跨文化交际 资料整理教程文件

跨文化交际复习资料Unit 1&2Reviewing Papers for Intercultural CommunicationUnit 1&2I- Keywords（1）Sender/Source: A sendcr/source is the person who transmits a message.（信息发出者/信息源：信息发岀者/信息源指传递信息的人。

）（2）Message: A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.（信息：信息扌呂弓I 起信息接受者反应的任何信号。

）（3）Encoding: It refers to the activity during which the sender must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.（编码：编码指信息发岀者选择言语或用非言语的方式发出有目的的信息的行为。

）⑷ Channel/NIedium：It is the method used to deliver a message・（渠道/媒介：渠道/媒介指发送信息的方法。

）（5）Receiver: A receiver is any person who notices and gives some meaning to a message・（信息接受者：信息接受者指信息接收者是指注意到信息并且赋予信息某些含义的人。

）（6）Decoding: It is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols iie/she has received.（解码：解码指信息接受者赋予其收到的言语或符号信息意义的行为。

跨文化交际资料Unit 12. Do you sometimes find it hard to make your-self properly understood by others? If you do, why do you think it is hard?(p.2) It is very difficult for people to understand one another if they do not share the same experiences. Of course, we all share the experience of being human, but there are many experiences which we do not share and which are different for all of us. It is these different experiences that make up what is called “culture” in the social sciences – the habits of everyday, the cues to which people respond, the automatic reactions they have to whatever they see and hear. These often differ, and the differences may cause misunderstandings where we seek understanding.Case 1(P.23)In this case, there seemed to be problems in communicating with people of different cultures in spite of the efforts to achieve understanding.We should know that in Egypt as in many cultures, the human relationship is valued so highly that it is not expressed in an objective and impersonal (冷淡的) way. While Americans certainly value human relationship, they are more likely to speak of them in less personal, more objective terms. In this case, Richard’s mistake might be that he chose to praise the food itself rather than the total evening, for which the food was simply the setting or excuse. For his host and hostess it was as if he had attended an art exhibit and complimented the artist by saying, What beautiful frames your pictures are in.In Japan the situation may be more complicated. Japanese people value order and harmony among a group, and that theorganization itself –be it a family or a vast corporation –is valued more than any particular member. In contrast, Americans stress individuality and are apt to assert individual differences when they seem to be in conflict with the goals or values of the group. In this case, Richard’s mistake was making great efforts to defend himself. Even if the others knew that the errors were not intentional, it is not right to defend yourself, even when your unstated intent is to help the group by warning others of similar mistakes. A simple apology and acceptance of the blame would have been appropriate. But for poor Richard only to apologize would have seemed to him to be subservient and unmanly.When it comes to England, we expect fewer problems between Americans and Englishmen than between Americans and almost any other group. In this case, we might look beyond the gesture of taking sugar or cream to values expressed in this gesture: for Americans, “Help your-self”; for the English counterpart, “Be my guest.” Americans and English people equally enjoy entertaining and being entertained, but they differ somewhat in the value of the distinction. Typically, the ideal guest at an American party is one who “makes himself at home,” even to the point of answering the door or fixing his own drink. For persons in many other societies, including at least this hypothetical English host, such guest behavior is presumptuous or rude. Case 2 (P.24):A common cultural misunderstanding in classes involves conflicts between what is said to be direct communication style and indirect communication style. In American culture, people tend to say what is on their minds and mean what they say. Therefore, students in class are expected to ask questions when they need clarification. Mexican culture shares this preference ofstyle with American culture in some situations, and that’s why the students from Mexico readily adopted the techniques of asking questions in class. However, Korean people generally prefer indirect communication style, and therefore they tend not to say what is on their minds and to rely more on implications and inference, so as to be polite and respectful and avoid losing face through any improper verbal behavior. As is mentioned in the case, to many Koreans, numerous questions would show a disrespect for the teacher, and would also reflect that the student has not studied hard enough.Case 3 (P.24-25):The conflict here is a difference in cultural values and beliefs. In the beginning, Mary didn’t realize that her Dominican sister saw her as a member of the family, literally. In the Dominican view, family possessions are shared by everyone of the family. Luz was acting as most Dominican sisters would do in borrowing without asking every time. Once Mary understood that there was a different way of looking at this, she would become more accepting. However, she might still experience frustration when this happened again. She had to find ways to cope with her own emotional cultural reaction as well as her practical problem (the batteries running out).Case 4 (P.25):It might be simply a question of different rhythms. Americans have one rhythm in their personal and family relations, in their friendliness and their charities. People from other cultures have different rhythms. The American rhythm is fast. It is characterized by a rapid acceptance of others. However, it is seldom that Americans engage themselves entirely in a friendship. Their friendships are warm, but casual and specialized. For example,you have a neighbor who drops by in the morning for coffee. You see her frequently, but you never invite her for dinner –not because you don’t think she could h andle a fork and a knife, but because you have seen her that morning. Therefore, you reserve your more formal invitation to dinner for someone who lives in a more distant part of the city and whom you would not see unless you extended an invitation for a special occasion. Now, if the first friend moves away and the second one moves nearby, you are likely to reverse this –see the second friend in the mornings for informal coffee meetings, and invite the first one more formally to dinner.Americans are, in other words, guided very often by their own convenience. They tend t o make friends readily, and they don’t feel it necessary to go to a great amount of trouble to see friends often when it becomes inconvenient to do so, and usually no one is hurt. But in similar circumstances people from many other cultures would be hurt very deeply.■ Slim is beautiful?(p.9-11)One sociologist once said that with the greater influence of American culture across the world, the standard of a beauty is becoming more and more Hollywood-like, characterized by a chiseled chin and a tall, slim figure. One can see such beautiful images in almost any American movie. We Chinese also share the idea that the standard of beauty includes being tall, thin, and light skinned. It seems that with the process of globalization, eastern and western beauties look more and more alike.But we have to remember that the definition of a beauty differs from culture to culture. For example, Hispanic standards of a female beauty are to have big hips, a moderate tan, and a short height. As is described in the article, in southeasternNigeria, Coca-Coca-bottle voluptuousness is celebrated and ample backsides and bosoms are considered ideals of a female beauty.Unit 2 Culture and communication文化的三个特点以及三种用途（p.45-48)Elements of communication(p.49-55)Essentials of human communication(p.68-73)Unit 3 Cultural Diversity2. What do you think of the relationship between Mr. Qian and Mr. Zhao? Are they really good friends?(p.76)To many Chinese, Mr. Qian and Mr. Zhao are really good friends, for they have helped each other from time to time. Since Mr. Zhao lent Mr. Qian a large sum of money to help his business get over the difficulty, Mr. Qian was greatly indebted to Mr. Zhao. In Chinese culture, friendship means a willingness to be indebted and repay the debt more than owed.However, many Americans, like Jackson, would say that Mr. Zhao was asking too much, for what they value more was individual achievement and independence rather than relationship with one another, and they do not like to put themselves in others’ debt, especially for those matters where Mr. Zhao asked Mr. Qian to help. Of course, Americans are willing to help their friends. But most of the time, things for which they will lend a helping hand to their friends are trivial, such as driving a friend to an important event when his own arrangements for transportation fail.Further Reading I Cultural Dimensions文化维度(p.99)■ Individualism versus collectivism(p.99)1. Individualism个人主义(1) What is individualism?Erroneous trend of thought that places individual interests above that of the collective interests and cares for oneself to the neglect of others.●The Belief of Individualism Cultures:Individualism cultures believe in individualized heroism, liberalism, and compartmentalism.●The characteristic of individualism:(p.100) 个人主义的特点Generally speaking, in cultures that tend toward individualism, an “I” consciousness prevails; competition rather than cooperation is encouraged; personal goals take precedent over groups; people tend not to emotionally dependent on organizations and institutions; and every individual has the right to his or her private property, thoughts, and opinions. These cultures stress individual initiative and achievement.2. Collectivism集体主义● The characteristics of collectivism:(p.100) 集体主义的特点Generally speaking, in collective societies, a “we’ consciousness prevails; identity is based on the social system; the individual is emotionally dependent on organizations and institutions; the culture emphasizes belonging to organizations; organizations invade private life; individuals trust group decisions; loyalty also goes to the extended family. These cultures stress interpersonal harmony.3. Huge cultural differences(p.100)底下(2) What are different ways people talk?