Language Variation

英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编15(总分：52.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、简答题(总题数：26，分数：52.00)1.Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue? Support your argument with Cooperative Principle.（南开大学2004研)A: When is the bus coming?B: There has been an accident further up the road.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：On the face of it, B violated the maxim of relation since he did not provide a direct answer to A"s question. But A would assume that B is cooperative in the conversation, and would try to explore the link between the seemingly irrelevant response to something relevant. Thus, A would interpret B"s utterance in such a way that because there had been as accident further up the road, it was quite possible that the road was blocked; in a consequence, the bus would not be able to come.)解析：2.Analyze the following dialogue with reference to Grice"s Cooperative Principle.(北二外2005研)A: Oh I like this popular song so much How about you?B: I often hear classical music, especially, the symphonies composed by Beethoven His Symphony No. 9 is my favorite.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：B has obviously violated Maxim of Relation; A was asking B"s opinion about a particular popular song, but B"s response was actually about classical music. By such a violation, B probably wanted to imply that he did not like that popular song.)解析：3.In what ways do people cooperate in their conversations?(人大2006研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：In daily conversations people do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them, and according to Grice, they seem to observe willingly or unwillingly certain principle, which is called "cooperative principle" : "Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged". Under this principle, there are four maxims, namely, Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner.)解析：4.What is sociolinguistics?（北航2008研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users. It studies the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.)解析：解析：（本题考查社会语言学的定义。

