碳固定的一个新机制;课后作业：第一篇阅读材料答案：1B,2A,3A,4D,5C,6cGlossarlight-dependentreactions光反应-Thefirststageinphotosynthesis,'senergypasstheener gytohigh-energycarrierssuchasATPorNADPH,whereitisst oredinchemicalbonds.light-independentreactions暗反应Thesecondstageofphotosynthesis,alsocalledtheCalvi n-Bensoncycle,,carbonisfixedandcarbohydratesareform ed.chloroplast叶绿体.absorptionspectrum吸收光谱,吸收谱Thespectrumobtainedwhenradiationlight,ultraviolet radiation,etc.fromasourcegivingacontinuousspectrumi spassedthroughasubstance.Calvin-Bensoncycle卡尔文·本森循环Cyclicreactionsthatarethe"synthesis",RUBP,orsomeo thercompoundtowhichcarbonhasbeenaffixed,.carotenoid类胡萝卜素Light-sensitive,,orange,andyellow.chlorophyll叶绿素Thegreensubstanceofplantsbywhichphotosynthesisisa ccomplished;itisusuallylocalizedinintracellularor ganellescalledchloroplasts. cyclicphotophosphorylation环形光合磷酸化作用Cyclicphotophosphorylationiscoupledtocyclicelectron flow,inwhichATPistheonlyproduct.C3plant三碳植物.C4plant四碳植物Aplantsuchascorninwhichthelightindependentreactio nsofphotosynthesisstarwithafour-carboncompound.noncyclicphotophosphorylation非环形光合磷酸化作用Noncyclicphotophosphorylationiscoupledtononcyclicelectronflow,theelectronsbeingusedtoreduceNADP+aswellastomakeATP.photon光子Aparticlethathaszeromassorchargeandunitspin,thequantumoftheelectromagneticfieldandcarrieroftheelectromagneticforce.photophosphorylation光合磷酸化作用ThesynthesisofATPfromphosphateandADPduringphotosynthesis,usinglightenergy.photorespiration光呼吸Alight-dependenttypeofrespirationthatoccursinmostphotosyntheticplantsanddiffersfromnormalordarkrespiration.photosynthesis光合作用Thesynthesisoforganiccompoundsbyreductionofcarbondioxideusinglightenergyabsorbedbychorophyll.photosystem光合系统;photosystemⅡRUBP核酮糖二磷酸AcompoundwithabackboneoffivecarbonatomsthatisrequiredforcarbonfixationintheCalvin-Bensoncycleofphotosynthesis.thylakoid类囊体Oneofanumberofflattenedfluid-filledsacsthatformthephotosyntheticlamellarsystemofchloroplasts,photosyntheticbacteria,andblue-greenalgae.CellularReproduction:MitosisandMeiosis TheNucleusandChromosomes细胞核是贮藏遗传信息的主要场所;DNA盘绕成螺旋线以及相关的成簇蛋白质;DNA螺旋线缠绕成簇的组蛋白形成珠链状的核小体;这些螺旋和超螺旋形成致密的染色体组结构;每个长链DNA与组蛋白和非组蛋白一起构成染色质物质;Apictorialdisplayofanorganism'schromosomesinthecoiled,,染色体致密的超螺旋状态我们称染色体组;除了性染色体外,大多数细胞的染色体组成对出现,称同源染色体对;非性染色体称常染色体;生物细胞含有两套父母本染色体的称二倍体；含有单套染色体的称单倍体; TheCellCycleThecellcycleisaregularsequenceinwhichthecellgrows,prepar esfordivision,anddividestoformtwodaughtercells,在细胞生长过程中,细胞循环遵循特定程序,分裂准备,分裂成2个子细胞,子细胞再循环;此循环使得单细胞永生;多细胞生物中的许多细胞,包括动物肌肉和神经细胞,要么降低循环速度,要么同时分裂;,theperiodofnormalmetabolism;Sphase,duringwhichnormalsyn thesisofbiologicalmoleculescontinues,DNAisreplicated,andhist onesaresynthesized;andG2,,S,,theperiodofmitosis,,alongwithex ternalstimulatorsandinhibitorssuchas chalones.正常细胞循环由4个时期组成;头三期包括G1,正常新陈代谢；S期,正常新陈代谢同时,DNA复制,组蛋白合成；G2期,短期的新陈代谢和少许生长;G1,S,和G2称分裂间期;最后是M期,有丝分裂期,复制的染色体组浓缩,移动并细胞分裂;据称是染色质控制了细胞循环,伴随外部激活因子和抑制因子如抑素;Mitosis:PartitioningtheHereditaryMaterial前期中期begins,thecondensed浓缩的chromosomesbecomeassociatedwiththe spindle纺锤体.Eventuallythechromosomesbecomearrangedinaplanecalledthe me taphaseplate,during anaphase后期,thetwosisterchromatidsofeachchromosomesplit,末期nuclearenvelopes包膜begintoformaroundeachsetofchromosomes,anddivisionofthecytopl asmtakesplace.生物学家将有丝分裂划分为4个阶段;分裂前期,高度浓缩的两个染色单体通过着丝粒连接在一起;在分裂前期后期和分裂中期前期,浓缩的染色体与纺锤体相连,最后以正确的角度排列在赤道板上;在分裂后期,两个姊妹单体分离,分别拽向细胞两极;在分裂末期,在每套染色体周围形成核膜,细胞质发生分裂;Asmitosisproceeds,thespindlemicrotubulesplayacrucialrolei nensuringthatbothpairedandseparatedchromatids染色单体着丝粒fibers,extendoutwardfromthespindlepolestostructuresonthechr omosomescalledkinetochores着丝粒.Duringanaphasethefibersbegintoshorten,andthechromatidsbe gintomoveapart.