(p.101)The way of collectivistic cultural talk is to keep silent, whereas the way individualist cultural talk is to speak out.Uncertainty avoidance(不确定性规避)(p.101)1. The definition of uncertainty avoidance（p.101)(1) What do we mean by “uncertainty”?At the core of uncertainty avoidance is the inescapable truism that:The future is unknown. The future is perhaps.(2) What do we mean by “avoidance”?To avoid unknown; To avoid perhaps(3) How to avoid “uncertainty”?These cultures try to avoid uncertainty and ambiguity by providing stability for their members, establishing more formal rules regulations.(4) Why do these cultures try to avoid uncertainty?Because these cultures feel threatened by uncertain situations; people think of uncertainty as a higher level of anxiety and as a continuous hazard.(1)What will happen when European Americans communicate with someone from a high-UAI culture?(p.102)(2)What will happen when these U.S. Americans communicate with someone from a low-UAI country?(p.102) （3）What are the characteristics of this tendency?(p.103)低权利差距的特点书上有一点●Subordinates consider superiors to be the same kind of people as they, and superiors perceive their subordinates the same way.●Peop le in power, be they supervisors or government officials, often interact with their constituents and try to look less powerful than they really are.●The powerful and the powerless try to live in concert (agreement or harmony). What are the characteristics of this tendency? (p.103)高权利差距的特点书上有一点●People in high-power-distance countries prefer large power distance, and believe that power authority are facts of life.These cultures instruct their members that people are not equal in this world and that everybody has a rightful place, which is clearly marked by countless vertical arrangements so that there is a large distance between those with power and those without.Generally speaking, power distance is clearly marked by countless vertical arrangements so that there is a large distance between those with power and those without. Children seldom interrupt the teacher, show great reverence and respect for authority, and ask very few questions.The definition of High- and Low-Contexts(p.111)1. What is high-context communication?高语境交际In high-context cultures, most of the information lies either in the setting or in the people who are part of the interaction. Very little information is actually contained in the verbal message. So the mode of communication is often indirect and implicit (implied: 含蓄的).2. What is low-context communication?低语境交际In low-context cultures, however, the verbal message contains most of the information and very little is embedded in the context or the participants. So the mode of communication is often direct and explicit (precisely and clearly expressed, leaving nothing to implication ).Unit 4 Language and Culture1.Is language just a tool in communication?◆ From the perspective of its function, language is a tool in communication.◆ In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of a people, and it comprises their historical and cultural backgrounds as well as their approach to life and their ways of living and thinking.2.What is the relationship between language and culture?语言和文化的关系◆Language is a part of culture and plays a very important role in it. Language is the key-stone of culture. Without language, culture would not be possible. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture. Language reflects culture.3.What is the relationship between environment and language?环境和语言的关系(p.120)Language reflects the environment in which we live. We use language to label the things that are around us. In addition to the environment, language reflects cultural values. For example, in the Amazon area snow is not part of the environment; therefore, people in that region do not have a word for snow. For example, the Navajo do not have a word for late. Time does not play a role in Navajo life. They think time and the passing of time are things one can’t control; therefore, one should not worry about wasting time and setting schedules.4.What’s the difference between social question and information question?(p.119)社会问题和信息问题的区别A social question, even though it comes in question, does not ask for information. It serves as a lubricant to move the conversation for ward.A Comparison of Color Terms (P.124) 颜色词的比较The color term : Red① festive, jubilant(喜气洋洋) ① violent, cruele.g. 红娘，红火 e.g. red revenge血腥复仇; a red battle一场血战② revolutionary ② armed revolutione.g. 红军，红色政权 e.g. a red revolution赤色革命③ successful, smooth ③ danger; tensione.g. 红人，走红 e.g. red alert红色警报; a red flag④ beautiful, nice ④ profligate [?pr?fl?g?t] 挥霍的, immoral放荡的e.g. 红颜，红装 e.g. a red waste of his youthThe color term : Green② knightly, chivalrous [v?lr?s] 有骑士风度的, ② fresh, newe.g. 绿林好汉；绿林大盗 e.g. a green woundThe color term : Yellow① royalty, power ① erotic, sensual色情的e.g. 黄袍，黄马褂，皇榜 e.g. yellow press黄色报刊, ～journalism黄色新闻② erotic, sensual ② funk惊惶, sneak诡秘, spiritlesse.g. 黄色书刊 e.g. yellow dog卑鄙的人; yellow streak胆怯The color term : Blue Few connotations① erotic, sensual e.g. blue talk下流的言论; blue video黄色录象② depressed e.g. holiday blue假期抑郁; a blue Monday烦闷的星期一③ nobility e.g. blue blood贵族血统④ unexpected, very rare e.g. out of blue意想不到; once in a blue千载难逢The color term: White①funeral, sadness ①pure, bright, happy, cleanness e.g. 红白喜事 e.g. white soul纯洁的心灵; white wedding吉祥的婚礼② failure, unvalued, foolish ② faithful, honest e.g. 白费力气，白痴，白旗e.g. a white spirit; white hand纯洁的心灵；清白无辜的③ tricky, crafty狡诈的③ good luck, fortune e.g.（唱）白脸 e.g.a white d良晨吉日; days marked…幸福的日子④politically reactionary ④legal, no harmful e.g. 白匪 e.g. white market正规的市场; a white lie善意的谎言The color term: Black② secret, tricky② evil, sinister险恶的e.g. 黑幕，黑名单 e.g. blackdeed恶劣行为; black art妖术; black hand黑手党③ illegal, evil ③ angry; depressed e.g. 黑手，黑点，黑货 e.g. blackdog沮丧; a black look怒目而视The color term: Purple （紫色）① nobility, dignity ① nobility, dignitye.g. 紫气东来，紫禁城 e.g. be born/marry in the purple在皇室的The color term: Pink (粉红)Few connotations① homosexual同性恋的 e.g. a product developed for the pink customer.② the best condition e.g. in the pink of healthUnit 5What can we learn from the story?(p.156)It is often customary for Americans to start their talk with some jokes or humorous anecdotes, but Germans have different ideas and they tend to consider telling jokes inappropriate in talks on serious matters. And in German culture, executives who occupy important positions are usually senior in age, and they had not expected the American manufacturer to send a young man as their representative to start business with them, a reputable German distributor. They may have found it difficult to trust such a young person.1.What do individualistic cultures tend to do?(p.179)2. What do collectivistic cultures tend to do?(p.179)3. What is direct verbal style?(p.179)直接言语方式4. What is indirect verbal style?(p.179)间接言语方式5.A Comparison Between American and Chinese Verbal Styles(p.179)6.What are individual-centered and role-centered verbal modes?(p.181)7.What else do the person- and status- oriented verbal styles emphasize?(p.181)8.What do low- and high-context cultures tend to do?(p.181)9.What does Self-Enhancement emphasize?(p.182)10.What does Self-Effacement emphasize?(p.182)11.What’s the difference between U.S. American and Japanese verbal styles?(p.182)Unit 6Warm Up(p.190)O ur appearance communicates much to the people we meet. It is one of the ways we can leave an impression upon people, especially those who we meet for the first time.In this case, even before the interview begins, a lot of messages about the person involved are already sent to each other, through the light but decisive knocking at the door, the large oak (橡树) desk behind which the woman is sitting, the mod (传统的) clothes she wears, the smiles they exchange, the way they look at and shake handswith each other.Functions of Nonverbal Communication(p.218)非言语交际的功能1.How do Arab men, Japanese and Americans greet?(p.218)2.How do people in Thailand and in the U.S. signal anotherperson to come near?(p.218)3.How do Tongans and Americans behave in the presence of superiors?(p.218)4.What does crossing one’s legs mean in the United States and in Korea?(p.218)5. How do Japanese and Muslims exchange gifts?(p.218)6. How to arrive at the truth according to Buddha and Americans?(p.218)7. What is nonverbal communication?(p.218)8. What are the types of nonverbal communication?非言语交际形式Most classifications divide nonverbal messages into two comprehensive categories: those that are primarily produced by the body (appearance, movement, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, smell, and paralanguage [副语言]); and those that the individual combines with the setting (space, time, and silence).9.Why is nonverbal communication important?(p.219)非言语交际重要性10. Functions of nonverbal communication(p.219-221)非言语交际的功能11.What is rule-governed communication system?规则控制的交流系统或体系(p.221)What does We are more than our culture mean?(p.221)Do nonverbal behaviors often occur in isolation?(p.221)12.What is paralanguage?副语言（p.223)13. What are the types of paralanguage?副语言的形式（p.223）Voice quality: 先写书上的，再加上Some have excellent voices, and some have bad voices which influence communication. It also includes laughing, crying, yelling (to shout, scream, cheer, or utter in a loud or piercing way), moaning(a low prolongedmournful sound expressive of suffering), and the like Vocal qualifiers and vocalization(p.223-224)。