chapter 7Ⅱ. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c_________.2. Speech v_________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.3. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a d_________ variety ofa language.4. Language standardization is also called language p_________.5. Social variation gives rise to s_________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.6. S_________ variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.7. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or o_________ language of a country.8. The standard language is a s_________, socially prestigious dialect of language.9. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or v_________ languages.10. A pidgin typically lacks in i_________ morphemes.11. Linguistic taboo reflects s_________ taboo.12. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments and has no l_________ basis.13.The four-letter words like “hell”, “shit” in English are called_________ .14.The process from pidgin to Creole is called .15.The term _________was first put forward by linguist Feuguson.16. _________is the type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.17.British educational sociologist_________ first made the distinction between elaborated code and restricted code.18. _________is a neutral term, and it can be used instead of regional dialect, social dialect, or pidgin.19.Linguist _________published his paper “The social stratification of English in New Y ork City” in 1966.20.L.L. Zamenhof invented the artificial language .21.Gumperz divided code switching into situational code switching and_________.22. _________is the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within the overall system of a particular language.Ⅲ.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech ommunities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Historical linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its _____.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. ____ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6. _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. V ariation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. taboo11. The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society is called _______.A. SociolinguisticsB. NeurolinguisticsC. MacrolinguisticsD. Microlinguistics12. Which of the followings doesn’t belong to dialectal varieties? _______.A. Regional dialectsB. SociolectC. IdiolectD. Diglossia13. The dialect which is cause by social status is _______.A. regional dialectsB. sociolectC. idiolectD. diglossia14. Standard dialect is _______.A. designated as the official or national language of a countryB. a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialectC. used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposeD. used by people who belong to the higher social status15. Sometimes, two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. This phenomenon is ______.A. bilingualismB. diglossiaC. pidginD. creole16. Which of the followings does NOT constitute the reason for regional dialect?A. Geographical barrier.B. Loyalty to one’s native speech.C. The existence of standard dialect.D. Physical and psychological resistance to change.17. Which of the following statements is not the concern of sociolinguists?A. The language a person uses reveals his social background.B. There exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion.C. How does the human mind work when they use language.D. To investigate the social aspects of language.18. The word “language” is someti mes used to refer to the whole of a person’s language. This is called ________.A. scientific languageB. idiolectC. colloquial languageD. formal language19. The form of a given language used in a certain geographical space is called ______.A. styleB. dialectC. registerD. pidgin20. According to Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which of the following is NOT true?A. Different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.B. Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences.C. Language patterns determine or influence people’s thinking and behavior.D. Language structure people habitually uses hows no influence on people’s behavior.21. Which of the following about the relationship between language and culture is NOT true?A. Language use is tinted with its culture.B. Language expresses cultural reality.C. The relationship is analogous to that of structures and processes.D. The relationship of language to cultures that of part to whole.22. The famous line “My love is a red, red rose”, stirs up vividly the imagination of a beautifullady. This is the ________meaning of “rose”.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. iconicD. dictionary23. The meaning that can be found in the dictionaries the _______ meaning of a word.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. iconicD. culture24. In English, “green” in the phrase “green-eyes” is associated with _______.A. unhappy feelingsB. high social positionsC. envy or jealousyD. negative qualities25. France has made special efforts to protect its language from being corrupted by other languages especially American English. This is a kind of ______.A. linguistic imperialismB. linguistic nationalismC. cultural imperialismD. cultural diffusion26. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is about_______.A. language and thoughtB. language and translationC. grammatical structureD. second language acquisition27. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is also known as linguistic ________.A. reliabilityB. relativityC. reversibilityD. reach ability28. Which of the following statements about nonverbal communication is NOT true?A. Nonverbal communication and culture are similar in that both are learned, both are passed on from generation to generation, and both involve shared understandings.B. Studying nonverbal behavior can lead to the discovery of a culture’s underlyi ng attitudes and values.C. Nonverbal actions always occur in isolation.D. Nonverbal communication has five basic functions: to repeat, to complement, to substitute for a verbal action, to regulate, and to contradict a communication event.29. Which statement is NOT right in describing the behaviorists’ view?A. Behaviorists view stresses imitation, stimulation and reinforcement.B. Behaviorists offer a reasonable account of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects of the language.C. Behaviorists hold that children learn the language gradually in much the same way as habit-forming.D. Behaviorists’ accounts are convincing especially when it is used to explain children’s acquiring complex system.30. According to Chomsky, the Universal Grammar is ______.A. got through imitation and practiceB. acquired through the interaction with the environmentC. pre-equipped in children’s brainsD. gained specifically for each language31. Which of the following statement is true?A. All normal children plays equal ability in learning their first language.B. Linguistic environment plays an important role in first language learning.C. A child can begin his first language acquisition at any time.D. It is easy for parents to teach their children grammar.32. The child may get confused at hearing the color of white used for paper when he/she first thought is as the word for snow. This is an example for ______.A. under-extensionB. over-extensionC. hearing impairmentD. mental retardation33. Around the age of two, children begin to produce two-word utterances such as “mommy sock”, which of the following statements about this is NOT true. (B)A. This kind of speech is called telegraphic speech.B. This kind of speech is called caretaker talk.C. There are content words in the speech.D. There are not function elements in the speech.34. The children know the taboo words, the polite forms of address during______. (A)A. Pragmatic developmentB. Atypical developmentC. Grammatical developmentD. V ocabulary development35. The theory of universal grammar was proposed by _______.A. Noam ChomskyB. FirthC. F.D. Saussure D. Sapir。