在有丝分裂过程中,是纺锤体微管确保了染色单体在适当时间以正确方向进行分离;纺锤体微管由两极向赤道板延伸;在分裂前期,其它微管,着丝粒纤维延伸到染色体的动粒;在分裂后期,纤维开始变短,染色单体分离;中心粒,whileinplantandfungal真菌cellsspindleformationisassociatedwith reions called microtubul eorganizingcenters.植物和动物细胞形成的纺锤体不同;动物细胞与中心粒相连,而在植物和真菌细胞中,纺锤体与微管组织中心的离子相连;Cytokinesis:PartitioningtheCytoplasm胞质分裂：细胞质分离Thedivisionofthecellcytoplasmattheendofmitosisiscalled cy tokinesis细胞浆移动.Inanimalcellsittakesplaceasaringofactinfilamentscontracts 使缩短合同契约aroundthecellequator赤道,pinching收聚,whicharebounded有限制的byacellwall,存放堆积intheregionofthecellplate.在动物细胞中,环形肌动蛋白丝延赤道板收缩而使细胞一分为二;在植物细胞中,在赤道板形成新的细胞板;Meiosis:TheBasisofSexualReproductionMeiosis减数isaspecialformofcelldivisionthattakesplaceinthereproductive 生殖,ittakesplaceafterDNAreplicationhasoccurredandinvolvestwos equential连续的nucleardivisionsmeiosisIandmeiosisⅡ.Thesedivisionsresultinf ourdaughtercells,因此,thehomologous同源的chromosomesdistributed分布todifferentprogeny后裔cellsarenotidentical同样的.减数分裂是性细胞分裂的特殊形式;如有丝分裂,它也是发生在DNA 复制后并有连续的两个核分裂;产生4个子细胞,分别含有亲本一半的染色体数;同源chromosomesundergo经历sy-napsis联会,orpairing,whichisbroughtaboutbyabridgingstructureofprotei nsandRNAcalledthe synaptonemal联会丝的排列onthemetaphase 中,however,duringanaphaseIthetwochromatidsofeachchromosomest ayjoinedatthecentromere着丝点减半的ofthechromosomenumberinthefourdaughtercellsthatresultfrommei osis.正如在有丝分裂中一样,两个同源染色单体通过蛋白质和RNA桥配对形成联会复合体;与有丝分裂不同的是,每组染色体的两个染色单体连接在着丝点上并一起移向细胞两极的一级;由此而导致4个子细胞染色体数减半;Duringtelophase末期Inuclearenvelopesenclosethechromosomesinnuclei,andinmostspec iescytokinesis细胞浆流动thefirstnucleardivisionⅡ,inwhichthechromosomesineachdaughte rcellagainalign排列着丝粒finallydivide,,.第二次核分裂开始于分裂中期,子细胞中染色体重新排列在赤道板上;着丝粒最终分离,每个姊妹染色单体分向两极;接着胞质分裂;产生4个单倍体,父母染色体随机分配; AsexualVersusSexualReproductionMitosisandmeiosis,respectively分别,遗传无性的reproductiontheparentorganism生物体givesrisetooffspring后代'ssuccessfulgeneticcomplement遗传互补,requireslittleornospecializationofreproductiveorgans,灾难的机制"new"geneformstoariseandspreadthroughpopulations.有丝分裂和减数分裂在传递遗传信息过程中各有优势;体细胞的繁殖就是父母本的克隆,其优势是保留了父母本的成功遗传信息,不需要特殊器官,比性复制快的多;但一个简单灾难性事件或疾病都可能摧毁一个细胞群体;性复制的优势是它提供了遗传可变性和现存排除有害突变的机制;也可以产生新的基因并在种群中蔓延;课后作业：第一篇阅读材料答案：1C,2B,3D,4B,5A,6DGlossarymitosis有丝分裂Processthatresultsinequalandidenticaldistributionofrepli catedchromosomesintotwonewlyformednuclei.meiosis减数分裂Theprocessbywhichanucleusdividesintofourdaughternuclei,eachc ontaininghalfthenumberofchromosomesoftheparentnucleus. histone组蛋白Oneofagroupofsimpleproteinsthathaveahighcontentofthebasi caminoacidsarginineorlysineandarefoundassociatedwithnucleica cidsinthechromatinofeukaryoticcells.nucleosome核小体,togetherwithabout140basepairsofDNAcoiledaroundit. chromatin染色质,mostoftheproteinbeinghistone.karyotype核型,染色体组型, Theappearanceofthechromosomecomplementofanorganismorcell. homologouspair同源染色体对二倍体Anynucleus,cell,ororganismthatpossessestwicethehaploidnumber ofchromosomes.haploid单倍体Anynucleus,cell,ororganismthatpossessesasinglesetofunpairedc hromosomes,interphasecycle分裂间期周期Inacellpreparingtoduplicate,theinterphasestagecandividedinto aperiodofinitialgrowthG1,aperiodofDNAsynthesisS,andasecondgr owthperiodG2.chalone抑素Substancesfoundinmammaliantissuehomogenatesthat,whenapplie dtointacttissuecells,inhibitmitosis,particularlyinthepresenc eofadrenalineandcorticosteroids.prophase分裂前期Firststageofmitosis,duringwhichindividualchromosomesbeco