语言学第一章笔记和习题

[语言]（什么是语言）●语言是人类用于交际的任意的声音符号系统●语言是言语交流的一种方式（简洁地说）●语言是人类最重要的交际工具、思维工具、认识成果的贮存所●语言是实用性的●语言是社会的、约定俗成的●语言是把人和其他动物区别开来的一个重要标志●语言有四个本质特征：任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性*实用性的——因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为*社会的、约定俗成的——因为语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非谚语的暗示、动机、社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行。

[语言的本质特征]*（Russell）“不管一只狗可以多么流利地吠叫，它无法告诉你它的父母贫穷但又诚实。

”本质特征是决定我们人类语言性质的特征，包括任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性。

1 [任意性]由Saussure最先提出●指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系如果人类第一次看到猪是把它叫成“狗”，那么现在我们所知道的“猪”便叫做“狗”。

不同的语言中有不同的词来表达相同的概念：酒店—hotel，狗—dog同一语言中由于方言、历史、地理位置等原因也会出现这一特性：素质—质素，公鸡—鸡公，客人—人客●是人类语言多样性的一个重要原因●有不同的程度：（1）语素的音和义之间的任意性狗叫：wow wow—wang wang拟声词的发音看上去代表了他们所描述的词，但实际上任意性和拟声是可以同时起作用的（2）句法上的任意性对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。

因为句子序列和真实发生的事情之间有着一定程度的对应关系He came in and sat down.He sat down and come in.功能语言学家认为语言最严格的任意性在于对立的语音，通过它我们辨别各组词。

（3）约定性语言学上意义和符号之间是约定俗成的关系，所以语言有约定性，即任意性的相反面任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，约定性又使学习语言变得费力。

语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。

语言学教程习题答案第一章语言学教程习题答案第一章在语言学的学习过程中，习题是非常重要的一部分，通过习题的练习可以帮助我们巩固知识，提高对语言学理论的理解和应用能力。

本文将针对语言学教程第一章的习题进行解答，并对其中一些重要的概念进行深入探讨。

1. 什么是语言学？语言学是研究语言的科学，它涉及到语言的结构、语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的研究。

通过对语言的研究，我们可以了解语言的起源、发展、结构以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。

2. 语言学的研究方法有哪些？语言学的研究方法包括田野调查、实验研究、文献研究等。

田野调查是指通过对语言使用环境的观察和实地访谈等方式，收集语言数据并进行分析。

实验研究则是通过实验室环境下的控制变量实验，来研究语言现象。

文献研究则是通过对已有的语言学文献进行分析和综述，来推测和总结语言学理论。

3. 语言学的研究对象是什么？语言学的研究对象是语言。

语言是人类交流的工具，它包括语音、词汇、语法等方面的内容。

通过对语言的研究，我们可以了解语言的结构、规律以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。

4. 什么是语言的层次结构？语言的层次结构是指语言的组成部分之间的关系。

从上到下，语言的层次结构包括语言（language）、语言系统（linguistic system）、语言单位（linguistic unit）以及语言要素（linguistic element）。

语言单位是指语言中的最小有意义的单位，如音素、词素、词等。

语言要素则是指构成语言单位的基本成分，如音素、词素中的音素。

5. 什么是语音学？语音学是研究语言中的语音现象的学科。

它研究的内容包括语音的产生、传播和接收等方面。

通过对语音的研究，我们可以了解语音的分类、规律以及语音与语义、语法之间的关系。

6. 什么是语音？语音是语言中的声音现象。

它是通过声带、口腔、鼻腔等发声器官的协调运动而产生的。

语音可以分为音位和音素两个层次。

音位是语言中的最小音位单位，它是语音的抽象概念。

第1章语言和语言学1.1 复习笔记一、语言的性质和范围1．语言的性质（1）语言的定义①从结构上看，语言是一个复杂的符号系统。

语言是由词语符号构成的复杂系统，具有符号性和系统性。

②从功能上看，语言是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。

人们需要而且可以用语言来进行社会交际，用语言来认识世界，思考问题。

（2）语言的符号性①能指与所指a．用甲事物代表乙事物，而甲乙两事物没有必然联系，甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号；b．甲事物是符号的能指（形式），乙事物是符号的所指（内容、意义）；c．能指与所指的关系是人为约定的，没有必然的因果关系。