跨文化交际复习资料第一章跨文化交际概述1 在文化学研究领域，通常把文化分为主流文化和亚文化。

2 文化的特征：交际的符号性、民族的选择性。

观念的整合性和动态的可变性。

3.交际的本质属性：有意识行为和无意识行为、编码过程和解码过程以及语法规则和语用规则。

4.除语言之外，人类在长期的社会实践中还创造了许多交际工具，主要有以下三大类：文字、盲文和手语、旗语、灯语和号语。

5.跨文化交际的概念和要点：跨文化交际是指在特定的交际环境中，具有不同的文化背景的交际者使用同一种语言（母语或目的语）进行的口语交际。

主要包括四个要点：A.双方必须来自不同的文化背景B.双方必须使用同一种语言交际C.交际双方进行的是实时的口语交际D.交际双方进行的是直接的语言交际第二章文化背景与跨文化交际6.从跨文化交际的现实情况来看，影响交际的制约因素主要集中在三个方面：价值观念（文化特质的深层结构）、民族性格（文化特质的外化表现）、自然环境（文化特质的历史缘由）态度7.态度由认知、情感和意动三个范畴构成。

8.态度具有四个功能：功力实现功能、自我防御功能、价值表现功能和课题认知功能9.直觉的整体性是整体思维的第一个特点，东方人以直觉的整体性和和谐的辩证性著称于世。

10.民族中心主义：某个民族把自己当做世界的中心，把本民族的文化当做对待其他民族的参照系，它以自己的文化标准来衡量其他民族的行为，并把自己的文化与其他文化对立起来。

第三章社会环境与跨文化交际11.有效的环境不仅依赖于对文化背景的认识，也依赖于对社会环境的认识，而社会环境对交际来说实际上是广义的“交际背景”12.交际背景主要包括三个要素：交际者：社会地位是决定交际的重要情景因素交际目的：可分为文化型、职业型专业型普通型交际场景：最重要的是物理场景（分时间场景和空间场景）13.社会角色就是某一特定社会群体对某一特定社会身份的行为的期望，人们社会交往从方式到内容都在不同程度上取决于人们的角色关系。