mevisible.chromatid染色单体Areplicatedchromosomephysicallyattachedtoanidenticalchrom atidatthecentromere.centromere着丝粒Thesmallareaofachromosomethatdoesnotstainwithbasicdyesduri ngmitosisandmeiosis;atinterphaseitissinglewhiletherestofthec hromosomeismadeupoftwochromatids.metaphase分裂中期Secondstageinmitosis,duringwhichthechromosomesalignattheequa torialplane.spindle纺锤体Anarrayofmicrotubutesextendingfrompoletopoleandusedinthe movementofchromosomes.metaphaseplate赤道板,中期板Thegroupingofthechromosomesinaplaneattheequatorofthespin dleduringthemetaphasestageofmitosis.anaphase分裂后期Thethirdstageofmitosis,duringwhichthecentromeressplitandth echromosomesmovetothepoles.telophase分裂末期Laststageinmitosisduringwhichdaughternucleiareformed.cytokinesis胞质分裂Divisionofthecytoplasmofonecellintotwonewcells.cellplate细胞板Aplantcellstructurethatbeginstoforminthecenterofthecelland proceedstothecellmembrane,resultingincytokinesis.FoundationsofGenetics EarlyTheoriesofinheritaneeEarlyideasofinheritanceincludedHippocrates',:theyheldthath eritabletraitsofthetwoparentsblend,sothatthedistinctcharacte risticsofeacharelostinoffspring.遗传学的早期理论包括泛生说和种质理论;基于小鼠实验,维丝曼提出遗传信息储存在配子中并将遗传信息传递给后代;这两个早期观点合起来形成融合理论：子代拥有父母本混合的遗传特征,而不完全象亲代;GregorMendelandtheBirthofGeneticsGregorMendel,anAugustinianmonkinthemonasteryatBrunn,Austri a,isknownasthe"fatherofgenetics."Havingbeenexposedtotheories oftheparticulatenatureofmatterwhileauniversitystudentandhavi ngabackgroundinmathematics,.孟德尔,众所周知的遗传学之父,是一名修道士;当他还是大学生时就提出了物质的粒子属性;孟德尔进行了一系列周密安排的实验来证实遗传的颗粒性;直到他去世后,他的理论才被理解和接受;Mendel'sClassicExperimentsMendelstudiedgeneticsthroughplant-breedingexperimentswitht hegardenpea,aplantspeciesthatisself-fertilizingandbreedstrue eachoffspringisidenticaltotheparentinthetraitofinterest.Tote sttheblendingtheory,,suchasseedcolorandplantheight,presenton lytwo,,andfollowedtheresultsofeachcrossfortwogenerations.孟德尔通过豌豆实验研究遗传学,豌豆是自花授粉植物和纯品系;为验证融合理论,他的研究主要集中在7个特征上;例如,种子颜色,植株高度,这些特征只有两个明确的可能性;他记录了产生的每一个子代类型和数量,在杂交产生子2代;Foreachofthecharactershestudied,F2generation,theratioofdom inanttorecessivewas3:,,—itsphysicalappearanceandproperties-differsfromits genotype,.对于每个特征而言,要么显形,要么隐性;在子2代中显形与隐性比为3∶1;只有在每个个体仅拥有两个研究遗传单元,并每个单元来自一个亲代时,实验结果才成立;此遗传单元就是今天共识的等位基因;两个一样的等位基因决定一个特征,称纯合;相反,称杂合;当生物是杂合时,它的表型由显性基因决定;因此,生物的表型与基因型是不同的;旁纳特方格可以陈列所有可能的遗传组合;TheresultsofMendel'sexperimentsondominantandrecessiveinherit ancelettoMendel'sfirstlaw:分离定律,生物只遗传父母本等位基因对的一个等位基因;减数分裂期形成配子时两个等位基因分离;为验证此理论,他做了测交实验,即基因型未知的植物与纯合的隐性基因植物杂交;子代显性表型可以明确测得杂合基因或纯合基因的基因型; Mendel'sIdeasandtheLawofindependentAssortmentMendelalsoperformed dihybridcrosses,,'slawsis incompletedomi nance,,.双因子杂合试验,两个特征是如何相互影响遗传的;试验结果产生独自分配定律,即等位基因独立遗传;特例是,不完全显性;子代的表型是父母本的中间类型;不完全显性说明了两个等位基因对表型都有影响;,等位基因会继续分离;,.1866年,孟德尔在自然史上发表了他的科学论文,陈诉了他的观点;不幸的是,他的研究不被当时科学家接受;在1900年,他的着作再被发现利用;ChromosomesandMendelianGeneticsSoonafterMendel'sworkwasrediscovered,,',inwhichachromosome pairfailstosegregateduringmeiosis.孟德尔着作被再发现不久,WalterSutton和TheodorBoveri提出,遗传单位可能定位在染色体组上;伴性遗传又导致了不分离现象的发现,即在减数分裂中,染色体对不分离;课后作业：第一篇阅读材料答案：1C,2C,3A,4A,5B,6BGlossarypangenesis泛生论,泛生说Thetheoryofhereditypostulatingthatgerms,humours,oressence smigratefromindividualbodycellstothesexorgansandcontributeto thegametes.germplasmtheory种质学说Asubstancethoughttobetransmittedinthegametesgermcells. dominant显性Thememberofapairofallelesthatshowsitseffectinthephenotypew hateverotheralleleispresent.recessive隐形的Thememberofapairofallelesthatdoesnotshowitseffectinthepres