②语言符号的主要特征a．任意性任意性是指符号的能指和所指之间没有必然联系，用什么能指代表什么所指是任意的。

第一，同样的语音形式可以代表不同的语义内容，如多义词、同音词；第二，不同的语音形式可以代表相同的语义内容，如同义词；第三，不同的语言可以用不同的语音形式代表相同的语义内容，如汉语的“马”[ma214]和英语的horse都可以指马。

b．稳固性稳固性是指语音和语义一旦约定俗成就稳固下来，不可随意改变。

因为语言是人们社会交际的工具，语音和语义关系的随意改变会导致社会交际无法正常进行。

（口令、暗号的意义不属于一般语言意义。

）c．渐变性渐变性是指语言符号随着社会的发展发生渐变。

第一，语言是社会交际的工具，为了适应社会的发展变化，语言符号会发生变化；（例如，古代汉语中很多词语的音和义发展到现代汉语都发生了明显的变化。

）第二，语言符号一般只能采取渐变方式，因为突变会破坏语言符号的稳固性，影响正常交际。

其他的一些符号有的可以发生突变，如密电码一旦泄密，就可以随时更换。

d．线条性线条性是指说话时语言符号在时间上依次出现，像一根线条一样。

第一，人的发音器官只能依次发出一串音素、音节或词语；第二，语言符号在言语中只能有时间上的前后相继的关系，不能有空间上的上下相叠的关系。

（3）语言的系统性①语言系统性的内涵系统指由若干互相联系的元素构成的整体，而系统性则是指系统元素之间的联系性。

语言学概论笔记（邢福义）语言学概论第一章语言与语言学第一节语言的性质和范围一、为什么说社会性是自然语言的本质属性？为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？二、什么是符号？语言符号有什么特点？三、语言和言语有什么区别和联系？四、口语和书面语有什么区别？为什么会有区别？五、什么是副语言和人工语言？二者有什么关系？1、语言：从结构上看，语言就是由词语这种符号构成的复杂系统。

从功能上看，是人类进行社会交际和思维认识的工具。

语言具有符号性、系统性、社会性及其他属性{民族性和生成性（指人们可以根据有限的语言符号和组合规则生成无限的句子）模糊性}2、语言的能指和所指（什么是符号）：用甲事物代表乙事物，而甲乙两事物之间没有必然联系，甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号，其中甲事物就是符号的能指（形式），乙事物就是符号的所指（内容和意义）。

符号的能指和所指之间的关系是人为约定的。

3、语言符号的特征：语言中的词语就是一种符号，具有符号的特征。

1、语言符号的任意性（用什么能指代表什么所指是任意的）2、稳固性（语言符号一旦约定俗成以后就具有稳固性）3、渐变性（为了适应社会发展的变化，采取渐变的方式）4、线条性（语言符号在言语中只能有时间上的前后相继的关系）4、语言的社会性：语言是社会交际的工具，社会是语言的本质属性。

自然语言系统和规则是由特定的社会群体共同约定俗成的，而不是由个别人或少数人创造的语言的发展变化离不开社会，无论是新词语的产生，还是旧词语的消亡，都取决于社会交际的需要。

由于自然语言从生到长到死的整个过程都取决于整个社会，所以说社会性是自然语言的本质属性。

语言虽然不是人类唯一的交际工具，还有其他副语言如文字、体态等交际工具，但是副语言只是辅助性的交际工具，一般使用范围有限，语言是一种独立的交际工具，是第一性的，副语言是建立在语言的基础之上的，是第二性的。

因而，语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

5、语言和言语的区别：语言有广义和狭义之分，广义的语言包括语言系统、言语活动和言语作品，狭义的语言只指语言系统，而言语则包括言语活动和言语作品。

第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。

(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。

(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。

(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。

)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。

《语言学纲要》学习指导书（修订版）第一章语言的功能一、填空1、语言的功能包括（社会）功能和（思维）功能。

2、语言的社会功能包括（信息传递）功能和（人际互动）功能。

3、在各种信息传递形式中，（语言）是第一性的、最基本的手段。

4、人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数、推理能力等由（左）半球掌管，音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由（右）半球制约。

5、儿童语言习得一般经过（独词句）阶段和（双词句）阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。

二、判断正误（对）1、文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式。

（错）2、当说话者陈述一个客观事实时，话语中不具有主观性。

（错）3、书刊上的话语不具有人际互动功能。

（对）4、抽象思维要以语言为形式依托。

（错）5、布洛卡区在大脑的右半球前部。

（错）6、聋哑人不会说话，所以不具有抽象思维的能力。

（对）7、不同语言结构的差异体现出思维方式的不同。

（错）8、汉语名词没有数的变化，所以汉语没有区别单数和多数的概念。

三．思考题1、为什么说语言是人类最重要的信息传递的手段？除了语言之外，人们还使用其他的信息传递工具：（1）文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式等辅助性的交际工具（2）体态语等伴随性的副语言交际工具，（3）盲文、手语等类语言交际工具。

但这些交际工具或者使用范围的有限，或者运用效率低下，或者使用频率不高，很难与语言这种交际工具相提并论。

文字记录语言，打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，在社会生活中起着重大的作用，中小学语文教学主要就是教学生识字、阅读、写作。

