桥梁土木工程专业英语(道桥方向)

土木工程专业英语土木工程civil engineering 梁beam结构工程structural engineering 柱column环境工程environmental engineering 桥墩bridge piers超高层建筑ultrahigh-rise building 桥台abutment管道工程Pipine Engineering 摩天大楼skyscrapers抗压强度compressive strength 活性炭active carbon拱桥arch bridge 吊桥suspension bridge 斜拉桥cable-stayed bridge 梁板桥clapper bridge高层建筑hight rise building 剪力墙shear wall抗拉强度strength of extension 屈服强度yield strength承重墙bearing-wall 幕墙curtain wall钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete 隔墙partition预应力混凝土prestressed concrete 电梯elevatorThe word civil derives from the latin for citizen. in 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work form that of the military who predominated at the time .since then, the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the filed is much broader土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。

专业英语English article in Civil Engineering (土木工程专业英语课文)Lesson1Careers in Civil EngineeringEngineering is a profession, which means that an engineer must have a specialized university education. Many government jurisdictions also have licensing procedures which require engineering graduates to pass an examination, similar to the bar examination for a lawyer, before they can actively start on their careers.specialized专门的, 专科的 jurisdiction管辖权，权限 license许可（证），执照 bar 律师业土木工程是一个意味着工程师必须要经过专门的大学教育的职业。

许多政府管辖部门还有（一套）认证程序，这一程序要求工科毕业生在他们能积极地开始（从事）他们的事业之前，通过（认证）考试, 这种考试类似于律师职业里的律师考试一样。

In the university, mathematics, physics, and chemistry are heavily emphasized throughout the engineering curriculum, but particularly in the first two or three years. Mathematics is very important in all branches of engineering, so it is greatly stressed. Today, mathematics includes courses in statistics, which deals with gathering, classifying, and using numerical data, or pieces of information.mathematics n.数学 curriculum n.课程 branch n. (学科)分科 stress 强调 courses n.课程,路线statistics n. 统计学,统计 deal with涉及，处理An important aspect of statistical mathematics is probability, which deals with what may happen when there are different factors, or variables, that can change the results of a problem. Before the construction of a bridge is undertaken, for example, a statistical study is made of the amount of traffic (which) the bridge will be expected to handle. In the design of the bridge, variables such as water pressure on the foundation, impact, the effects of different wind forces, and many other factors must be considered handleundertake vt.承担 amount of traffic n.交通量 impact碰撞，冲击 Variable 变量大学里, 工科课程中着重强调数学、物理, 和化学,尤其在开始的二到三年。