enceofanyotherallelicpartner.allele等位基因Alternativeformsofageneforaparticularcharacteristic.,attac hedearlobegenesandfreeearlobegenesarealternativeallelesfor earshape.gene基因AunitofhereditylocatedonachromosomeandcomposedasequenceofDN Anucleotides.homozygous纯合的Adiploidorganismthathastwoidenticalallelesforparticularchara cteristic.heterozygous杂合的基因型Thecatalogofgenesofanorganism,whetherornotthesegenesareexp ressed.phenotype表型Thephysical,chemical,andpsychologicalexpressionofgenesposs essedbyanorganism.Punnettsquare旁纳特方格Amethodusedtodeterminetheprobabilitiesofcombinationinazygo te.lawofsegregation分裂定律Whengametesareformedbyadiploidorganism,theallelesthatcontr olatraitseparatefromoneanotherintodifferentgametes,retaining theirindividuality.testcross测交Acrossbetweenaheterozygoteofunknowngenotypeandanindividua lhomozygousfortherecessivegenesinquestion.dihybridcross双因子杂种,双因子杂合子独立分配定律,自由组合定律Membersofonegenepairwillseparatefromeachotherindependentl yofthemembersofothergenepairs.incompletedominance不完全显性Theconditioninwhichtwoallelicgeneshaveadifferenteffectwhe ntheyaretogetherasaheterozygoteinadiploidcellthaneitherofthe mhaveinthehomozygousstatenondisjunction不分离Thefailureofseparationofpairedchromosomesatmetaphase,.Discoveringthe Chemical NatureoftheGene GenesCodeforParticularProteinsThefirstscientisttoinvestigatethequestionofhowgenesaffectphe notypewasSirArchibaldGarrod,是第一个研究基因是如何影响表型的科学家,他对尿黑酸症的研究揭示了基因与酶之间的关系;Beadle和Ephrussi在三十年后对果蝇眼睛颜色的研究发现特殊基因与相关反应的生物合成有关;接着对面包发霉粗糙脉孢菌的突变试验得出一个基因一个酶的假说;他们的工作为其他工作者铺平了道路,即精确地阐明了酶影响了复杂的新陈代谢途径;在1949年,对镰刀状细胞贫血症的研究对一个基因一个酶的假说进一步上升为一个基因一个多肽; TheSearchfortheChemistryandMolecularStructureofnucleicAcids Nucleiacid,originallyisolatedbyJohannMiescherin1871,',MacL eod,在1871年,核酸最初是由JohannMiescher分离成功,并由Feulgen在1900年证实核酸是染色体组最基本的组成;FrederickGriffith对粗糙和光滑的肺炎球菌实验表明,不确定的某种物质可以从一组细菌转移到另一种细菌中;在1940年,确认该物质为DNA;四个碱基和磷酸分子分别连接在糖分子上,称核苷酸;DisagreementoverwhetherDNAcouldcarrycomplexgeneticinformat ionwasendedintheearly1950sbyMarthaChaseandAlfredHershey,,and notprotein,isthebearerofgeneticinformation.直到1950年,通过对大肠杆菌实验发现,遗传物质是DNA,而不是蛋白质;EachDNAnucleotidecontainsafive-carbonsugar,deoxyribose,att achedtooneoffourbases:adenine,guanine,cytosine,,每个核苷酸都含有一个五碳脱氧核糖,分别连接4个碱基,即：腺嘌呤,鸟嘌呤,胞嘧啶,胸腺嘧啶;碱基连接糖称核苷;磷酸键形成磷酸骨架;Chargaff’srulesdescribethefactthat1theamountofadenineiseq ualtotheamountofthymineinDNA,withamountofcytosineequaltothat ofguanine,and2theratiosofAtoTandofCtoGvarywithdifferentspeci es.1腺嘌呤与胸腺嘧啶,胞嘧啶与鸟嘌呤相等；2腺嘌呤与胸腺嘧啶,胞嘧啶与鸟嘌呤的比例随物种不同而不同; TheResearchRacefortheMolecularStructureofDNAInthelate1940sandearly1950s,researcherslookingforthestruct ureofDNAdrewuponChargaffsinsight,Levene'sideasonDNAcomponent s,,andtheotherwas X-raydiffraction photosofDNA,showingahelicalstructurewithdistancebetweenthecoils,takenbyFranklinandWilki ns.直到40年代末50年代初,研究者在寻求DNA结构过程中,确立了Chargaff的观点和,Levene的组成理论以及其他两个线索;一个是LinusPauling的假设,DNA可能具有螺旋结构,通过氢键连接;另一个是X-衍射图片,FranklinandWilkins提供;,whichalwaysoccurasA-TorG-C,.基于这些信息,Watson和Crick提出了双螺旋结构模型,成对的核苷酸通过氢键相连,遗传信息就贮藏在碱基对中; HowDNAReplicatesIntheirmodelofDNAstructureandfunction,WatsonandCrickhypoth esizedthatDNAreplicatesitselfby"unzipping",DNA进行复制是以拉链方式自我复制,产生的两个二分体分别为模板生成互补链,即半保留复制;并由Meselson和Stahl验证;'to3'directionfromthe5'carbonofonesugartothe3'carbonofthen ext.Theleadingstrandissynthesizedcontinuously,.intwodirectionsatoncefromhundredsorthousandsofpointsoforig in.