Unit 1 introduction一．文化文化是冻结了的人际交流，而交流是流动着的文化----W.B. Pearce, 1994.背景：长期以来，文化被认为是无处不在，无所不包的人类知识和行为的总体。

被笼统地当作“生活方式”，社会生活的一切方面，积淀物，价值观念体系，众多规范，乃至艺术，政治，经济，教育，修养，文学，语言，思维的总和。

概括地讲，文化即是人们所思，所言，所为，所觉的总和。

在不同的生态或自然环境下，不同的民族创造了自己特有的文化，也被自己的文化所塑造。

It is said that there are at least 150 definitions about culture.“Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks”(Sapir, 1921)“Culture is man’s medium, there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture. This means personality, how people express themselves, including shows of emotion, the way they think, how they move, how problems are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and fuction.” (E.T. Hall,1959)“A culture is a collection of beliefs, habits, living patterns, and behaviors which are held more or less in common by people who occupy particular geographic areas” (D.Brown, 1978)文化的特性：1). 文化是由人们的内隐和外显行为组成的。

Unit 9 Intercultural AdaptationSome Ideas Related to Culture Shock and Adaptation Strategies1.Culture ShockWhat is culture shock? Culture shock is a common experience of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad. It refers to phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis. It is associated with feelings in the person of estrangement (being unfriendly or hostile to others; alienation), anger, hostility, indecision, frustration, unhappiness, sadness, loneliness, homesickness, and even physical illness. The person undergoing culture shock views his new world out of resentment, and alternates between being angry at others for not understanding him and being filled with self-pity.Culture shock is caused by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols or social contact. Those cues or sighs include various ways in which we adapt ourselves to the situation of daily life: When to shake hands and what to say when we meet people, when and how to give tips, how to buy things, when to accept and when to refuse invitations, when to take statements seriously and when not. These cues, which may be words, gestures, facial expressions, or customs, are acquired by all of us in the course of growing up and are as much a part of our culture as the language we speak or the beliefs we accept. All of us depend for our peace of mind and our efficiency on hundreds of these cues, most of which we do not carry on the level of conscious awareness.Now when an individual enters a strange culture, all or most of these familiar cues are removed・ He or she is like fish out of water. Edward Hall describes a hypothetical example of an American living abroad for the first time 一at first, things in the cities look pretty much alike. There are taxis, hotels with hot and cold running water, theatres, neon lights, even tall buildings with elevators and a few people who can speak English. But pretty soon the American discovers that underneath the familiar exterior there are vast differences. When someone says "yes" it often doesn't mean yes at all, and when people smile it doesn^t always mean they are pleased.When the American visitor makes a helpful gesture he may be rebuffed; when he tries to be friendly nothing happens. People tell him that they will do things and dont The longer he stays, the more enigmatic (puzzling) the new country looks.2.Possible signs of culture shockThe following sentences describe different stages of culture shock.a.The person holds a hostile and aggressive attitude toward the host country.b.The person begins to open the way into the new cultural environment.c.The person now accepts the customs of the country as just another way of living.d.The person is fascinated by the new environment.3・ Suggestions found to be helpful in fighting culture shock1)Recognize that you are experiencing culture shock, and your reactions are not from some other source. Remember that many others have had the same experience,and that it is normal. Understand that your feelings are part of a response to learning about the other culture and consider it a positive sign.2)Give yourself permission to temporarily indulge the symptom: if you are sleepy, sleep.3)Find other from your culture and spend time together talking about home, eating, sharing experiences.4)Help someone from your home culture who has recently arrived. You will be surprised at how much you've learned.5)Communicate with family and friends. Write letters or call Remember that those at home might not realize that culture shock is a normal experience. Let them know it isa temporary phase of adjusting to life in a different culture.6)Become an expert on some aspect of the other culture. Choose something you like, and learn more about people in the host culture.7)Maintain your sense of hum0匚Laugh at the mistakes you make; they are usually not serious.8)Keep busy. Get to know the area where you live by walking around and observing. Say hello to a neighbor in the place you live, and perhaps start a friendship.9)Become friendly with classmates. Spend some out-of-school time togethe匚10)Do something you enjoy. Contact a relative or acquaintance whose address you may have. Browse through department stores. Visit a museum. Walk through a new area of town. See a play or go to a movie.11)Forget that your English is less than perfect, and feel free "to ask" people for information, guidance, or directions. Many people are friendly, and helpful. It is important not to dwell on negative incidents. Disappointments are simply a fact of life.12)Be flexible. Make up your mind that you are going to enjoy your new adventure. 4e Two views of culture shockTwo views of culture shock1)The disease viewThe culture-shocked person experiences a breakdown in communication, is unable to cope, and feels isolated and lost. He develops a number of defensive attitudes and behaviors to protect the mind from the confusion of an entirely new situation. He is a helpless victim.He can experience many emotional and mental difficulties. He may become extremely frustrated, angry, and rejecting of the new culture. He considers the host country bad, ridiculous, stupid, and hopeless.He may start to glorify his home country. He fears physical contact with anyone or anything from the new culture. He may feel harmed, tricked, deceived, injured, or ignored・ People can become physically ill from the stress of culture shock 一ulcers, headaches, stomach aches, back aches, the flu 一physical symptoms.2)The self-awareness viewThe educational experience provides a mirror in which one's own culture is reflected・Exposure to new cultures enables them to gain new insights into their own culture and society. Positive cross-cultural learning experiences typically involve change andmovement from one cultural frame of reference to another.5.Four ways of adaptationAssimilation （同化）Separation （隔绝）Marginalization （边缘化）Integration （融合）Reading I Adapting to a New Culture Comprehension questions1.What are the terms that can he applied to the concept of ^culture shock”?Terms that can be applied to the concept of—culture shock are culture stress, adaptation, transition shock, adjustment, socialization, and so on.2.What are the symptoms of a person at his or her a honeynioon stage n in the process of adapting to a new culture?In this stage, one feels a sense of excitement, pleasure, and self-satisfaction for making the decision to come to this beautiful place. In his or her view, nearly everything appears wonderful.3.Does everybody experience the Stage Two? How to cope with the negative feelings one may have at this stage?No, some people never experience this stage. In order to cope with the negative feelings one may have at this stage, one should not withdraw from all contact with the new culture and instead try to have more contact with the host nationals.4.According to the author^ what is the best thing to do when one is experiencing culture shock?The best thing to do when you are experiencing culture shock is to admit that you are experiencing culture shock, try to identify your stage of culture shock, and work toward becoming more familiar with the new culture.5.What are the problems that people are confronted with when they return to the home culture from overseas?Upon their first returning home, there is a sense of relief and excitement about being in familiar surroundings. However, a sense of depression and negative outlook follows the initial reentry cycle, for a person may find that the home culture is no longer the same. They may have difficulty readjusting to the home culture and the reentry process has often involved their suffering quietly with stress.6.What are the improvements people usually make when they get into Stage Three?When people get into Stage Three, they become more accustomed to the foods, sights, sounds, smells, and