土木工程专业英语词汇(整理版)第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握第一部分：1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法2 专业英语 Specialty English3 水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering4 土木工程 Civil Engineering5 地下工程 Underground Engineering6 岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering7 道路工程 Road (Highway) Engineering8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering9 隧道工程 Tunnel Engineering10 工程力学 Engineering Mechanics11 交通工程 Traffic Engineering12 港口工程 Port Engineering13 安全性 safety17木结构 timber structure18 砌体结构 masonry structure19 混凝土结构concrete structure20 钢结构 steelstructure21 钢 - 混凝土复合结构 steel and concrete composite structure22 素混凝土 plain concrete23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete24 钢筋 rebar25 预应力混凝土 pre-stressed concrete26 静定结构statically determinate structure27 超静定结构 statically indeterminate structure28 桁架结构 truss structure29 空间网架结构 spatial grid structure30 近海工程 offshore engineering31 静力学 statics32运动学kinematics33 动力学dynamics34 简支梁 simply supported beam35 固定支座 fixed bearing36弹性力学 elasticity37 塑性力学 plasticity38 弹塑性力学 elaso-plasticity39 断裂力学 fracture Mechanics40 土力学 soil mechanics41 水力学 hydraulics42 流体力学 fluid mechanics精品文库43 固体力学solid mechanics44 集中力 concentrated force45 压力 pressure46 静水压力 hydrostatic pressure47 均布压力 uniform pressure48 体力 body force49 重力 gravity50 线荷载 line load51 弯矩 bending moment52 扭矩 torque53 应力 stress54 应变 stain55 正应力 normal stress56 剪应力 shearing stress57 主应力 principal stress58 变形 deformation59 内力 internal force60 偏移量挠度 deflection61 沉降settlement62 屈曲失稳 buckle63 轴力 axial force64 允许应力 allowable stress65 疲劳分析 fatigue analysis66 梁 beam67 壳 shell68 板 plate69 桥 bridge70 桩 pile71 主动土压力 active earth pressure72 被动土压力 passive earth pressure73 承载力 load-bearing capacity74 水位 water Height75 位移 displacement76 结构力学 structural mechanics77 材料力学 material mechanics78 经纬仪 altometer79 水准仪level80 学科 discipline81 子学科 sub-discipline82 期刊 journal periodical83 文献literature84 国际标准刊号ISSN International Standard Serial Number精品文库85 国际标准书号ISBN International Standard Book Number86 卷 volume87 期 number88 专著 monograph89 会议论文集 Proceeding90 学位论文 thesis dissertation91 专利 patent92 档案档案室 archive93 国际学术会议 conference94 导师 advisor95 学位论文答辩 defense of thesis96 博士研究生 doctorate student97 研究生 postgraduate98 工程索引EI Engineering Index99 科学引文索引SCI Science Citation Index100 科学技术会议论文集索引ISTP Index to Science and Tec hnology Proceedings101 题目 title102 摘要 abstract103 全文 full-text104 参考文献 reference105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation106 主题词 Subject107 关键字 keyword108 美国土木工程师协会ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers109 联邦公路总署FHWA Federal Highway Administration110 国际标准组织ISO International Standard Organization111 解析方法 analytical method112 数值方法 numerical method113 计算 computation114 说明书 instruction115 规范 Specification Code第二部分：岩土工程专业词汇1.geotechnical engineering 岩土工程2.foundation engineering 基础工程3.soil earth 土4.soil mechanics 土力学5.cyclic loading 周期荷载6.unloading 卸载7.reloading 再加载8.viscoelastic foundation 粘弹性地基9.viscous damping 粘滞阻尼10.shear modulus 剪切模量精品文库11.soil dynamics 土动力学12.stress path 应力路径13.numerical geotechanics 数值岩土力学二.土的分类1.residual soil 残积土 groundwater level 地下水位2.groundwater 地下水 groundwater table 地下水位3.clay minerals 粘土矿物4.secondary minerals 次生矿物ndslides 滑坡6.bore hole columnar section 钻孔柱状图7.engineering geologic investigation 工程地质勘察8.boulder 漂石9.cobble 卵石10.gravel 砂石11.gravelly sand 砾砂12.coarse sand 粗砂13.medium sand 中砂14.fine sand 细砂15.silty sand 粉土16.clayey soil 粘性土17.clay 粘土18.silty clay 粉质粘土19.silt 粉土20.sandy silt 砂质粉土21.clayey silt 粘质粉土22.saturated soil 饱和土23.unsaturated soil 非饱和土24.fill (soil) 填土25.overconsolidated soil 超固结土26.normally consolidated soil 正常固结土27.underconsolidated soil 欠固结土28.zonal soil 区域性土29.soft clay 软粘土30.expansive (swelling) soil 膨胀土31.peat 泥炭32.loess 黄土33.frozen soil 冻土24.degree of saturation 饱和度25.dry unit weight 干重度26.moist unit weight 湿重度45.ISSMGE=International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 国际土力学与岩土工程学会精品文库四.渗透性和渗流1.Darcy’s law 达西定律2.piping 管涌3.flowing soil 流土4.sand boiling 砂沸5.flow net 流网6.seepage 渗透（流）7.leakage 渗流8.seepage pressure 渗透压力9.permeability 渗透性10.seepage force 渗透力11.hydraulic gradient 水力梯度12.coefficient of permeability 渗透系数五.地基应力和变形1.soft soil 软土2.(negative) skin friction of driven pile 打入桩（负）摩阻力3.effective stress 有效应力4.total stress 总应力5.field vane shear strength 十字板抗剪强度6.low activity 低活性7.sensitivity 灵敏度8.triaxial test 三轴试验9.foundation design 基础设计10.recompaction 再压缩11.bearing capacity 承载力12.soil mass 土体13.contact stress (pressure)接触应力（压力）14.concentrated load 集中荷载15.a semi-infinite elastic solid 半无限弹性体16.homogeneous 均质17.isotropic 各向同性18.strip footing 条基19.square spread footing 方形独立基础20.underlying soil (stratum strata)下卧层（土）21.dead load =sustained load 恒载持续荷载22.live load 活载23.short –term transient load 短期瞬时荷载24.long-term transient load 长期荷载25.reduced load 折算荷载26.settlement 沉降27.deformation 变形28.casing 套管精品文库29.dike=dyke 堤（防）30.clay fraction 粘粒粒组31.physical properties 物理性质32.subgrade 路基33.well-graded soil 级配良好土34.poorly-graded soil 级配不良土35.normal stresses 正应力36.shear stresses 剪应力37.principal plane 主平面38.major (intermediate minor) principal stress 最大（中、最小）主应力39.Mohr-Coulomb failure condition 摩尔-库仑破坏条件40.FEM=finite element method 有限元法41.limit equilibrium method 极限平衡法42.pore water pressure 孔隙水压力43.preconsolidation pressure 先期固结压力44.modulus of compressibility 压缩模量45.coefficent of compressibility 压缩系数pression index 压缩指数47.swelling index 回弹指数48.geostatic stress 自重应力49.additional stress 附加应力50.total stress 总应力51.final settlement 最终沉降52.slip line 滑动线六.基坑开挖与降水1 excavation 开挖（挖方）2 dewatering （基坑）降水3 failure of foundation 基坑失稳4 bracing of foundation pit 基坑围护5 bottom heave=basal heave （基坑）底隆起6 retaining wall 挡土墙7 pore-pressure distribution 孔压分布8 dewatering method 降低地下水位法9 well point system 井点系统（轻型）10 deep well point 深井点11 vacuum well point 真空井点12 braced cuts 支撑围护13 braced excavation 支撑开挖14 braced sheeting 支撑挡板七.