英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。

nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。

In the vast expanse of China,the cultural and linguistic differences between the northern and southern regions are as vast as the landscapes they inhabit.These differences are not only evident in the dialects spoken but also in the customs,cuisine, and even the way of life.Lets delve into the nuances that make the northern and southern regions of China so distinct.Cultural Heritage:The northern part of China has a rich history that dates back to the ancient dynasties.It is home to the Great Wall,a symbol of Chinas strength and resilience.The culture here is deeply rooted in tradition,with a strong emphasis on family values and respect for elders. In contrast,the southern regions,with their warmer climate and fertile lands,have developed a culture that is more open to external influences,particularly from the sea. This has led to a more diverse and cosmopolitan culture.Language Variations:The linguistic differences are quite pronounced.Mandarin,the official language,is spoken with a Beijing accent in the north,which is considered the standard pronunciation. However,as you travel south,the dialects become more varied and complex,such as the Cantonese spoken in Guangdong province,which is vastly different from Mandarin and is considered a language in its own right.Cuisine:The culinary traditions of the north and south are as distinct as the people themselves. Northern cuisine is hearty and focuses on wheatbased dishes like noodles and dumplings, reflecting the colder climate and the agricultural produce of the region.In contrast, southern cuisine is lighter and more varied,with an emphasis on rice,seafood,and a wide array of fresh vegetables and fruits,indicative of the regions abundant produce and warmer climate.Climate and Lifestyle:The climate plays a significant role in shaping the lifestyle of the people in these regions. The north experiences harsh winters,which has led to a lifestyle that is more focused on indoor activities and community gatherings.The south,with its milder and wetter climate, encourages outdoor activities and a more relaxed pace of life.Economic Development:Economically,the southern regions have been more open to foreign trade and investment, especially since the economic reforms of the late20th century.This has led to a more dynamic and diverse economy,with a strong presence of manufacturing and technology industries.The northern economy,while also growing,has traditionally been morefocused on heavy industry and agriculture.Educational Attitudes:Education is highly valued in both regions,but the approach and emphasis may differ. The northern regions often place a strong emphasis on academic achievement and traditional subjects,while the south may have a more balanced approach,incorporating a wider range of disciplines and encouraging creativity and innovation.Social Interactions:Social interactions in the north are often characterized by directness and a certain formality,reflecting the influence of the imperial past.In the south,interactions may be more fluid and flexible,with an emphasis on building relationships and networking.In conclusion,the differences between the north and south of China are as diverse as the landscapes they inhabit.From the ancient traditions of the north to the vibrant modernity of the south,these regions offer a rich tapestry of experiences and perspectives that contribute to the unique cultural mosaic of China.Understanding these differences can provide a deeper appreciation for the complexity and beauty of Chinese society.。