nonverbal behaviors of the new culture and have less physical problems and less confusion, uncertainty, and loneliness. Their normal contacts with host nationals are increasing and now they can accept themselves and others around them.7.What do you think of the authors suggestion of using the native language to compliment people in the host culture?It is very important for one to be able to use the native language if one hopes to survive successfully in a new cultural environment, for it can not only compliment the local people, but also greatly enhance mutual understanding.8.Do you have any other suggestions for adapting successfully to a new culture?Apart from those suggestions given by the author, one should also try to learn from those who have much experience in adapting to a new culture, which may be helpful in one's effort to overcome the difficulties in the process of cultural adaptation. Reading IIOvercoming Ethnocentrism in Communication Comprehension questions1.Why do people involved in intercultural communication often evaluate theother(s) negatively?Because in intercultural communication we tend to use the categories of our own culture to judge and interpret the behaviors of the others who are culturally different from us.2.What is the basic difference between American and Japanese communication styles?The basic difference may be that Americans are much more direct while Japanese are very indirect.3.What will happen when communicators engage in mutual negative evaluation in American・Japcinese interaction ?When communicators engage in mutual negative evaluation, the communication event may deteriorate even further. The American, sensing Japanese reluctance to confront a problem, becomes even more personal and aggressive. The Japanese, reacting to an embarrassing social indiscretion, becomes even more formal and indirect.4.What do you think the Nigerian communication style is like?Nigerians are inclined to take the more contextual style in communication. They tend to provide as much context as they can before they get to the point.5.Why does the Thai employee continue to use the formal title to address his American manager in their conversations?Because the Thai people usually consider it quite disrespectable to address the manager by his first name, for in their culture, one should always be aware of one's place in the organization's hierarchy and behave accordingly..6.Why does the author say that the case of American-British interaction deserves closer attention ?Because the case of American-British interaction is more complicated. Americans and the British employ different cultural approaches in response to different occasions. The British, like other Europeans, tend to use a low-context approach to intellectual confrontation and a more high-context style in personal matters of feeling and relationship, whereas Americans usually treat a relationship in a low-context manner handle intellectual confrontation in a high-context manner.7.What should we do to overcome the tendency to stereotype and negatively evaluate others who are culturally different from us?We can overcome the tendency to stereotype and generate negative evaluations by approaching every cross-cultural situation as a kind of experiment. Using available generalizations about the other culture, we can formulate a hypothesis and then test it for accuracy. As more knowledge of relevant cultural differences is acquired, generalizations can become more specific, hypotheses more particular, and communication difficulties more predictable.8.If we cannot help making generalizations^ how to use cultural generalizations effectively?We can use generalizations to hypothesize likely areas of contrast and possible communication problems and then acquire specific cultural differences through intercultural practice.Case StudyCase 33The problems that Li Li has encountered during her stay in the United States are typically some of those that people will usually be faced with when they enter a new culture.There are obviously distinct stages that Li Li has gone through in the process of her adaptation to the American cultural environment: honeymoon period (Letter 1), when she was fascinated and excited by almost everything in the United States and felt elated to be in the new culture; culture shock. (Letter 2), when she was immersed in many problems that she had not been prepared for and became extremely homesick; initial adjustment (Letter 3), when she learned more about American culture and cultural adaptation and began to feel much better then; mental isolation (Letter 4), when she felt frustrated and became even somewhat hostile towards Americans; and acceptance period (Letter 5), when she began to realize the positive and negative aspects of the country and have a more balanced perspective about her experiences there.What she means by writing in her fifth letter that —I think I have finally arrived in America is that she has finally learned to accept the culture very different from her own and begun to integrate herself into it. She is no longer like a fish out of water, and does not feel alienated from the new environment any more.Case 34In this case, it seems that Kevin failed to understand that customs for such a social gathering would be culturally different and Blanca were not properly prepared for experiencing a culture shock like this when she came to work and live in a new cultural environment.In Dominican culture, it is usually considered inappropriate for a young unmarried female to go to a social gathering alone without anyone else accompanying her. A chaperone is often required, and getting one's parents'pennission is also necessary. However, all this may be very strange to North Americans nowadays. Kevin could not quite understand why Blanca, already an adult supposed to be independent, had to bring her little sister along to the gathering so as to get her parents'permission.Another thing at which they differ is that in Dominican culture, somewhat like our Chinese culture, people going out together to eat seldom pay separately. The elderone(s) would pay for the younger one(s), and the male(s) would pay for the female(s). Because of having expected that Kevin would pay for their meals, Blanca didn't bringmuch money with her when she was going to The Blue Hat. Therefore, when Kevin said —separate checks, pleasell to the waiter, as North American people usually do while going out together to eat, he didn't realize that he had put Blanca in a very embarrassing situation. That's why Blanca whispered to her sister, telling her that she didn't have much money with her then and just ordered something to drink when she said they were not hungry at all.Case 35The American's personal experience in Russia has taught us not to jump to a conclusion about any other culture. We may misinterpret the behavior and intention of people in other cultures, for we are easily influenced by some popular overgeneralizations about other cultures. We have to be aware that things in other cultures may not be what they appear to us foreigners. One of the difficulties we will experience in adjusting to a new culture is that we may have taken too much of our own—cultural baggage: misleading stereotypes and preconceptions about members of that culture. In intercultural communication 让is sometimes true that a little learning about other cultures can be a dangerous thing. Distorted or biased knowledge may be worse than no knowledge at all. Even if what we know about other cultures has been proved to be right and well grounded, we still have to remember that there will often be variation within any culture. We should always be prepared for exceptions when interacting with individuals from another culture.Case 36We all know that we are members of a particular culture and we share the same cultural identity with other members of the culture. However, much of our cultural identity may simply be outside of our awareness- Not until we find ourselves in situations where our sense of self 一- our values, beliefs, practices -一is called into question do we perceive the tacit dimensions of our cultural identity. In this incident, the German woman has found out that Americans treat their neighbors in a way that is different from the way Germans do. As her expectations were thwarted, she became aware of her own cultural identity, her cultural way of thinking, of interpreting the world. This could be a painful process, which many of us, as the German woman in this case, may not be prepared for. Therefore, it is important to raise people's awareness of their culturally shaped identity and acknowledge the likelihood of some emotional disturbance during the cultural adjustment.。