深基础--deep foundation1.pile foundation 桩基础1)cast –in-place 灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile 沉管灌注桩bored pile 钻孔桩special-shaped cast-in-place pile 机控异型灌注桩piles set into rock 嵌岩灌注桩rammed bulb pile 夯扩桩2)belled pier foundation 钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation 钻孔扩底墩under-reamed bored pier3)precast concrete pile 预制混凝土桩4)steel pile 钢桩steel pipe pile 钢管桩steel sheet pile 钢板桩5)prestressed concrete pile 预应力混凝土桩prestressed concrete pipe pile 预应力混凝土管桩2.caisson foundation 沉井（箱）3.diaphragm wall 地下连续墙截水墙4.friction pile 摩擦桩5.end-bearing pile 端承桩6.shaft 竖井；桩身7.wave equation analysis 波动方程分析8.pile caps 承台（桩帽）9.bearing capacity of single pile 单桩承载力teral pile load test 单桩横向载荷试验11.ultimate lateral resistance of single pile 单桩横向极限承载力12.static load test of pile 单桩竖向静荷载试验13.vertical allowable load capacity 单桩竖向容许承载力14.low pile cap 低桩承台15.high-rise pile cap 高桩承台16.vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile 单桩抗拔极限承载力17.silent piling 静力压桩18.uplift pile 抗拔桩19.anti-slide pile 抗滑桩20.pile groups 群桩21.efficiency factor of pile groups 群桩效率系数（η）22.efficiency of pile groups 群桩效应23.dynamic pile testing 桩基动测技术24.final set 最后贯入度25.dynamic load test of pile 桩动荷载试验26.pile integrity test 桩的完整性试验27.pile head=butt 桩头28.pile tip=pile point=pile toe 桩端（头）29.pile spacing 桩距30.pile plan 桩位布置图31.arrangement of piles =pile layout 桩的布置32.group action 群桩作用33.end bearing=tip resistance 桩端阻34.skin(side) friction=shaft resistance 桩侧阻35.pile cushion 桩垫36.pile driving(by vibration) （振动）打桩37.pile pulling test 拔桩试验38.pile shoe 桩靴39.pile noise 打桩噪音40.pile rig 打桩机九.固结 consolidation1.Terzzaghi’s consolidation theory 太沙基固结理论2.Barraon’s consolidation theory 巴隆固结理论3.Biot’s consolidation theory 比奥固结理论4.over consolidation ration (OCR)超固结比5.overconsolidation soil 超固结土6.excess pore water pressure 超孔压力7.multi-dimensional consolidation 多维固结8.one-dimensional consolidation 一维固结9.primary consolidation 主固结10.secondary consolidation 次固结11.degree of consolidation 固结度12.consolidation test 固结试验13.consolidation curve 固结曲线14.time factor Tv 时间因子15.coefficient of consolidation 固结系数16.preconsolidation pressure 前期固结压力17.principle of effective stress 有效应力原理18.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结十.抗剪强度 shear strength1.undrained shear strength 不排水抗剪强度2.residual strength 残余强度3.long-term strength 长期强度4.peak strength 峰值强度5.shear strain rate 剪切应变速率6.dilatation 剪胀7.effective stress approach of shear strength 剪胀抗剪强度有效应力法 8.total stress approach of shear strength 抗剪强度总应力法9.Mohr-Coulomb theory 莫尔－库仑理论10.angle of internal friction 内摩擦角11.cohesion 粘聚力12.failure criterion 破坏准则13.vane strength 十字板抗剪强度14.unconfined compression 无侧限抗压强度15.effective stress failure envelop 有效应力破坏包线16.effective stress strength parameter 有效应力强度参数十一.本构模型--constitutive model1.elastic model 弹性模型2.nonlinear elastic model 非线性弹性模型3.elastoplastic model 弹塑性模型4.viscoelastic model 粘弹性模型5.boundary surface model 边界面模型6.Du ncan-Chang model 邓肯－张模型7.rigid plastic model 刚塑性模型8.cap model 盖帽模型9.work softening 加工软化10.work hardening 加工硬化11.Cambridge model 剑桥模型12.ideal elastoplastic model 理想弹塑性模型13.Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion 莫尔－库仑屈服准则14.yield surface 屈服面15.elastic half-space foundation model 弹性半空间地基模型16.elastic modulus 弹性模量17.Winkler foundation model 文克尔地基模型十二.地基承载力--bearing capacity of foundation soil1.punching shear failure 冲剪破坏2.general shear failure 整体剪切破化3.local shear failure 局部剪切破坏4.state of limit equilibrium 极限平衡状态5.critical edge pressure 临塑荷载6.stability of foundation soil 地基稳定性7.ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基极限承载力8.allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基容许承载力十三.土压力--earth pressure1.active earth pressure 主动土压力2.passive earth pressure 被动土压力3.earth pressure at rest 静止土压力4.Coulomb’s earth pressure theory 库仑土压力理论5.Rankine’s earth pressure theory 朗金土压力理论十四.土坡稳定分析--slope stability analysis1.angle of repose 休止角2.Bishop method 毕肖普法3.safety factor of slope 边坡稳定安全系数4.Fellenius method of slices 费纽伦斯条分法5.Swedish circle method 瑞典圆弧滑动法6.slices method 条分法十五.挡土墙--retaining wall1.stability of retaining wall 挡土墙稳定性2.foundation wall 基础墙3.counter retaining wall 扶壁式挡土墙4.cantilever retaining wall 悬臂式挡土墙5.cantilever sheet pile wall 悬臂式板桩墙6.gravity retaining wall 重力式挡土墙7.anchored plate retaining wall 锚定板挡土墙8.anchored sheet pile wall 锚定板板桩墙十六.板桩结构物--sheet pile structure1.steel sheet pile 钢板桩2.reinforced concrete sheet pile 钢筋混凝土板桩3.steel piles 钢桩4.wooden sheet pile 木板桩5.timber piles 木桩十七.浅基础--shallow foundation1.box foundation 箱型基础2.mat(raft) foundation 片筏基础3.strip foundation 条形基础4.spread footing 扩展基础pensated foundation 补偿性基础6.bearing stratum 持力层7.rigid foundation 刚性基础8.flexible foundation 柔性基础9.emxxxxbedded depth of foundation 基础埋置深度 foundation pressure 基底附加应力11.structure-foundation-soil interaction analysis 上部结构－基础－地基共同作用分析十八.土的动力性质--dynamic properties of soils1.dynamic strength of soils 动强度2.wave velocity method 波速法3.material damping 材料阻尼4.geometric damping 几何阻尼5.damping ratio 阻尼比6.initial liquefaction 初始液化7.natural period of soil site 地基固有周期8.dynamic shear modulus of soils 动剪切模量9.dynamic ma二十.地基基础抗震1.earthquake engineering 地震工程2.soil dynamics 土动力学3.duration of earthquake 地震持续时间4.earthquake response spectrum 地震反应谱5.earthquake intensity 地震烈度6.earthquake magnitude 震级7.seismic predominant period 地震卓越周期8.maximum acceleration of earthquake 地震最大加速度二十一.室内土工实验1.high pressure consolidation test 高压固结试验2.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结试验3.falling head permeability 变水头试验4.constant head permeability 常水头渗透试验5.unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test 不固结不排水试验(UU)6.consolidated undrained triaxial test 固结不排水试验(CU)7.consolidated drained triaxial test 固结排水试验(CD)paction test 击实试验9.consolidated quick direct shear test 固结快剪试验10.quick direct shear test 快剪试验11.consolidated drained direct shear test 慢剪试验12.sieve analysis 筛分析13.geotechnical model test 土工模型试验14.centrifugal model test 离心模型试验15.direct shear apparatus 直剪仪16.direct shear test 直剪试验17.direct simple shear test 直接单剪试验18.dynamic triaxial test 三轴试验19.dynamic simple shear 动单剪20.free（resonance）vibration column test 自(共)振柱试验二十二.