语言学词汇分类汇总（按字母顺序排列）abbreviation缩写法acculturation语言文化移入acoustic phonetics声学语言学acronym词首字母缩略词address term称谓语addresser发话人addressee受话人adjacency毗邻Adjacency Condition毗邻条件Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数Affix词缀Affixation加词缀法Affricate塞擦音Afro-asiatic非亚语系agreement rule一致关系规则allophone音位变体alveolar齿龈音alveolus齿龈angular gyrus角形脑回antonymy反义现象antonym反以词apocope词尾音脱落aphasia失语症aphasic失语症患者applied linguistics应用语言学arbitrariness任意性argument论元articulatory phonetics发音语音学articulatory variable发音变项aspiration送气assimilation同化approximation近似化auditory phonetics听觉语音学Austronesian…语系Babbling咿呀学语back-formation逆向构词法back vowel后元音Behaviorism行为主义Behaviorist learning theory行为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology行为主义心理学Bilabial双唇音Bilingualism双语现象Black English黑人英语Blending混合法Borrowing借用bound morpheme黏着语素brain lateralization大脑左右半球侧化branching node分叉点broad transcription宽式音标Broca’s area布罗卡区caretaker speech保姆语case格Case Condition格条件case marking格标志causative verb使役动词central vowel中元音cerebral cortex大脑皮层cerebral plasticity大脑弹性channel渠道classical language古典语言clipping略写法closed class word封闭类词code代码code-switching代码切换cognate同源词co-hyponyms并列下义词coinage创新词color word色彩词combinational rule组合规则commissives承诺类communicative competence交际能力comparative reconstruction比较重建法competence语言能力complement补语complement construction补足语complementarity互补性反义现象complementary distribution互补分布complex sentence复合句componential analysis成分分析法components of meaning意义成分compound word复合词compounding复合法computational linguistics计算语言学concept概念conceptualist view意念观consonant辅音constituent成分constituent structure成分结构constraint制约construction结构content word实词context语境;上下文contextualism语境论Contrastive Analysis对比分析法conversational implicature会话含义co-operative principle合作原则coordinate sentence并列句creativity创造性critical period关键期;临界期cultural transmission文化传播declaration宣告类deep structure深层结构dental齿音derivation派生法derivational morpheme派生语素derivative派生词descriptive linguistics描写语言学design feature识别特征determiner限定词diachronic linguistics历时语言学diacritics变音符号dialect方言dialectal synonym方言同义词dichotic listening test两耳分听测试diglossia双言现象diphthong复合元音Directionalilty Parameter方位参数Directives指令类Displacement不受时空限制的特性distinctive feature区别性特征D-structure深层结构duality of structur结构二重性e double articulation结构二重性embedded clause子句emotive meaning表情意义entailment含义entity实体epenthesis插入音Error Analysis错误分析法euphemism委婉语evaluative meaning评价意义expressives表达类factive predicate叙述性谓词family tree谱系树feature symbol特征标记features of meaning意义特征finite clause定式字句finite verb定式动词formalize形式化fossilization语言僵化framework框架free morpheme自由语素fricative擦音front vowel前元音function word虚词functional shift功能性转换functor element起功能作用成分gender性Generative Grammar生成语法Generative Semantics生成语义学genetic predispotion基因先天条件genetic relationship亲缘关系glide滑音glottal喉音glottis声门graddabl opposites可分等级的反义词grammaticality语法性grammatical meaning语法意义Great V owel Shift元音大变位hard palate硬腭head核心词hemispheric dominance for language大脑半球的语言优势hierarchical structure层次结构high variety高层次变体historical comparative linguistics历史比较语言学historical linguistics历史语言学holophrastic sentence独词句homography同形homonymy同音异义；同形异义homophony同音异义hyponymy下义关系hyponym下义词idiolect个人语言特点illocutionary act言外形为inconsistency自相矛盾Indo-European印欧语系infinitive marker不定式标记inflection曲折变化inflectional morpheme曲折语素input输入instrumental motivation工具性学习动机intake接受integrativ emotivation介入性学习动机interference干扰interlanguage语际语internalize内在化International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标interpersonmal communication人际交际intuition语调labeled (unlabeled) tree diagram加标记树形图labial唇音LAD语言习得机制language