《新编跨文化交际英语教程》复习资料U9(总7页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--Unit 9 Intercultural Adaptation Some Ideas Related to Culture Shock and Adaptation Strategies1. Culture ShockWhat is culture shock Culture shock is a common experience of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad. It refers to phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis. It is associated with feelings in the person of estrangement (being unfriendly or hostile to others; alienation), anger, hostility, indecision, frustration, unhappiness, sadness, loneliness, homesickness, and even physical illness. The person undergoing culture shock views his new world out of resentment, and alternates between being angry at others for not understanding him and being filled with self-pity.Culture shock is caused by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols or social contact. Those cues or sighs include various ways in which we adapt ourselves to the situation of daily life: When to shake hands and what to say when we meet people, when and how to give tips, how to buy things, when to accept and when to refuse invitations, when to take statements seriously and when not. These cues, which may be words, gestures, facial expressions, or customs, are acquired by all of us in the course of growing up and are as much a part of our culture as the language we speak or the beliefs we accept. All of us depend for our peace of mind and our efficiency on hundreds of these cues, most of which we do not carry on the level of conscious awareness.Now when an individual enters a strange culture, all or most of these familiar cues are removed. He or she is like fish out of water. Edward Hall describes a hypothetical example of an American living abroad for the first time — at first, things in the cities look pretty much alike. There are taxis, hotels with hot and cold running water, theatres, neon lights, even tall buildings with elevators and a few people who can speak English. But pretty soon the American discovers that underneath the familiar exterior there are vast differences. When someone says “yes” it often doesn’t mean yes at all, and when people smile it doesn’t always mean they are pleased.When the American visitor makes a helpful gesture he may be rebuffed; when he tries to be friendly nothing happens. People tell him that they will do things and don’t. The longer he stays, the more enigmatic (puzzling) the new country looks.2. Possible signs of culture shockThe following sentences describe different stages of culture shock.a. The person holds a hostile and aggressive attitude toward the host country.b. The person begins to open the way into the new cultural environment.c. The person now accepts the customs of the country as just another way of living.d. The person is fascinated by the new environment.3. Suggestions found to be helpful in fighting culture shock1) Recognize that you are experiencing culture shock, and your reactions are not from some other source. Remember that many others have had the same experience, and that it is normal. Understand that your feelings are part of a response to learning about the other culture and consider it a positive sign.2) Give yourself permission to temporarily indulge the symptom: if you are sleepy, sleep.3) Find other from your culture and spend time together talking about home, eating, sharing experiences.4) Help someone from your home culture who has recently arrived. You will be surprised at how much you’ve learned.5) Communicate with family and friends. Write letters or call. Remember that those at home might not realize that culture shock is a normal experience. Let them know it is a temporary phase of adjusting to life in a different culture.6) Become an expert on some aspect of the other culture. Choose something you like, and learn more about people in the host culture.7) Maintain your sense of humor. Laugh at the mistakes you make; they are usually not serious.8) Keep busy. Get to know the area where you live by walking around and observing. Say hello to a neighbor in the place you live, and perhaps start a friendship.9) Become friendly with classmates. Spend some out-of-school time together.10) Do something you enjoy. Contact a relative or acquaintance whose address you may have. Browse through department stores. Visit a museum. Walk through a new area of town. See a play or go to a movie.11) Forget that your English is less than perfect, and feel free “to ask” people for information, guidance, or directions. Many people are friendly, and helpful. It is important not to dwell on negative incidents. Disappointments are simply a fact of life.12) Be flexible. Make up your mind that you are going to enjoy your new adventure.4. Two views of culture shockTwo views of culture shock1) The disease viewThe culture-shocked person experiences a breakdown in communication, is unable to cope, and feels isolated and lost. He develops a number of defensive attitudes and behaviors to protect the mind from the confusion of an entirely new situation. He is a helpless victim.He can experience many emotional and mental difficulties. He may become extremely frustrated, angry, and rejecting of the new culture. He considers the host country bad, ridiculous, stupid, and hopeless.He may start to glorify his home country. He fears physical contact with anyone or anything from the new culture. He may feel harmed, tricked, deceived, injured, orignored. People can become physically ill from the stress of culture shock — ulcers, headaches, stomach aches, back aches, the flu — physical symptoms.2) The self-awareness viewThe educational experience provides a mirror in which one’s own culture is reflected. Exposure to new cultures enables them to gain new insights into their own culture and society.Positive cross-cultural learning experiences typically involve change and movement from one cultural frame of reference to another.5. Four ways of adaptationAssimilation （同化）Separation（隔绝）Marginalization（边缘化）Integration（融合）Reading IAdapting to a New CultureComprehension questions1. What are the terms that can be applied to the concept of “culture shock”Terms that can be applied to the concept of ―culture shock are culture stress, adaptation, transition shock, adjustment, socialization, and so on.2. W hat are the symptoms of a person at his or her “honeymoon stage” in the process of adapting to a new culture?In this stage, one feels a sense of excitement, pleasure, and self-satisfaction for making the decision to come to this beautiful place. In his or her view, nearly everything appears wonderful.3. Does everybody experience the Stage Two How to cope with the negative feelings one may have at this stage?No, some people never experience this stage. In order to cope with the negative feelings one may have at this stage, one should not withdraw from all contact with the new culture and instead try to have more contact with the host nationals.4. According to the author, what is the best thing to do when one is experiencing culture shock?The best thing to do when you are experiencing culture shock is to admit that you are experiencing culture shock, try to identify your stage of culture shock, and work toward becoming more familiar with the new culture.5. What are the problems that people are confronted with when they return to the home culture from overseas?Upon their first returning home, there is a sense of relief and excitement about being in familiar surroundings. However, a sense of depression and negative outlook follows the initial reentry cycle, for a person may find that the home culture is no longer the same. They may have difficulty readjusting to the home culture and the reentry process has often involved their suffering quietly with stress.6. What are the improvements people usually make when they get into Stage Three?When people get into Stage Three, they become more accustomed to the foods, sights, sounds, smells, and nonverbal behaviors of the new culture and have less physical problems and less confusion, uncertainty, and loneliness. Their normal contacts with host nationals are increasing and now they can accept themselves and others around them.7. What do you think of the author’s suggestion of using the native language to compliment people in the host culture?It is very important for one to be able to use the native language if one hopes to survive successfully in a new cultural environment, for it can not only compliment the local people, but also greatly enhance mutual understanding.8. Do you have any other suggestions for adapting successfully to a new culture?Apart from those suggestions given by the author, one should also try to learn from those who have much experience in adapting to a new culture, which may be helpful in one‘s effort to overcome the difficulties in the process of cultural adaptation. Reading IIOvercoming Ethnocentrism in Communication Comprehension questions1. Why do people involved in intercultural communication often evaluate the other(s) negatively?Because in intercultural communication we tend to use the categories of our own culture to judge and interpret the behaviors of the others who are culturally different from us.2. What is the basic difference between American and Japanese communication styles?The basic difference may be that Americans are much more direct while Japanese are very indirect.3. What will happen when communicators engage in mutual negative evaluation in American-Japanese interaction?When communicators engage in mutual negative evaluation, the communication event may deteriorate even further. The American, sensing Japanese reluctance to confront a problem, becomes even more personal and aggressive. The Japanese, reacting to an embarrassing social indiscretion, becomes even more formal and indirect.4. What do you think the Nigerian communication style is like?Nigerians are inclined to take the more contextual style in communication. They tend to provide as much context as they can before they get to the point.5. Why does the Thai employee continue to use the formal title to address his American manager in their conversations?Because the Thai people usually consider it quite disrespectable to address the manager by his first name, for in their culture, one should always be aware of one‘s place in the organization‘s hierarchy and behave accordingly. .6. Why does the author say that the case of American-British interaction deserves closer attention?Because the case of American-British interaction is more complicated. Americans and the British employ different cultural approaches in response to different occasions. The British, like other Europeans, tend to use a low-context approach to intellectual confrontation and a more high-context style in personal matters of feeling and relationship, whereas Americans usually treat a relationship in a low-context manner handle intellectual confrontation in a high-context manner.7. What should we do to overcome the tendency to stereotype and negatively evaluate others who are culturally different from us?We can overcome the tendency to stereotype and generate negative evaluations by approaching every cross-cultural situation as a kind of experiment. Using available generalizations about the other culture, we can formulate a hypothesis and then test it for accuracy. As more knowledge of relevant cultural differences is acquired, generalizations can become more specific, hypotheses more particular, and communication difficulties more predictable.8. If we cannot help making generalizations, how to use cultural generalizations effectively?We can use generalizations to hypothesize likely areas of contrast and possible communication problems and then acquire specific cultural differences through intercultural practice.Case StudyCase 33The problems that Li Li has encountered during her stay in the United States are typically some of those that people will usually be faced with when they enter a new culture.There are obviously distinct stages that Li Li has gone through in the process of her adaptation to the American cultural environment: honeymoon period (Letter 1), when she was fascinated and excited by almost everything in the United States and felt elated to be in the new culture; culture shock. (Letter 2), when she was immersed in many problems that she had not been prepared for and became extremely homesick; initial adjustment (Letter 3), when she learned more about American culture and cultural adaptation and began to feel much better then; mental isolation (Letter 4), when she felt frustrated and became even somewhat hostile towards Americans; and acceptance period (Letter 5), when she began to realize the positive and negative aspects of the country and have a more balanced perspective about her experiences there.What she me ans by writing in her fifth letter that ―I think I have finally arrived in America is that she has finally learned to accept the culture very different from her own and begun to integrate herself into it. She is no longer like a fish out of water, and does not feel alienated from the new environment any more.Case 34In this case, it seems that Kevin failed to understand that customs for such a social gathering would be culturally different and Blanca were not properly prepared for experiencing a culture shock like this when she came to work and live in a new cultural environment.In Dominican culture, it is usually considered inappropriate for a young unmarried female to go to a social gathering alone without anyone else accompanying her. A chaperone is often required, and getting one‘s parents‘permission is also necessary. However, all this may be very strange to North Americans nowadays. Kevin could not quite understand why Blanca, already an adult supposed to be independent, had to bring her little sister along to the gathering so as to get her parents‘permission.Another thing at which they differ is that in Dominican culture, somewhat like our Chinese culture, people going out together to eat seldom pay separately. The elder one(s) would pay for the younger one(s), and the male(s) would pay for the female(s). Because of having expected that Kevin would pay for their meals, Blanca didn‘t bring much money with her when she was going to The Blue Hat. Therefore, when Kevin said ―separate checks, please‖ to the waiter, as North American people usually do while going out together to eat, he didn‘t realize that he had put Blanca in a very embarrassing situation. That‘s why Blanca whispered to her sister, telling her that she didn‘t have much money with her then and just ordered something to drink when she said they were not hungryat all.Case 35The American‘s personal experience in Russia has taught us not to jump to a conclusion about any other culture. We may misinterpret the behavior and intention of people in other cultures, for we are easily influenced by some popularovergeneralizations about other cultures. We have to be aware that things in other cultures may not be what they appear to us foreigners. One of the difficulties wewill experience in adjusting to a new culture is that we may have taken too much of our own―cultural baggage: misleading stereotypes and preconceptions about members of that culture. In intercultural communication it is sometimes true that a little learning about other cultures can be a dangerous thing. Distorted or biased knowledge may be worse than no knowledge at all. Even if what we know about other cultures has been proved to be right and well grounded, we still have to remember that there will often be variation within any culture. We should always be prepared for exceptions when interacting with individuals from another culture. Case 36We all know that we are members of a particular culture and we share the same cultural identity with other members of the culture. However, much of our cultural identity may simply be outside of our awareness. Not until we find ourselves in situations where our sense of self --- our values, beliefs, practices --- is called into question do we perceive the tacit dimensions of our cultural identity. In this incident, the German woman has found out that Americans treat their neighbors in a way that isdifferent from the way Germans do. As her expectations were thwarted, she became aware of her own cultural identity, her cultural way of thinking, of interpreting the world. This could be a painful process, which many of us, as the German woman in this case, may not be prepared for. Therefore, it is important to raise people‘s awareness of their culturally shaped identity and acknowledge the likelihood of some emotional disturbance during the cultural adjustment.。