原位测试1.standard penetration test (SPT)标准贯入试验2.surface wave test (SWT) 表面波试验3.dynamic penetration test(DPT) 动力触探试验4.static cone penetration (SPT) 静力触探试验5.plate loading test 静力荷载试验teral load test of pile 单桩横向载荷试验7.static load test of pile 单桩竖向荷载试验8.cross-hole test 跨孔试验9.screw plate test 螺旋板载荷试验10.pressuremeter test 旁压试验11.light sounding 轻便触探试验12.deep settlement measurement 深层沉降观测13.vane shear test 十字板剪切试验14.field permeability test 现场渗透试验15.in-situ pore water pressure measurement 原位孔隙水压量测16.in-situ soil test 原位试验第一部分必须掌握，第二部分尽量掌握第一部分：1 Finite Element Method 有限单元法2 专业英语 Specialty English3 水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering4 土木工程 Civil Engineering5 地下工程 Underground Engineering6 岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering7 道路工程 Road (Highway) Engineering8 桥梁工程Bridge Engineering9 隧道工程 Tunnel Engineering10 工程力学 Engineering Mechanics11 交通工程 Traffic Engineering12 港口工程 Port Engineering13 安全性 safety17木结构 timber structure18 砌体结构 masonry structure19 混凝土结构concrete structure20 钢结构 steelstructure21 钢 - 混凝土复合结构 steel and concrete composite structure22 素混凝土 plain concrete23 钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete24 钢筋 rebar25 预应力混凝土 pre-stressed concrete26 静定结构statically determinate structure27 超静定结构 statically indeterminate structure28 桁架结构 truss structure29 空间网架结构 spatial grid structure30 近海工程 offshore engineering31 静力学 statics32运动学kinematics33 动力学dynamics34 简支梁 simply supported beam35 固定支座 fixed bearing36弹性力学 elasticity37 塑性力学 plasticity38 弹塑性力学 elaso-plasticity39 断裂力学 fracture Mechanics40 土力学 soil mechanics精品文库41 水力学 hydraulics42 流体力学 fluid mechanics43 固体力学solid mechanics44 集中力 concentrated force45 压力 pressure46 静水压力 hydrostatic pressure47 均布压力 uniform pressure48 体力 body force49 重力 gravity50 线荷载 line load51 弯矩 bending moment52 扭矩 torque53 应力 stress54 应变 stain55 正应力 normal stress56 剪应力 shearing stress57 主应力 principal stress58 变形 deformation59 内力 internal force60 偏移量挠度 deflection61 沉降settlement62 屈曲失稳 buckle63 轴力 axial force64 允许应力 allowable stress65 疲劳分析 fatigue analysis66 梁 beam67 壳 shell68 板 plate69 桥 bridge70 桩 pile71 主动土压力 active earth pressure72 被动土压力 passive earth pressure73 承载力 load-bearing capacity74 水位 water Height75 位移 displacement76 结构力学 structural mechanics77 材料力学 material mechanics78 经纬仪 altometer79 水准仪level80 学科 discipline81 子学科 sub-discipline82 期刊 journal periodical精品文库83 文献literature84 国际标准刊号ISSN International Standard Serial Number85 国际标准书号ISBN International Standard Book Number86 卷 volume87 期 number88 专著 monograph89 会议论文集 Proceeding90 学位论文 thesis dissertation91 专利 patent92 档案档案室 archive93 国际学术会议 conference94 导师 advisor95 学位论文答辩 defense of thesis96 博士研究生 doctorate student97 研究生 postgraduate98 工程索引EI Engineering Index99 科学引文索引SCI Science Citation Index100 科学技术会议论文集索引ISTP Index to Science and Tec hnology Proceedings101 题目 title102 摘要 abstract103 全文 full-text104 参考文献 reference105 联络单位、所属单位affiliation106 主题词 Subject107 关键字 keyword108 美国土木工程师协会ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers109 联邦公路总署FHWA Federal Highway Administration110 国际标准组织ISO International Standard Organization111 解析方法 analytical method112 数值方法 numerical method113 计算 computation114 说明书 instruction115 规范 Specification Code第二部分：岩土工程专业词汇1.geotechnical engineering 岩土工程2.foundation engineering 基础工程3.soil earth 土4.soil mechanics 土力学5.cyclic loading 周期荷载6.unloading 卸载7.reloading 再加载8.viscoelastic foundation 粘弹性地基精品文库9.viscous damping 粘滞阻尼10.shear modulus 剪切模量11.soil dynamics 土动力学12.stress path 应力路径13.numerical geotechanics 数值岩土力学二.土的分类1.residual soil 残积土 groundwater level 地下水位2.groundwater 地下水 groundwater table 地下水位3.clay minerals 粘土矿物4.secondary minerals 次生矿物ndslides 滑坡6.bore hole columnar section 钻孔柱状图7.engineering geologic investigation 工程地质勘察8.boulder 漂石9.cobble 卵石10.gravel 砂石11.gravelly sand 砾砂12.coarse sand 粗砂13.medium sand 中砂14.fine sand 细砂15.silty sand 粉土16.clayey soil 粘性土17.clay 粘土18.silty clay 粉质粘土19.silt 粉土20.sandy silt 砂质粉土21.clayey silt 粘质粉土22.saturated soil 饱和土23.unsaturated soil 非饱和土24.fill (soil) 填土25.overconsolidated soil 超固结土26.normally consolidated soil 正常固结土27.underconsolidated soil 欠固结土28.zonal soil 区域性土29.soft clay 软粘土30.expansive (swelling) soil 膨胀土31.peat 泥炭32.loess 黄土33.frozen soil 冻土24.degree of saturation 饱和度25.dry unit weight 干重度26.moist unit weight 湿重度精品文库45.ISSMGE=International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 国际土力学与岩土工程学会四.渗透性和渗流1.Darcy’s law 达西定律2.piping 管涌3.flowing soil 流土4.sand boiling 砂沸5.flow net 流网6.seepage 渗透（流）7.leakage 渗流8.seepage pressure 渗透压力9.permeability 渗透性10.seepage force 渗透力11.hydraulic gradient 水力梯度12.coefficient of permeability 渗透系数五.地基应力和变形1.soft soil 软土2.(negative) skin friction of driven pile 打入桩（负）摩阻力3.effective stress 有效应力4.total stress 总应力5.field vane shear strength 十字板抗剪强度6.low activity 低活性7.sensitivity 灵敏度8.triaxial test 三轴试验9.foundation design 基础设计10.recompaction 再压缩11.bearing capacity 承载力12.soil mass 土体13.contact stress (pressure)接触应力（压力）14.concentrated load 集中荷载15.a semi-infinite elastic solid 半无限弹性体16.homogeneous 均质17.isotropic 各向同性18.strip footing 条基19.square spread footing 方形独立基础20.underlying soil (stratum strata)下卧层（土）21.dead load =sustained load 恒载持续荷载22.live load 活载23.short –term transient load 短期瞬时荷载24.long-term transient load 长期荷载25.reduced load 折算荷载26.settlement 沉降精品文库27.deformation 变形28.casing 套管29.dike=dyke 堤（防）30.clay fraction 粘粒粒组31.physical properties 物理性质32.subgrade 路基33.well-graded soil 级配良好土34.poorly-graded soil 级配不良土35.normal stresses 正应力36.shear stresses 剪应力37.principal plane 主平面38.major (intermediate minor) principal stress 最大（中、最小）主应力39.Mohr-Coulomb failure condition 摩尔-库仑破坏条件40.FEM=finite element method 有限元法41.limit equilibrium method 极限平衡法42.pore water pressure 孔隙水压力43.preconsolidation pressure 先期固结压力44.modulus of compressibility 压缩模量45.coefficent of compressibility 压缩系数pression index 压缩指数47.swelling index 回弹指数48.geostatic stress 自重应力49.additional stress 附加应力50.total stress 总应力51.final settlement 最终沉降52.slip line 滑动线六.基坑开挖与降水1 excavation 开挖（挖方）2 dewatering （基坑）降水3 failure of foundation 基坑失稳4 bracing of foundation pit 基坑围护5 bottom heave=basal heave （基坑）底隆起6 retaining wall 挡土墙7 pore-pressure distribution 孔压分布8 dewatering method 降低地下水位法9 well point system 井点系统（轻型）10 deep well point 深井点11 vacuum well point 真空井点12 braced cuts 支撑围护13 braced excavation 支撑开挖14 braced sheeting 支撑挡板七.