但是，文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。

一个社会可以没有文字，但是不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。

文字是在语言的基础上产生的，只有几千年的历史。

在文字产生以前，语言早已存在，估计有几十万年。

今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。

文字产生以后要随着语言的发展而演变，它始终从属于语言，是一种辅助的交际工具。

语言学教程课后习题与答案第一章Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoreti cal ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displa cement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system ofgrammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.l angue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After careful ly comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differencesamong the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicatea degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981:15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual s equence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we c an feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not adouble-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we sl id to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but hon est”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, ma ybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like t hese to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a longstory short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often? ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only makea more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because languagechanges and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guid elines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescrip tive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided asit is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistictheories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why? It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation.(M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the systemof rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding i s in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for w e can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard(e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say“gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。

I. INTRODUCTION1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Branches of linguistics:phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics Linguisticspsycholinguistics sociolinguistics applied linguistics1.1.3 Some important distinction in linguistics1) Prescriptive and descriptiveThey are two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2) Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.3) Speech and writingThey are the two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is prior to writingfor the following reasons:From the point of view of linguistic evolution, writing system os any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedSpeech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.4) Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of he conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.5) Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century.a) Linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguistist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness".b) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c) Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. However, for a long time traditional grammar assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.2.2 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The framework was proposed by an American linguist, Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary because there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is the way they can produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages, including sentences that we have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4) DisplacementHuman language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmissionThe details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one.1.2.3 Functions of language1. Language is used for communication2. Three main functionsA)Descriptive function(cognitive, referential, or propositional function)--- it is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.B)Expressive function(emotive or attitudinal function) --- supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.C)Social function, also referred to as interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relation between people.3.Function models by structural linguist Roman JakobsonHe identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser--- EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication. Addressee--- ConativeThe addresser aims to influence the addressee's course of action or ways of thinking. Context --- ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Message --- PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.Contact --- Phatic communicationThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.Code --- MetalinguisticThe addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.4.Three macrofunctions by M. A. K. HallidayIn the early 1970s the British linguist Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions and there is close correspondence language between form and function. But as a child grew into an adult the seven functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract, but also simpler system of functions. This system contains three macrofunctions.Ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer's experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function discussed above, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker's attitude, evalution, his feelings and emotions.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker's role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.。

第一章．语言学的对象和任务1. 什么是语言功能角度的定义语言是人类最重要的交际和交流思想的工具。

信息论角度的定义语言是信息的载体和传播信息的媒介。

认知科学角度的定义语言是认知的工具汉语名词性偏正结构的表达顺序：用偏正结构表达两个物体的空间关系，采用“参照物——目的物”的认知顺序是汉语的一种优势语序。

这是汉语名词性偏正结构的表达原则，反映了汉语“由大到小”的表达习惯。

2. 什么是语言学定义语言学是研究语言规律的科学，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识语言的起源A. .“神授说”基督教<圣经>关于人类语言起源的传说: <圣经>解释: 上帝谴责人类罪过和妄行的结果.B.“摹声说”。

古希腊哲学家柏拉图Plato早在公元前5世纪就提出了这种理论。

他认为，名称不过是它所表示的事物的声音的模拟。

这是一种朴素的唯物主义观点，它把语言的起源归结为客观世界的产物。

十八世纪德国的赫德尔发展了这一观点。

他认为，在原始社会，人们为了表达想要表达的各种动物对象，模仿那种动物的发声，比如拟声词。

C.“感叹说”。

古希腊哲学家伊壁鸠鲁(Epicurus, 公元前341~前270年)是其代表人物这种理论认为，原始人的感情冲动、受到惊恐后发出的喊叫等，也就是出于内心和外来的感受而发出的声音逐渐发展为感叹词，最终形成了语言。

D.“号子说”。

19世纪的法国哲学家努阿尔认为，原始人在集体劳动时会发出“咳哟”、“啊哈”等声音，以协调劳动的一致性，大致相当于今天的劳动号子，这就形成语言最初的成分——动词。

E.“劳动说”。

恩格斯首先提出来的。

恩格斯认为：一方面“劳动的发展必然促使社会成员更紧密地互相结合起来因为它使互相帮助和共同协作的场合增多了，并且使每个人都清楚地意识到这种共同协作的好处。

另一方面，劳动还使人的发音器官和大脑发达起来。

这些都是语言诞生的必要条件。

3语文学A 定义:为注解古代经典（如政治、哲学、历史、文学等经典作品），而对其中的文字\词汇\语法所作的研究.语文学是经学的附庸,没有把语言作为独立的学科研究. 又叫“前语言学”.印度宗教经典梵语：语音、语法研究西欧（希腊-罗马）古典拉丁文：语法、修辞、逻辑中国先秦典籍：汉字形音义研究三个重要的传统古印度巴尼尼<梵语语法>古希腊-罗马底奥尼修<希腊语法> 瓦罗《论拉丁语》中国“小学”中国第一部语法专著马建忠《马氏文通》(1898)采用的也是拉丁语的体系。