大肠杆菌复制开始时形成泡样复制叉,链生长方向由5′向3′端,前导链连续生成,后随链由冈崎片段组成,由DNA聚合酶催化;真核生物复制与原核生物复制相似,但有几百到几千个复制原点原核一般只有一个复制原点;课后作业：第一篇阅读材料答案：1C,2C,3B,4A,5D,6D,7BGlossaryone-gene-one-enzymehypothesis一基因一酶假说,thishypothesishasbeenreplacedbytheone-gene-onepolypeptidehy pothesis.one-gene-one-polypeptidehypothesis一基因一多肽假说.adenine腺嘌呤Apurinebasethatisanessentialconstituentofthenucleicacidsanda lsoofsuchcoenzymesasNADandFAD.guanine鸟嘌呤.cytosine胞嘧啶.thymine胸腺嘧啶.purine嘌呤,whichareconstituentsofnucleicacidsandcoenzymes.pyrimidine嘧啶Aheterocyclicorganiccompound,.nucleoside核苷:cytidine,cytosinedeoxyriboside,thymidine,uridine,adenosine, adeninedeoxyriboside,guanosine,,uridine,adenosine,andguanosi neareribosides.X-raydiffractionX射线衍射,includingsomeimportantmacromolecules,.,DNA,haemoglobin,myog lobin.DNAdoublehelix双螺旋Thethree-dimensionalstructureofdoublestrandedDNA. semiconservativereplication半保留复制ThemethodofreplicationofDNAinwhichthemoleculedivideslongitud inally,eachhalfbeingconservedandactingasatemplatefortheforma tionofanewstrand.replicationfork复制叉ApointatwhichthetwostrandsofaDNAdoublehelixareunwoundandsepa ratedduringreplication.Okazakifragment冈琦片断AshortsequenceofDNAthatistheprimaryproductofDNApolymerasedur ingDNAreplication.polymerase DNA聚合酶AnenzymethatbringsnewDNAtriphosphatenucleotidesintopositionf orbondingonanotherDNAmolecule.The Originand DiversityofLife AHomeforLife:FormationoftheSolarSystemandPlanetEarthThestoryoflife',inturn,;theplanets,includingtheearth,'ssi ze,temperature,composition,.生命起源于地球的形成;大爆炸是我们行星形成的开始;太阳在50亿年前生成,位于太阳系中心,行星,包括地球,在46亿年前生成;地球由多层组成：坚硬的地壳,半流体的地幔,一个很大的溶解中心中存在一个坚实的中心;地球的基本特征使生命起源成为可能,包括行星的大小,温度,组成以及离太阳的距离;当前主要假设认为,由非生命的化学物质进化过程自发产生了生命;TheEmergenceoflife:OrganicandBiologicalMoleculesonaPrimitiv ePlanet,includingthepioneeringworkofMillerandUrey,havesuccessful lyproducedorganicmonomersincludingaminoacids,simplesugars,通过创造出地球早期的自然条件和化学资源条件,科学家在实验室中已经获得了化学有机体生命前阶段的证据;这些实验包括米勒等早期所做工作,成功地产出了有机单体,包括氨基酸,单糖,核酸碱基;这些单体自发的连接成多聚体,如类蛋白和核酸,使进入生命状态成为可能;这些聚合作用可能发生在泥土或岩石表面;Researchershavefoundthat,whenenergyisavailabletoasystem,,当一个系统获得能量时,可能发生3种有机分子的聚集;从多聚物的溶液中俄国科学家获得了富含小液滴的多聚物,即凝聚物;从氨基酸和水的混合液中Fox获得了类蛋白微球体;实验室第三个结构物质是脂质体,即由磷脂形成的球形脂双层结构;,whichcanformspontaneouslyunderconditionsmimickingthoseof theearlyearth,可能是地球早期形成的第一个贮藏信息的物质;在实验室模拟早期地球自然条件下其可自发形成;核酶的发现说明它可以催化早期核酸形成新的RNA;对于RNA物种而言,某些催化RNA具备类似于性交换的功能;Followingthedevelopmentofalipid-proteinsurfacelayerandrep licatingRNAandDNAinformationalmolecules,theeventsleadingtot heemergenceoflivingcellswouldhaveincludedtheoriginofthegene ticcode;thesequesteringofRNAorDNAintocell-likestructures;an dthedevelopmentofmetabolicpathways.接下来脂蛋白表层的形成,RNA的复制,DNA信息分子的形成,最终导致活细胞的出现,包括最初的遗传密码,RNA或DNA被包裹进细胞样的结构中；及代谢途径的建立;TheEarliestCells',,,.能说明活细胞存在的最古老化石大约有35亿年了;最早出现的细胞可能是厌氧异氧生物,自养生物很久后出现;最早的自养生物自己生产营养并释放氧气,这个新陈代谢副产品对后期生命的形成有一个深远的影响;臭氧层的出现减少了紫外线的渗透;结果,细胞就能够在浅水区和陆地上生存了;大气中氧气数量的增加使得需氧细胞进化并产生细胞呼吸,这预示着全球碳循环的开始;最早期的细胞都是原核生物,直到15亿年后,真核细胞才出现; TheChangingFaceofplanetEarthChangesinlandmasses,theseas,,solidcrustoverahot,semisolidm antleandaninner,';'sorbitandintheoutputofenergybythesun.大陆板快,海洋的改变,以及气候对地球生命的进化都有深远影响;地幔上大板快地壳的挤压形成大陆漂移;大陆漂移雕塑了地壳的外观,使现在大陆形成;伴随板块运动,气候改变对活有机体有深远影响;在特定时期的生物大量灭亡高峰是这个时期的见证;生物也受冰河期影响,在冰河期,地球轨道和太阳能的输出都发生了很大变化;Taxonomy:CategorizingtheVarietyoflivingThings生物学家利用林奈发展的双名法对生物分类;系统选定每个类型的生物进入属和种,然后将生物进一步分类更高级类别中,即科,目,纲,门,界;来自于生物化学和比较解剖学等亚生物学领域的证据有助于划分物种和更高级的分类单位,然而物种最初依据形态学特征进行分类的,今天生物学家大体上使用孤立多产的群体作为标准;.分类学揭示了物种间进化的大量关系;进化枝中的成员来自一个共同的祖先;TheFiveKingdoms:organismsaregroupedintothekingdomsMonera,Protista,Fungi,P lantae,,thekingdomsareprobablynotrueclades.进化系统树是进化关系的图解表现;教材中使用一个通用的5界：,,真菌,植物,动物;尽管这个系统是一个便利的组织工具,5界划分可能不是正确的进化枝;课后作业：第一篇阅读材料答案：1B,2A,3B,4C,5A,6CGlossaryBigBang大爆炸地壳。