深基础--deep foundation1.pile foundation 桩基础1)cast –in-place 灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile 沉管灌注桩bored pile 钻孔桩special-shaped cast-in-place pile 机控异型灌注桩piles set into rock 嵌岩灌注桩rammed bulb pile 夯扩桩2)belled pier foundation 钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation 钻孔扩底墩under-reamed bored pier3)precast concrete pile 预制混凝土桩4)steel pile 钢桩steel pipe pile 钢管桩steel sheet pile 钢板桩5)prestressed concrete pile 预应力混凝土桩prestressed concrete pipe pile 预应力混凝土管桩2.caisson foundation 沉井（箱）3.diaphragm wall 地下连续墙截水墙4.friction pile 摩擦桩5.end-bearing pile 端承桩6.shaft 竖井；桩身7.wave equation analysis 波动方程分析8.pile caps 承台（桩帽）9.bearing capacity of single pile 单桩承载力teral pile load test 单桩横向载荷试验11.ultimate lateral resistance of single pile 单桩横向极限承载力12.static load test of pile 单桩竖向静荷载试验13.vertical allowable load capacity 单桩竖向容许承载力14.low pile cap 低桩承台15.high-rise pile cap 高桩承台16.vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile 单桩抗拔极限承载力17.silent piling 静力压桩18.uplift pile 抗拔桩19.anti-slide pile 抗滑桩20.pile groups 群桩21.efficiency factor of pile groups 群桩效率系数（η）22.efficiency of pile groups 群桩效应23.dynamic pile testing 桩基动测技术24.final set 最后贯入度25.dynamic load test of pile 桩动荷载试验26.pile integrity test 桩的完整性试验27.pile head=butt 桩头28.pile tip=pile point=pile toe 桩端（头）29.pile spacing 桩距30.pile plan 桩位布置图31.arrangement of piles =pile layout 桩的布置32.group action 群桩作用33.end bearing=tip resistance 桩端阻34.skin(side) friction=shaft resistance 桩侧阻35.pile cushion 桩垫36.pile driving(by vibration) （振动）打桩37.pile pulling test 拔桩试验38.pile shoe 桩靴39.pile noise 打桩噪音40.pile rig 打桩机九.固结 consolidation1.Terzzaghi’s consolidation theory 太沙基固结理论2.Barraon’s consolidation theory 巴隆固结理论3.Biot’s consolidation theory 比奥固结理论4.over consolidation ration (OCR)超固结比5.overconsolidation soil 超固结土6.excess pore water pressure 超孔压力7.multi-dimensional consolidation 多维固结8.one-dimensional consolidation 一维固结9.primary consolidation 主固结10.secondary consolidation 次固结11.degree of consolidation 固结度12.consolidation test 固结试验13.consolidation curve 固结曲线14.time factor Tv 时间因子15.coefficient of consolidation 固结系数16.preconsolidation pressure 前期固结压力17.principle of effective stress 有效应力原理18.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结十.抗剪强度 shear strength1.undrained shear strength 不排水抗剪强度2.residual strength 残余强度3.long-term strength 长期强度4.peak strength 峰值强度5.shear strain rate 剪切应变速率6.dilatation 剪胀7.effective stress approach of shear strength 剪胀抗剪强度有效应力法 8.total stress approach of shear strength 抗剪强度总应力法9.Mohr-Coulomb theory 莫尔－库仑理论10.angle of internal friction 内摩擦角11.cohesion 粘聚力12.failure criterion 破坏准则13.vane strength 十字板抗剪强度14.unconfined compression 无侧限抗压强度15.effective stress failure envelop 有效应力破坏包线16.effective stress strength parameter 有效应力强度参数十一.本构模型--constitutive model1.elastic model 弹性模型2.nonlinear elastic model 非线性弹性模型3.elastoplastic model 弹塑性模型4.viscoelastic model 粘弹性模型5.boundary surface model 边界面模型6.Du ncan-Chang model 邓肯－张模型7.rigid plastic model 刚塑性模型8.cap model 盖帽模型9.work softening 加工软化10.work hardening 加工硬化11.Cambridge model 剑桥模型12.ideal elastoplastic model 理想弹塑性模型13.Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion 莫尔－库仑屈服准则14.yield surface 屈服面15.elastic half-space foundation model 弹性半空间地基模型16.elastic modulus 弹性模量17.Winkler foundation model 文克尔地基模型十二.地基承载力--bearing capacity of foundation soil1.punching shear failure 冲剪破坏2.general shear failure 整体剪切破化3.local shear failure 局部剪切破坏4.state of limit equilibrium 极限平衡状态5.critical edge pressure 临塑荷载6.stability of foundation soil 地基稳定性7.ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基极限承载力8.allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil 地基容许承载力十三.土压力--earth pressure1.active earth pressure 主动土压力2.passive earth pressure 被动土压力3.earth pressure at rest 静止土压力4.Coulomb’s earth pressure theory 库仑土压力理论5.Rankine’s earth pressure theo ry 朗金土压力理论十四.土坡稳定分析--slope stability analysis1.angle of repose 休止角2.Bishop method 毕肖普法3.safety factor of slope 边坡稳定安全系数4.Fellenius method of slices 费纽伦斯条分法5.Swedish circle method 瑞典圆弧滑动法6.slices method 条分法十五.挡土墙--retaining wall1.stability of retaining wall 挡土墙稳定性2.foundation wall 基础墙3.counter retaining wall 扶壁式挡土墙4.cantilever retaining wall 悬臂式挡土墙5.cantilever sheet pile wall 悬臂式板桩墙6.gravity retaining wall 重力式挡土墙7.anchored plate retaining wall 锚定板挡土墙8.anchored sheet pile wall 锚定板板桩墙十六.板桩结构物--sheet pile structure1.steel sheet pile 钢板桩2.reinforced concrete sheet pile 钢筋混凝土板桩3.steel piles 钢桩4.wooden sheet pile 木板桩5.timber piles 木桩十七.浅基础--shallow foundation1.box foundation 箱型基础2.mat(raft) foundation 片筏基础3.strip foundation 条形基础4.spread footing 扩展基础pensated foundation 补偿性基础6.bearing stratum 持力层7.rigid foundation 刚性基础8.flexible foundation 柔性基础9.emxxxxbedded depth of foundation 基础埋置深度 foundation pressure 基底附加应力11.structure-foundation-soil interaction analysis 上部结构－基础－地基共同作用分析十八.土的动力性质--dynamic properties of soils1.dynamic strength of soils 动强度2.wave velocity method 波速法3.material damping 材料阻尼4.geometric damping 几何阻尼5.damping ratio 阻尼比6.initial liquefaction 初始液化7.natural period of soil site 地基固有周期8.dynamic shear modulus of soils 动剪切模量9.dynamic ma二十.地基基础抗震1.earthquake engineering 地震工程2.soil dynamics 土动力学3.duration of earthquake 地震持续时间4.earthquake response spectrum 地震反应谱5.earthquake intensity 地震烈度6.earthquake magnitude 震级7.seismic predominant period 地震卓越周期8.maximum acceleration of earthquake 地震最大加速度二十一.室内土工实验1.high pressure consolidation test 高压固结试验2.consolidation under K0 condition K0 固结试验3.falling head permeability 变水头试验4.constant head permeability 常水头渗透试验5.unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test 不固结不排水试验(UU)6.consolidated undrained triaxial test 固结不排水试验(CU)7.consolidated drained triaxial test 固结排水试验(CD)paction test 击实试验9.consolidated quick direct shear test 固结快剪试验10.quick direct shear test 快剪试验11.consolidated drained direct shear test 慢剪试验12.sieve analysis 筛分析13.geotechnical model test 土工模型试验14.centrifugal model test 离心模型试验15.direct shear apparatus 直剪仪16.direct shear test 直剪试验17.direct simple shear test 直接单剪试验18.dynamic triaxial test 三轴试验19.dynamic simple shear 动单剪20.free（resonance）vibration column test 自(共)振柱试验二十二.原位测试1.standard penetration test (SPT)标准贯入试验2.surface wave test (SWT) 表面波试验3.dynamic penetration test(DPT) 动力触探试验4.static cone penetration (SPT) 静力触探试验5.plate loading test 静力荷载试验teral load test of pile 单桩横向载荷试验7.static load test of pile 单桩竖向荷载试验8.cross-hole test 跨孔试验9.screw plate test 螺旋板载荷试验10.pressuremeter test 旁压试验11.light sounding 轻便触探试验12.deep settlement measurement 深层沉降观测13.vane shear test 十字板剪切试验14.field permeability test 现场渗透试验15.in-situ pore water pressure measurement 原位孔隙水压量测16.in-situ soil test 原位试验。