acquisition语言习得language behavior语言行为language center语言中枢language faculty语言机制language family语系language perception语言感知language planning语言规划language variation语言变异larynx喉lax vowel松元音level层；平面level of language语言层次lexical category词类lexical structure词汇结构lexicology词汇学lexicon词汇linear structure线性结构linguistic competence语言能力linguistic determinism语言决定论linguistic lateralization语言侧化linguistic performance语言运用linguistic relativism语言相对论linguistic repertoire全部语言变体linguistic taboo禁忌语linguistics语言学liquid流音loan word外来词localization定位locutionary act言内行为low variety低层次变体manner of articulation发音方法matrix clause主句maxim of manner方式准则maxim of quality质量准则maxim of quantity数量准则maxim of relation关联准则meaning意义meaningfulness有意义meaning relation意义关系mentalism心理主义mentalistic theory精神论message信息metathesis语音变位Middle English中世纪英语minimal pair最小对立对Modern English现代英语Monophthong单元音Morpheme词素morphlogical rule形态学规则morphology形态学mother tongue母语Move α移动α规则movement rule移位规则naming theory命名论narrow transcription严式音标narrowing of meaning词义缩小nasal cavity鼻腔nasality鼻音化nasalize鼻音化natural route of development自然发展轨道negator否定词neurolinguist神经语言学家neuron神经元no-place predication空位述谓结构object宾语Old English古英语one-place predication一位述谓结构optimum age最佳学习年龄oral cavity口腔overextension扩展过度overgeneralization概括过度overt thought有声思维palatal腭音paralinguistic副语言学的parameter参数performance语言运用performance error语言运用错误perlocutionary act言后行为pharyngeal cavity咽腔phone音素phoneme音位phonemic contrast音位对立phonetic feature语音特征phonetics语音学phonological rule音位规则phonology音位学phrasal category词组类phrase structure rule短语结构规则pidgin洋泾浜语place of articulation发音部位plosive爆破音polysemy多义性postpone后移prepose前移postvocalic元音后的pragmatics语用学predicate谓语predication述谓结构predication analysis述谓结构分析prefix前缀presprictive (grammar)规定语法presupposition前提proposition命题prepositional content命题内容protolanguage原始语psycholinguistics心理语言学puberty青春期qualifying predication修饰性述谓结构Received Pronunciation标准发音Recursiveness循环性Reference所指语义referring expression所指名词register语域relational opposites关系反义词representation表达；呈现representatives阐述类response反应retroflex卷舌音rewrite rule重写规则rounded vowel圆唇元音SAE标准美国英语sapir-Whorf hypothesis…假设second language acquisition第二语言习得segment切分成分semantic anomaly语义异体semantic deviation语义变异semantic broadening语义广义化semantic narrowing语义狭义化semantic shift语义演变semantics语义学semantic structure语义结构semantic triangle语义三角sense意义sequential rule序列规则setting背景；环境sexist language性别歧视语sibilant咝音simple sentence简单句Sino-Tibetan汉藏语系situational dialect语域方言sociolect社会方言sociolinguistics社会语言学soft palate软腭species-specific capacity物种特有能力specifier指示语spectrograph频谱仪speech act言语行为speech community言语社区speech variety言语变体S-structure表层结构standard language标准语stem词干stimulus刺激stop爆破音stress重音structural constituency结构成分性structural linguistics结构主义语言学subject主语subordinate predication主从述谓性结构subscript下标subvocal predication无声言语suffix后缀superordinate上坐标词suprasegmental feature超切分特征surface structure表层结构synchronic linguistics共时语言synonymy同义词syntactic ambiguity句法歧义syntactic category句法类型syntactic rule句法规则syntax句法taboo word禁忌词target language目标语tautology同义反复teeth ridge齿龈隆骨telegraphic speech电报式言语tense and aspect时和体tense vowel紧元音tone音调；声调tone language声调语言topic话题；主题transfer转移Transformational-Generative Grammar转换生成语法transformational rule转换规则tree diagram树形图two-place predication双位述谓结构unaspirated不送气underextension扩展不足Universal Grammar普遍语法Utterance话语utterance meaning话语意义uvula小舌validity有效性variable变项velar软腭音velum软腭vernacular本地话；本国语vocal cord声带voiced浊音化的voiceless不带音的，清音的voicing带音化，浊音化vowel元音Wernicke’s area韦尼克区widening of meaning词义扩大X-bar theory X标杆理论。

