Lecture 3 翻译的标准翻译标准：目前翻译界普遍接受的，也是作为一般翻译学习者必须努力掌握的标准，简而言之是两条：忠实(Faithfulness) 和流畅(Smoothness)。
外语腔是初学翻译者不知不觉地会在汉语译文中表现出来的一种不当倾向。
翻译时所要表达的内容来自外语原文，原文的词语和结构形式随着内容一起进入到我们的大脑，于是原文的语言形式被带入译文，造成了译文的外语腔。
The only concession he made to the climate was to wear a white dinner jacket.【译文】气候变化，他仅稍稍作了一点变通，赴宴时穿了件白色的短礼服。
翻译标准：忠实和流畅好的译文还必须保持原文的风格包括民族风格、时代风格、语体风格、作者个人的语言风格等。
即：译者不能破坏或改变原文的风格，不能以译者的风格代替原作的风格。
课堂练习：•She couldn't have come at a better time.•She has been a widow only six months.•I believe the speech was needlessly stubborn.•The Englishman feels no less deeply than any other nationality.•From a physical standpoint, there ought to be as many colours as there are different wave lengths.•As a human being, we should demonstrate our intellectual and moral superiority by respecting others for who they are -- instead of rejecting them for who/what they are not.1. 她来得正是时候。
Lecture Two: Three Views of StyleWe have seen the definition of stylistics and some definitions of style.Next we will see some most influential and representative views of style.Style as form. （Aristotle）（form and content ）Style as eloquence.（Cicero）（skill to use L persuasively）（the relation with rhetoric）Style is the man. （Buffon）（L use is using it in discourse）Style as personal idiosyncrasy.（Murry）Saying the right thing in the most effective way.（Enkvist）Style as the choice between alternatve expressions. （Ibid）Style as equivalence. （Roman Jacobson）（between form and function）Style as foregrounding. （Leech Mukarovsky）Style as deviation.（Mukarovsky & Spitzer）Style as prominence.（Halliday）Style as the selections features partly determined by the demands of genre, form, themes, etc. （Traugott & Pratt）Style as linguistic features that communicate emotions and thought.（Enkvist）When writers write, they will naturaly try to make their language difffernt from the others’, so as to attract the attention of the readers and also to ensure and secure an independent existence. Or to stand out from the multitude of men of letters. Or just a special position for his writing. And that is to depart from the normal way of expression in a certain sense.Style as deviance.This view of stylistics comes from Widdowson’s remark of style holding that stylistic analysis has no fixed procedure and the technique of doing this kind of analysis is to pick on features in the text which appear to first impressions as unusual or striking in some way and then explore their ramifications. This remark implies that only those unusual or striking features are stylistically relevant. And the implied assumption is that the literary aesthetic effects can only be achieved through deviance. Though some stylisticians hold different views.It leads to such an assumption as that the distinctiveness of a literary text lies in its departure from the characteristics of what is communicatively normal. It also gives birth to the approach to style as deviance from the norms of a given language.Mukarovsky is another famous proponent and founder of this view of style. In his famous article Standard Language and Poetic Language, he speaks of style as foregrounding.He asserts that the violation of the norm of standard, especially, its systematicviolation, is what makes possible the poetic utilization of language; without this possibility there would be no poetry. According to Mukarovsky normal use of language “automatizes”language to such an extent that the users no longer see its expressive or aesthetic power; poetry must de-automatize or foreground language by breaking the rules of everyday language. P13Such as the expression “a grief ago”“a presidency ago”“Mr. Smarter”“Mr. Bumble””The advantage of this approach to style is that it helps us keep in mind the there is a difference between everyday language and the language of literature.The disadvantages are that:a.It is difficult to define the norm from which the style of a text deviates.Bloch considers the basis of norm to e statistical, that is, to determinestyle by counting or resorting to the frequency distributions of linguisticfeatures as they differ from that of the language as a whole.b.It tends to lead the readers and stylisticians to value only the language ofthe grammatically highly deviant authors and under value those authorsthat do not deviate or do not deviate so much from the norms of language.And generally speaking, it tends to lead underestimation of thenon-deviant language both within literature and without.Style as choice.Style results from a tendency of speaker or writer to consistently choose certain structures over others available in the language.The difference between L and style is that L is the sum total of the structures available to the speaker, while style concerns the characteristic choices by a certain writer either consistently or in a given text or context.To say that style is choice of words is not the same thing as saying that it is always a conscious choice, though of course if the writer always chooses his word scrutinously the effect of his way of using L will be all the more obvious as a style. Then that is pick his way forward among words, and it is hard to imagine how much literary work can there be by now. The stock of literature of we human kind no doubt will be greatly diminished. But most, almost all poets, and some writers, and all writers at certain points in their writing do write that way, that is, they a kind of choose scrutinously and seem to pick their way forward among the forest of words.E.g. we Chinese posts have a tradition of refining words. 吟得一字安，捻断数茎须。