大学生物专业英语教材IntroductionThe study of biology is crucial for students majoring in the field of life sciences. As part of their curriculum, college students studying biology are required to have a solid understanding of foundational concepts, theories, and terminology. An essential component of their education is the availability of a comprehensive and informative biology textbook written in English. In this article, we will explore the key features and requirements of an ideal college-level biology textbook for students majoring in biology.Section 1: Content OrganizationA well-designed biology textbook should have a well-structured organization to facilitate effective learning. It is essential to include comprehensive chapters that cover various subject areas within biology, such as cell biology, genetics, ecology, and physiology. Each chapter should provide a clear introduction, followed by in-depth explanations of concepts, supported by relevant examples and illustrations.Moreover, including detailed subheadings within each chapter will allow students to navigate through the textbook effortlessly. The subheadings could cover specific topics, subtopics, or key terms, enhancing the overall readability and making it easier for students to locate information quickly.Section 2: Language and TerminologyConsidering that the textbook caters to English-speaking students studying biology, it is crucial to use clear and concise language. To foster abetter understanding of complex scientific concepts, the textbook should avoid excessive jargon that could hinder comprehension.Throughout the textbook, the accurate usage of scientific terminology is paramount. It is advisable to incorporate a glossary at the end of the book, which provides definitions and explanations for key terms introduced within the text. The glossary will serve as a valuable reference tool, aiding students in grasping the meaning and significance of essential biology terms.Section 3: Visual AidsVisual aids play a pivotal role in enhancing the learning experience for biology students. The textbook should include a variety of visual elements, such as labeled diagrams, illustrations, graphs, and tables, to complement the written text. These visual aids not only break the monotony of continuous text but also enable students to visualize complex biological processes and concepts more effectively.Furthermore, it is essential to ensure that the visual aids are of high quality, clearly labeled, and accompanied by relevant explanations. This will promote a better understanding of the information presented, reinforcing the students' comprehension.Section 4: Practice ExercisesTo reinforce the students' understanding of the material, the textbook should provide ample practice exercises at the end of each chapter. These exercises can include multiple-choice questions, fill-in-the-blank questions, and short answer questions. By engaging in active learning through practiceexercises, students can assess their knowledge and identify areas of weakness that require further review.Additionally, the textbook should include answer keys or solutions to the practice exercises, either within the textbook or as a separate supplementary resource. This will enable self-assessment and facilitate independent learning for students, allowing them to gauge their progress and reinforce their understanding of the subject matter.ConclusionA well-designed biology textbook for college students majoring in biology should incorporate a logical and organized structure, clear language and terminology, visually appealing content, and practical exercises. By catering to the specific needs of biology students, such a textbook will provide the necessary resources for effective and successful learning in the field of biology.。