安徽大学本科教学课程教案
课程名称：英语语言学
代码：zh45006
开课单位：外语学院
授课教师：朱跃
职称/学位：教授/硕士
开课时间： 2008至2009学年第1学期
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第10 次课程教学方案。

多元文化语境中语言变体的社会语言学意义语言是随社会发展而不断发展变化的。

与社会文化相关的语言变体（language variation）,是社会语言学的基本研究范畴和重点。

社会语言学的重要任务是描述语言和社会结构的共变,其基本出发点是研究社会诸因素与语言的关系,从社会角度探索语言和社会共变的方式和规律,揭示语言的社会本质和差异。

一、社会语言学中语言变体及其意义英国语言学家赫德森（R.A.Hudson）把语言变体定义为社会分布相似的一套语言项目。

[1]对语言变体进行分类,最常见的是分为两大类：根据语言使用的社会群体将语言变体分为标准变体和非标准变体。

标准变体为整个社会群体所使用,通常以某种地域方言为基础,经过不断规范而逐渐形成；而非标准变体则往往属于特定社会群体的方言变体,是一个言语群体身份标志的显著特征。

语言变体主要通过四种形式表现出来：语音变体、词汇变体、词型变体、语法变体。

以美式英语为例,为适应快节奏生活,美语发音往往力求简单,如英语词尾为-our和-re,美语则为-or和-er,英语的colour、centre、plough,美语则为color、center、plow。