Lesson 7 Transportation Systems交通运输系统Transportation system in a developed nation consists of a network of modes that have evolved over many years. The system consists of vehicles, guideways, terminal facilities and control systems: these operate according to established procedures and schedules in the air, on land, and on water. The system also requires interaction with the user, the operator and the environment. The systems that are in place reflect the multitude of decisions made by shippers, carriers, government, individual travelers, and affected nonusers concerning the investment in or the use of transportation. The transportation system that has evolved has produced a variety of modes that complement each other.在发达国家，交通运输系统由网状结构组成的模式已经发展了好多年。

这个系统由交通工具、轨道、站场设施和控制系统组成。

这些依照空中、陆上和水上已制定的程序和计划运转。

这个系统也需要和用户、司机和环境互动。

drainage systems 排水系统Geotechnical specialist 岩土专家environmental specialists 环境专家Transportation specialists 交通专家Structural specialists 结构专家Construction management specialists建设管理专家Structural Engineering 结构工程Transportation Engineering 交通运输工程Geotechnical Engineering 岩土工程Pipeline Engineering 管道工程Construction engineering 建设工程Water Resources Engineering 水利资源工程Asphalt 沥青；Settlement 沉降；（side）Slope边坡；Filling 填土；build the forms 模板；pour the concrete 浇筑混凝土；bridge 桥；span 跨越，跨度；Aqueduct bridges 渡槽；Pier 桥墩；abutment 桥台；pile 桥桩；concrete pile 混凝土桩；compression 压力压缩；tension 拉力；bending 弯（曲）；shear 剪切torsion 扭转；compressive strength 抗压强度；tensile strength 抗拉强度；yield strength 屈服强度；Suspension Bridge 悬索桥；cantilever bridge 悬臂桥；arch bridge 拱桥；beam bridge 梁桥；rigid beam bridge 刚性梁桥，钢架桥；girder 大梁；deformations 变形；bridge design and construction 桥梁设计和建设；aluminum alloys 铝合金（复）；analysis of forces 受力分析；stress and strain 应力和应变（stresses and strains）；the static load 静荷载；the dynamic load 动荷载；（the） wind tunnel test(s) 风洞试验；Caisson 沉箱；foundation treatment 地基处理；scaled-down 按比例缩小；scaled-up 按比例放大；prestressed concrete 预应力混凝土；reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土；pile drivers 打桩机；durability 耐久性；falsework 脚手架；flotation ？浮运；cantilevering 悬臂法；sliding 滑动；direct lifting 直升；suspension 悬挂法；preliminary design 初步设计；安全系数？；construction drawings 施工图纸(pl) surface drainage 地面排水blueprints 蓝图(pl)drainage facilitydrainage facilities 排水设施side slopes 边坡（pl）shoulder（s ）路肩（pl）retaining wall（s）挡土墙(pl) Compaction n.压实Compact v.压实the grading operations 场地平整; highway engineering 公路工程storm drainage system 排涝系统earthmoving machines 土方机械drainage structure（s）排水结构earthworks 土方工程soil mechanics 土力学Settlement 沉降flexible pavement柔性路面internal friction内摩擦力cohesion内聚力compressibility可压缩性elasticity 弹性（elastic）permeability渗透性capillarity 毛细，毛细现象1construction engineering建设工程Construction schedule施工日程preparation of site现场准备earth-moving machines 土方运输机械foundation treatment 地基处理asphalt 沥青 cement 水泥clay 粘土？Sandy soil沙土Forming 支模，concrete production Placement放置，curing维护slip-forming 滑模；paver 铺路机contraction joints 收缩缝asphalt paving 沥青摊铺bituminous 含沥青的building materials建材reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土stress and strain 应力应变elastic modulus 弹性模量psicement mortar 水泥砂浆bolting 螺栓连接riveting铆接welding焊接2。

专业英语在土木工程专业(路桥方向)教学大纲中的重要性专业英语是指在特定领域内使用的英语专业术语和表达方式。

对于土木工程专业(路桥方向)的学生而言，掌握专业英语是非常重要的。

因为土木工程是一个与国家建设和城市化进程密切相关的重要技术领域，需要大量的专业技术人才。

而在国际化的今天，掌握专业英语不仅可以加深对专业知识的理解和掌握，还可以拓宽国际交流的视野，提高学生的国际竞争力。

在土木工程专业(路桥方向)的教学大纲中，专业英语的教学通常主要涉及以下几个方面：1. 专业术语和表达方式的学习2. 英语论文写作3. 口语表达能力培养4. 听力和阅读能力提升专业英语的学习需要学生掌握大量的专业术语和表达方式。

土木工程专业(路桥方向)涉及到很多特定的工程名词和技术术语，学生需要通过专业英语的学习，掌握这些专业术语的正确用法和表达方式，以便在今后的学习和工作中能够准确地表达和交流。