药理学的英语名词解释大全Pharmacology Glossary: A Comprehensive Guide to English Terminology in PharmacologyIntroduction:Pharmacology, a branch of medicine and biology, plays a crucial role in the discovery, development, and safe use of drugs. As a field that involves the study of how drugs interact with living organisms, pharmacology employs a wide range of specialized terms. In this article, we present a comprehensive glossary of English terminology in pharmacology, aiming to enhance understanding and facilitate communication within the field.1. Pharmacokinetics:Pharmacokinetics refers to the study of how drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and eliminated by the body. It encompasses processes such as drug absorption into the bloodstream, tissue distribution, transformation via metabolic pathways, and excretion.2. Pharmacodynamics:Pharmacodynamics relates to the study of the biochemical and physiological effects of drugs on the body. It examines the interaction between drugs and their target receptors, enzymes, or cellular signaling pathways, leading to therapeutic or toxic effects.3. Bioavailability:Bioavailability refers to the proportion of a drug that reaches the systemic circulation after administration, and thereby has an active effect. It is influenced by factors such as drug formulation, dosage form, route of administration, and first-pass metabolism.4. Half-life:The half-life of a drug is the time taken for its concentration in the body to decrease by half. It is an important parameter to determine the duration of action and dosing frequency of drugs. Drugs with a shorter half-life may require more frequent dosing to maintain therapeutic levels.5. Toxicity:Toxicity refers to the potential harmful effects of drugs on the body. It can range from mild and reversible side effects to severe organ damage or life-threatening conditions. Understanding the toxicity profile of drugs is essential for evaluating their safety and establishing appropriate dosage regimens.6. Efficacy:Efficacy describes the extent to which a drug produces the desired therapeutic effect. It represents the maximum achievable effect of a drug and is typically evaluated through clinical trials. Efficacy is distinct from potency, which refers to the dose required to produce a given effect.7. Drug interactions:Drug interactions occur when the effects of one drug are altered by the simultaneous presence of another drug, food, or substance. Interactions can result in enhanced or diminished therapeutic effects, adverse reactions, or changes in drug metabolism. It is crucial to assess and manage potential interactions during drug therapy.8. Pharmacogenetics:Pharmacogenetics investigates the influence of genetic variations on an individual's response to drugs. By studying genetic markers, researchers can better understand inter-individual differences in drug efficacy and toxicity. This field aims to guide personalized medicine by