词汇与词型变体如bug一词,在英语中专指臭虫,美语则泛指虫子,保留了该词的原意。

不同语言变体的语法结构亦有所不同,如我什么也做不了：I can not do anything.（用于正式场合的标准英语）或I can do nothing.（用于非正式场合）；你有词典吗？：Do you have a dictionary？（AmE）或Have you a dictionary？（BrE）。

在多种功能中,语言变体最为基本的功能是最大限度地满足交际需求,一旦交际需求发生变化,其社会心理及语言形式也会发生相应变化。

由此可见,语言变体并无好坏优劣、高低等级之分,人们有可能根据交际需要选择不同的语言变体来增进社会认同和社会交往。

我们只有充分认识和把握语言的交际功能及其社会性本质,才能优化对语言及其变体的理解,掌握其发展规律。

胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》测试题精华（附答案）胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society[注：第六章⽆测试题]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. __________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6. _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.12. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.13. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety” can no t be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping inf luence on his choice of linguistic features.16. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.17. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.18. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.19. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech __________.22. Speech __________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a __________ variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language __________.25. Social variation gives rise to __________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26. __________ variation in a person’s speec h or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or __________ language ofa country.28. The standard language is a __________, socially prestigious dialect of language.29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or __________ languages.30. A pidgin typically lacks in __________ morphemes.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Lingua franca32. Regional dialect33. Register34. SociolinguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Is American English superior to African English Why or why not （中国⼈民⼤学，2003）36. If we take it as rule that language is intimately related to culture, then how do the kinship words, such as uncle and aunt, reflect the cultural differences between English and Chinese （东北师范⼤学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)the differences between registers and regional/social dialects. Give examples if necessary. （东北师范⼤学，2005）答案~5 BCAAC 6~10 ~15 FTFFF 16~20 TFTFF. community 22. variety23. dialectal . sociolects 26. Stylistic27. official 28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectional. Lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. Regional dialect: Regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. Sociolinguistics: Defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the study of language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.English is not superior to African English. As different branches of English, African English and American English are equal. Similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. In China, Chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. So in Chinese there are a lot more kinship words than in English..(Omit.)Chapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is trueA. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.24. __________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means ofsyntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Explain the following remarks with examples or make some comments.“Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between t hem can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean (b) What did you mean by X” （东北师范⼤学，2006）36. Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue Support your argument with Cooperative Principle. （南开⼤学，2004）A: When is the bus coming？B: There has been an accident further up the road.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.Key:~5 DBCBA 6~10 ~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTT. context 22. utterance 23. abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary 27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantity. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can (given R).. Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant”and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant infor mation, A can work out that “an accident further up the road”conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of“when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when th e bus comes.”occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1) a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. The room was wanted for a meeting.(2) a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance.b. A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.c. That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is __________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of __________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is __________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally speaking, the __________ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion5. __________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative6. __________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague7. In Halliday’s view, the __________ function is the fun ction that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is __________.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane9. Chomsky follows __________ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism10. TG grammar has seen __________ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point ina linguistic structure.15. American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16. The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.17. American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.18. Chomsky’s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure’s concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure’s langue.19. Glossematics emphasizes the nature and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description.20. If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of __________ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between__________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was __________.24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the the ory behind his Functional Grammar is__________.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) __________ oriented functional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of __________.27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __________ Age.28. __________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG gra mmar is his __________ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a __________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP 32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics？36. What is behaviorism What is behaviorism in linguistics What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield Does behaviorism have any limitations If yes, what are they？VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Can you make a brief introduction to some important schools and their influential representatives in modern linguistics？Key:~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCC ~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTF. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-maker. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed. 34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.Chapter 7 Exercises for Language, Culture and SocietyI . Fill in the blanks.1. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or_________ , language.2. A speech _________ is a group of people who share the same language or a particular variety of language.3. Wherever the standard he’s). Black English can language can use a contraction (he + is _________ the form of “be”._________ superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.5. A_________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communities.6. A linguistic_________ refers to a word or the "polite" society from general use.7. Taboo and _________ are two faces of the same communicative coin.8. Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on _________.9. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the _________ attitude connoted in the language that is sexist.10. An ethnic _______(dialect is spoken mainly by a less experienced privileged population that has experienced some sort of social isolation, such as_________ discrimination.11. In terms of sociolinguistics, _________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person's language.12. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. Asa characteristic of societies, _________ inevitably results from the coming into cultures and different languages. (bilingualism)II. . Choose the best answer.13. _________ are language varieties for use in particular speech situations.A. SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varieties14. In sociolinguistics, _________ refers to situations typically constrained by a commonset of behaviour rules.A. domainB. . situationC. societyD. community15. _________ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country16. _________ variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal17. _________ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany18. _________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language19. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in __________ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending20. _________ is a causal use of language that nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, coinages and figures of speech.A. Language tabooB. SlangC. Address termsD. Register variety21. _________ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Ideolectal22. In a speech community people have something in common __________ a language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.A. sociallyB. linguisticallyC. culturallyD. pragmatically23. Probably the most wide-spread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is_________.A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English24. __________ in a language or a particular variety of language in a person's speech, or writing, usually ranges on a from casual to formal according to the type of communicative context.A. Regional variationB. American EnglishC. Stylistic variationD. Ideolectal variationII. . Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F]. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same speech situations known as domains.__________ 25. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situation known as domains._________ 26. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language._________ 27. The standardization of a particular dialect in relation to one or more vernaculars is the result of a deliberate governmental policy._________ 28. A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region._________ 29. When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he is converting one mode of thinking into the other._________ 30. Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language._________31. According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, speaker's perceptions deternune language and pattern their way of life._________ 32. Diglossia is a universal phenomenon._________ 33. Diglossia refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers._________ 34. The sentences "He crazy" and "He be sick all the time" are both acceptable in Black English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous features of Black English._________ 35. Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences of the same objective world according to their respective different linguistic coding system._________ 36. There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Explain the following terms.37. Register 38. Pigin39. Slang 40. Communicative competence41. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 42 . Lingua franca43. Diglossia 44. Sociolect45. Sociolinguistics 46. Speech community47. Standard language 48: Speech variety questions.V. Answer the following questions.49. What is the difference official language？50. What distinction, if any, can you draw between standard language, national languageKeysI . Fill in the blanks.1. vernacular2. community3. delete4. standard5. creole6. taboo7. euphemism8. language9. social 10. racial 11. idiolect 12. bilingualismII . Choose the best . C 14. A 15. A 16. A 17. D19. C 20. B 21. A 22. B 23. C 24. DIII. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [ F ] .25. [F] They have a fairly clear functional differentiation, i. e. one language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.26. [F] It is not justifiable to say that one variety of a language is better than any other.27. [F] The standardization is not necessarily the result of a governmental policy, but of a historical and cultural tradition.28. [T]29. [F] When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages, he is making transitions between the two linguistic coding systems.30. [Tl,31.[F] The true statement is "According to the strong version of the Sapir?Whorf hypothesis, language determines speaker's perceptions and patterns their way of life.32. [F] Diglossia is not a universal phenomenon.33. [F] Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.34. [F] Only "he crazy" is acceptable in Black English vernacular because of copula deletion.35. [T] 36. [T]。