对于土木工程专业(路桥方向)的学生来说，英语论文写作是一个非常重要的能力。

在国际学术交流中，英文论文是学术界交流的主要方式之一。

学生需要通过专业英语的学习，提升自己的英文写作能力，以便能够更好地参与国际学术交流。

口语表达能力和听力能力也是专业英语教学中需要重点培养的能力。

在国际交流中，良好的口语表达能力和听力能力可以帮助学生更好地与外国专家和同行交流，获取最新的学术信息和研究成果。

专业英语在土木工程专业(路桥方向)的教学大纲中具有重要地位。

通过专业英语的学习，学生可以更好地掌握专业知识，提高自己的国际竞争力，并为今后的学术研究和工作奠定良好的基础。

个人观点：专业英语对于土木工程专业(路桥方向)的学生来说，是非常重要的。

在今后的学习和工作中，掌握专业英语将会成为一个重要的竞争优势。

学生应该充分重视专业英语的学习，不断提升自己的专业英语能力，以便更好地为国家的建设和城市化进程做出贡献。

土木工程专业(路桥方向)的学生需要通过专业英语的学习，掌握大量的专业术语和表达方式。

系别：土木系专业：土木工程（道桥方向）班级：工 077姓名：周晖学号： 2007320203The road (highway)The road is one kind of linear construction used for travel. It is made of the roadbed, the road surface, the bridge, the culvert and the tunnel. In addition, it also has the crossing of lines, the protective project and the traffic engineering and the route facility.The roadbed is the base of road surface, road shoulder, side slope, side ditch foundations. It is stone material structure, which is designed according to route's plane position .The roadbed, as the base of travel, must guarantee that it has the enough intensity and the stability that can prevent the water and other natural disaster from corroding.The road surface is the surface of road. It is single or complex structure built with mixture. The road surface require being smooth, having enough intensity, good stability and anti-slippery function. The quality of road surface directly affects the safe, comfort and the traffic.The route marking is one kind of traffic safety facility painted by oil paint or made by the concrete and tiles on high-level, less high-type surface. Its function is coordinating the sign to make the effective control to the transportation, directing the vehicles skip road travel, serving unimpeded and the safe purpose. Our country’s road route marking has the lane median line,the traffic lane boundary, the curb line, the parking line, the conduction current belt, the pedestrian crossing line, the four corners center circle, the parking azimuth line. The route marking has the continual solid line, the broken line and the arrow indicator and its color uses the white or the yellow.The arch of bridge is the structure which strides over rivers, mountain valley and channel. It is made generally by steel rod, concrete and stone.The tunnel is the cave which connects both sides of the road. The technique of this construction is very complex, the cost of the projects is higher than common road .However, it reduces the driving distance between two places, enhances the grade of the technical in building the road and guarantees the cars can drive fast and safely, thus reduces the cost of transportation.The protective project is to protect and consolidate the roadbed in order that it can guarantee the intensity and the stability of the road, thus maintains the automobile to pass through safely.In order to guarantee that safe operation of the highway transportation, besides the highway engineering and the vehicles performance, it must have some traffic signal, route marking, each kind of director and demonstrate facility. The highway marking uses certain mark and draw symbol, simple words and number, then installs in the suitable place to indicate the front road's condition or the accident condition including the informational sign, the warning signal, the prohibitory sign, the road sign and so on.The road which Join city, village and industry, mainly are used for the automobile and has certain technical standard and the facility path can be called the highway. “The highway” in Chinese is the modern view, but it was not existed in old day. It gets the name from the meaning of being used for the public traffic. Where are the human, there are the road. It is a truth. However, the road is not the highway. If we talk the history about the road, the earliest highway is that built by the old Egyptians for making the pyramid. Next is the street which built by the Babylon people about 4000 years ago. All these are much earlier than our country.About 500 B.C., the Persian Empire road has linked up East and West, and connected the road to China. It is the earliest and longest Silk Road. 2500 years ago, it might be the greatest road .The ancient Rome Empire’s road was once celebrated; it took Rome as the center, all around built 29 roads. Therefore it came out one common saying: every road leads to Rome.The road's construction is the process to enhance technique and renew the building materials. The earliest is the old road, it is easy to build but it is also to destroy. If there is too much water or cars, it will be uneven and even be destroyed. The macadam road appeared in the Europe which outbalanced the earliest mud road. Then the brick road appeared which was earlier than China. It was one great breach that we molded bitumen on the macadam road. From ancient times to the present, China has courier station and courier road, while the first more advance road was the one that from Long Zhou in Gang Xi to Zhen Nan Guan in 1906.The difference between Road and pathThe path is the project for each kind of vehicles and people to pass through. According to its function, we can divide it into the urban road, the road, the factories and mines path, the forest road and county road.The classification of roadFirst, according to administrative rank, it includes national highway, province road, county road and the special road. Generally the national highway and province road are named main line; the county road is named branch line.The national road is the main line and has political and economy significance, including the important national defense road and the road collecting our capital with other provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities. It is also the road links the economy center, seaport hinge, factory and important strategic place. The highway striding over different provinces are built, protected and managed by the special organizations which are approved by the ministry of communications.The provincial road is the main line built, protected, managed by the road manage department .It is full of political and economic sense to the whole province.The single way four levels of roads can adapt below each day and night medium-duty truck volume of traffic 200.The county route is refers to has county-wide (county-level city) politics,the econom-icsignificance, connects in the county and the county the main township (town), the prin-cipal commodities production and the collection and distribution center road, as well as does not belong to the federal highway, provincial road's county border the road. The coun-ty route by the county, the city road Department responsible for the work is responsibleto construct, the maintenance and the management.The township road refers to mainly the road which for the township (town) the villa-geeconomy,the culture, the administration serves, as well as does not belong to above t-hecounty route between road's township and the township and the township and the exte-rior contact road. Township is responsible by the people's government to construct, the m-aintenance and the management.The special-purpose road is refers to feeds specially or mainly supplies the factories andmines,the forest region, the farm, the oil field, the tourist area, the military importantplace and so on and the external relations road. The special-purpose road is responsibleby the special-purpose unit to construct, the maintenance and the management. May also entrust the local road department to construct, the maintenance and the management.Second, according to the use duty, the function and adapts the volume of traffic division.According to our country present "Highway engineering Technical standard" the roadaccording to the use duty, the function and the adaptation volume of tra-fficdivides into highway,arterial road, second-class road, tertiary highway, four level of road five ranks:1st, the highway to feed specially the automobile and should control the difference c-ompletely respectively toward the dividing strip on roads travel the multiple highway.The four traffic lane highways ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile reduce passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 25000~55000.The six traffic lane highways ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile reduce passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 45000~80000.The eight traffic lane highways ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile r-educe passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 60000~100000.2nd, the arterial road to supply the automobile and may according to need to control the difference respectively toward the dividing strip on roads travel the multiple highway.The four traffic lane arterial roads ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobil reduce passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 15000~30000.The six traffic lane arterial roads ought to be able to adapt each kind of automobile reduce passenger vehicle's year mean diurnal volume of traffic 25000~55000.3rd, the second-class road to supply the automobile travel the two-lane highway.Can adapt each day and nights 3000~7500 medium-duty truck volume of traffic generally.4rd, tertiary highways to mainly supply the automobile travel the two-lane highway.Can adapt each day and nights 1000~4000 medium-duty truck volume of traffic generally.The 5, four levels of roads to mainly supply the automobile travel the two-lane or the single-lane highway.The two-lane four levels of roads can adapt below each day and night medium-duty truck volume of traffic 1500.Highway engineering includes Highway planning location design and maintenance. Before the design and construction of a new highway or highway improvement can be undertaken there mint be general planing and consideration of financing As part of general planning it is decided what the traffic need of the rea will be for a considerable period, generally 20 years, and what construction will meet those