tailoring drug selection and dosage to an individual's genetic profile.9. Placebo effect:The placebo effect refers to the phenomenon where a patient experiences a perceived therapeutic benefit from an inactive substance or treatment. This effect underscores the importance of controlling for placebo responses in clinical trials when evaluating drug efficacy.10. Adverse drug reactions:Adverse drug reactions are undesired and harmful effects caused by drug administration. They can range from mild allergic reactions to severe conditions, including anaphylaxis or organ failure. Pharmacovigilance aims to identify, prevent, and manage adverse drug reactions to ensure patient safety.Conclusion:This comprehensive glossary provides a glimpse into the intricacies of pharmacology and its associated English terminology. By familiarizing themselves with these terms, healthcare professionals and researchers can enhance their communication and understanding of pharmacological concepts. As pharmacology continues to evolve, staying updated with the field's terminology becomes essential for driving advancements in drug discovery, development, and therapy.。

生命科学词典大全生命科学词典大全zt1. 通用词典：一个将多个在线词典集成起来的专业词典网站，很好！******：http://mirror.internux.co.id//:85/dictio6.htmOneLook *****/极好的网站，是一个词汇搜索引擎，找出一个词在各个词典中的解释，给出链接。

/dictionary.html; *****有140000个条目，优点在于搜索一个词的时候它会同时找出相关的词，如搜索plasmid ，同时会给出transfection、lysogenic、recombinant DNA technology、episome、vector、conjugation郑州大学的在线英汉、汉英科技大词典：/zzjdict/2. 生物学英汉生物学词汇（繁体）http://www.cmi.hku.hk/Ref/Glossary/Bio/a.htm这是香港大学的生物学词汇，具体的翻译名词可能稍有不同，应该差异不大。

生命科学词典（ya_hoo战友曾经推荐）/search/dict-search.html; *****包括生态学、湖沼学、湖泊学、药理学、药物学、生物工艺学、医学等方面的专业术语，词汇量约8300Paul博士的生物学词典/~pdecell/bio122/words/scanner.htmlKimball's Biology Pages ****/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/一个相当好的网站，不仅仅是解释，还有相关链接、图片、分子结构式等。

生物学词典/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookgloss.html/dictionary.asp1800个词汇UCMP 的生物学字典/glossary/glossary.html包括Biochemistry, Botany, Cell Biology, Ecology, Geology, Life History, Phylogenetic s, Zoology/nv/biology/dictionary.html生物学词汇/~ssmith/thesis/node93.html编排地不好，不多生物技术缩略词词典****/~molbio/bioABACUShome.htm非常棒！生物学词汇中的前后缀字典**/academics/dept/biology/bioterms.htm不多，挺有用，建议看看英日生物学词典b.nig.ac.jp/WebLSD/lookup.html学日语的同学可以看看生物技术与食品词汇集/~foodsaf/wi008.html; （A-M）/~foodsaf/wi008a.html; （N-Z)词汇量600基因组学词汇表***/TechResources/Human_Genome/glossary/; 英英，可下载词汇表基因专业词汇****/Terms/Glossary/findterm.htm细胞与分子生物学词典(第三版) （ya_hoo战友曾经推荐）*****/dictionary/该词典囊括了现代细胞与分子生物学领域最新出现的专业名词，词汇量超过7000，非常适合学生与专业人士查阅。

Acceptor splice site？？The boundary between the 3’end of an intron and the 5’end of the following exon. Also called 3’splice site.剪接受体位点：内含子3′末端与下一个外显子5′端之间的交界处。

又称3′剪接位点。

Acrocentric？？A type of chromosome with the centromere near one end. The human acrocentric chromosomes (13, 14, 15, 21, and 22) have satellited short arms that carry genes for ribosomal RNA.近端着丝粒（染色体）：着丝粒位于接近染色体臂端部的染色体。

人类近端着丝粒染色体（第13、14、15、21和22号）短臂的随体携带有编码核糖体RNA的基因。

Adverse selection？？A term used in the insurance industry to describe the situation in which individuals with private knowledge of having an increased risk for illness, disability, or death buy disproportionately more coverage than those at a lower risk. As a result, insurance premiums, which are based on averaging risk across the population, are inadequate to cover future claims.逆向选择：保险业的专有名词，指投保人知晓其有较高的患病、残疾或死亡风险，但隐瞒真相购买相关保险。