《跨文化交际》课程自学材料Part One Defining Culture一．讨论题1. How do you think culture and communication are related?2.What are the barriers you experienced in intercultural communication? Andhow did you handle them?3. Work in groups to decide which of the following belong to overt culture and which to covert:A. What and how people eatB. How to keep healthyC. How to raise childrenD. How to do businessE. How to use timeF. How to introduce peopleG. How to participate in ceremoniesH. Rules for facial expressions and eye contactI. RitualsJ. EtiquetteK. Work speedL. What is right or wrong, beautiful or ugly, clean or dirty, good or bad, etc.M. Theories of disease, sin, death, god or gods, sanity, self, etc.4. Can you add more to the above list? Which of them do you think are more likely to cause problems in intercultural communication? And why do you think they are?二、分析、解答题Please read the following example (taken from Scollon & Scollon, 2000) and study how communication is affected by culture.Two men meet on a plane from Tokyo to Hong Kong. Chu Hon-fei is a Hong Kong exporter who is returning from a business trip to Japan. Andrew Richardson is an American buyer on his first business trip to Hong Kong. It Is a convenient meeting for them because Mr. Ch u’s company sells some of the products Mr. Richardson has some to Hong Kong to buy. After a bit of conversation they introduce themselves to each other.Mr. Richardson: By the way, I’m Andrew Richardson. My friends call me Andy. This is my business card.M r. Chu: I’m David Chu. Pleased to meet you, Mr. Richardson. This is my card.Mr. Richardson: No, no. Call me Andy. I think we’ll be doing a lot of business together.Mr. Chu: Yes, I hope so.Mr. Richardson (reading Mr. Chu’s card ) : Chu, Hon-fei. Hon-fei, I’ll give you a call tomorrow as soon as I get settled at my hotel.Mr Chu (smiling): Yes, I’ll expect your call.When these two men separate, they leave each other with very different impressions of the situation. Mr. Richardson is very pleased to have made the acquaintance of Mr. Chu and feels they have gotten off to a very good start. They have established their relationship on a first-name basis and Mr. Chu’s smile seems toindicate that he will be friendly and easy to do business with. Mr. Richardson is very particularly pleased that he has treated Mr. Chu with respect for his Chinese background by calling him Hon-fei rather than using the western name, David, which seems to him an unnecessary imposition of western culture.In contrast, Mr. Chu feels quite uncomfortable with Mr. Richardson. He feels it will be difficult to work with him, and that Mr. Richardson might be rather insensitive to cultural differences. He is particularly bothered that Mr. Richardson used his given name, Hon-fei, instead of either David or Mr. Chu.How do you account for their different impressions? Does culture play a role in the communication between these two men?(You may turn to 跨文化交际自学参考答案)三、思考题：1. We have learned some characteristics of culture. For example, culture is learned. Culture can be learned through diverse ways, proverbs being one of them. Now study the following proverbs and decide what value(s) they represent, which of them are still strong in the American culture and the Chinese culture respectively, and which don’t apply any longer.Proverbs1.Blood is thicker than water.2.Sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander.3.Too many cooks spoil the broth.4.The early bird catches the worm.5.God helps those who help themselves.6.Haste makes waste.7.Time is money.8. A man’s home is his castle.9.Think three times before you take action.10.Modesty makes you progress。