needs. To assess traffic needs the highway engineer collects and analyzes information about the physical features of existing facilities, the volume, distribution, and character of present traffic, and the changes to be expected in these factor. The highway engineer must determine the most suitable location layout, and capacity of the new route and structures. Frequently, a preliminary line or location and several alternate routes are studied. The detailed design is normally begun only when the preferred location has been chosen.In selecting the best route, careful consideration is given to the traffic requirements terrain to be traversed value of land needed for the right-of-way. and estimated cost of construction for the various plans. The photogrammetric method, which makes use of aerial photographs is used extensively to indicate the character of the terrain on large projects where it is most economical. On small project, Financing considerations determine whether the project can be carried out t\t one time or whether construction must be in stages with each stage initiated as funds become available. In deciding the best method of financing the work, the engineer makes an analysis of whom it will benefit. Important highways and streets benefit* in varying degrees, three groups* users owners of adjacent property and the general public.Users of improved highways benefit from decreased cost of transportation, greater travel comfort, increased safety and saving of time. They also obtain recreational and educational benefits. Owners of abutting or adjacent property may benefit from better access, increased property value, more effectivepolice and fire protection, improved street parking greater pedestrian traffic safety, and the use of the street right-of-way for the location of public utilities such as water lines and sewers.Evaluation of various benefits from highway construction is often difficult but is a most important phase of highway engineering. Some benefits can be measured with accuracy, but the evaluation of others is more speculative. As a result numerous methods arc used to finance construction, and much engineering work may he involved in selecting the best procedure.Environmental evaluation. The environmental impact of constructing highways has received increased attention and importance. Many projects have been delayed and numerous others canceled because ot environmental problems. The environmental study or report covers many factors, including noise generation, air pollution disturbance of areas traversed destruction of existing housing and possible alternate routes.Highway engineers must also assist in the acquisition of right-of-way needed for new highway facilities Acquisition of the land required for construction of expressway lending into the central business areas of cities has proved extremely difficult i the public is demanding that traffic engineers work closely with c i t y planners, architects, sociologists and all groups interested in beautification and improvement of cities to assure that expressways extendinx through metropolitan areas be built only after coordinated evaluation of all major questions, including the following;(1) Is sufficient attention being paid -to beautification of the expressway itself? (2) Would a change in location preserve major natural beauties of the city? (3) Could a depressed design he logically substituted for those sections where an elevated expressway is proposed? (4) Can the general design he improved to reduce the noise created by large volumes of traffic? (5) Are some sections of the city being isolated by the proposed location?Detailed design. Detailed design of a highway project includes preparation of drawings or blueprints to be used for construction. These plans show, for example, the location, the dimensions of such elements as roudway width* the finaj profile for (he road, the location and type of drainage facilities, and the quantities of work involved, including earthwork and surfacing.In planning the grading operations the design engineer considers the type of material to be encountered in excavating or in cutting away the high points along the project and how the rnaterial removed can best be utilised for fill or for constructing embankments across low areas elsewhere on the project. For this the engineer must analyze the gradation and physical properties of the soil, determine how the embankments can best be compacted, and calculate the volume of earthwork to be done. Electronic calculating procedures are now sometimes used for the last step. Electronic equipment has also speeded up many other highway engineering calculations. Powerful and highly mobile earth moving machines have been developed TO permit rapid and economical operations., Selection of the type and thickness of roudway surfacing to be constructed is an important part of design. The type chosen depends upon the maximum loads to be accommodated, the frequency of these loads and other factors. For some mures, traffic volume may be so low that no surfacing is economically justified and natural soil serves as the roadway. As traffic increases, a surfacing of sandy cluy, crushed slag, crushed stone caliche crushed oyster shells, or a combination of these may be applied. If gravel is used, it usually contains sufficient clay and fine material to help stabilize the surfacing. Gravel surfaces may be further stubilized by application of calcium chloride, which also aids in controlling dust. Another surfacing is composed of Portland cement and water mixed iuto the upper few inches of the suhgrade and compacted with rollers. This procedure forms A soil-cement base that can besurfaced with bituminous materials. Roadways ro carry large volumes of heavy vehicles must be carefully designed and made of considerable thickness.Much of highway engineering is devoted to the planing and construction of facilities to drain the highway or street and lo carry streams across the highway right-of-way.Removal of surface water from the road or street is known a surface druiuage. It is accomplished by constructing the road so that it has a crown and by sloping the shoulders and adjacent areas so as to control the flow of water either toward existing natural drainage, such as open ditches, or into a storm drainage system of calehbasins and underground pipes. If a storm drainage system is used, as it would be with city streets, the design engineer must give consideration to the rntal area draining onto the street, the maximum rate of runoff expected, the duration of the design storm, the amount of ponding allowable at each carchbasin, and the proposed spacing of the catchbasins along the street. From this information the desired capacity of the individual eatehbaxin and the size of the underground piping network urc calculated. In designing facilities to carry streams under the highway the engineer must determine the area to be drained the maximum probable precipitation over the drainage basin, the highest expected runoff rare.and then, using (hit information, must calculate the required capacity of llit: drainage structure. Generally designs are made adequate to accommodate not only the largest flow ever recorded for that location but the greatest discharge that might be expected under the most adverse conditions for a given number of years.Factor considered in calculating the expected flow through a culvert opening include size, length, and shape of the opening, roughness of the walls, shape of t h e entrance and downstream end of the conduit, maximum allowable height of water at the entrance, and water level at the outlet Much engineering und construction work has been done to provide rest stops along major expressway routes t especially the national system of interstate highways. These facilities must be carefully located to permit easy and safe exit and return access to the highway. Many units have been built ^ scenic locations in forested areas to permit picnic grounds and walkways through the forest. These rest areas are especially beneficial to tho«e drivers traveling long distances with few stops.. The control and reduction of noise along busy routes, especially expressways, has become an important part of highway engineering. In many communities high walls have been huilt along either side of the expressway. Such walls can he costly to construct, hut can prove very beneficial, barriers can reduce overall noise levels by over 50%.Construction operations. Although much engineering and planing must be done preliminary to it, the actual construction is normally the costliest part of making highway uud street improvements.Willi t h e award of a construction contract following the preparation of the detailed plans and specifications t engineers go onto the ftite and lay out the project. As part of this staking out. limits of earthwork are shown, location of drainage structures indicated, and profiles established.Heavy rollers are used to compact the soil or subgrade below the roadway in order to eliminate later settlement. Pneumatic tired rollers and sheepsfoot rollers (steel cylinders equipped with numerous short steel teeth or feet J are often employed for this operation. Vibratory rollers have been developed and used on some projects in recent years. One type vibrates up to 3400 times/min, compacting the underlying material to an appreciable depth.Maintenance and operation. Highway maintenance consists of the repair and upkeep of surfacing and shoulders, bridges and drainage facilities? signs, traffic control devices, guard rails, traffic striping on the pavement, retaining walls, and side slopes. Additional operations include ice control undsnow removal, because it is valuable to know why some highway designs give better performance and prove less costly to maintain than others, engineers supervising maintenance can offer valuable guidance to design engineers. Consequently, maintenance and operation arc important parts of highway engineering.。