Chapter One Introduction to Intercultural CommunicationHuman being draw close to one another by their common culture, but habits and customs keep them apart.---Confucian Saying 1. Definition ：Intercultural Communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbolsystems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.2. A short history of intercultural communication2.1 The Burgeoning PeriodThe term “Intercultural communication” itself did not appear until Hall’s The silent language was published in 1959.2.2 From 1960 to 1970a. Two preventative books reflect the continuous efforts made by scholars in the field in the 1960’s:b. Olive’s Culture and Communication (1962) and Smith’s Communication and Culture (1966)c. The first college class in this field taught in 1966 at the University of Pittsburgh.2.3 From 1971 to 1980a. The 1970s witnessed rapid development in the field of intercultural communication.b. In 1973, Samovar and Porter published Intercultural Communication: A readerc. Indiana University awarded the first doctoral degree in intercultural communication.d. Condon and Yousef’s Introduction to Intercultural Communication (1975)2.4 From 1981 to the Present Timea. Condon and Yousef’s stress on cultural value orientations and communication behavior parallelsb. Hofstede’s (1984) later work on cultural valuesc .Hall’s writing on high-context and low-context cultures in Beyond Culture (1977).d. Scholars in the early 1970s began to make their contributions in research and teaching by the 1980s.3. Importance of Intercultural CommunicationThree developments3.1 The new technology3.2 The new Population3.3 The new Economic Arena4. Studying Intercultural CommunicationWe have met the enemy, and he is us. ---PogoThree main obstacles:First, Culture lacks a distinct crystalline structure; it is often riddled with contradictions and paradoxes.Second, Culture cannot be manipulated or held in check; therefore, it is difficult to conduct certain kinds of research on this topic.Third, we study other cultures from the perspective of our own culture, so our observations and our conclusions are tainted by our orientation.5. Intercultural CommunicationThe main conceptions in intercultural communication:Intercultural communication: Face-to-face communication between people from differing cultural backgrounds. Intercultural communication is defined as the extent to which there is shared interpersonal communication between members of the same culture.5.1 Host and Minority CultureThe host culture is the mainstream culture of any one particular country.Minority cultures: cultural groups that are smaller in numerical terms in relation to the host culture.5.2 Subcultures (Co-cultures)Subculture: a smaller, possibly nonconformist, subgroup within the host culture.E.G. : Black American; Native American; Hispanic- American, Chinese-American, etc.5.3 MulticulturalismMulticulturalism is the official recogniti on of a country’s cultural and ethnic diversity (Hollway, 1992)5.4 Cross-cultural Communication1.Cross-cultural communication is face-to-face communication between representatives of business, government and professional groups from different cultures.2.Diplomacy is one of the oldest forms of cross-cultural communication. Travel and tourism is a second form of cross-cultural communication.3.A third form of cross-cultural communication unique to this has been the growth of the mass media.Most recently, cross-cultural communication has been accelerated by cross-border information flows brought about by computerization.5.5 Principles of Intercultural CommunicationCondon has highlighted three areas as most problematic in intercultural exchange:nguage barrier2.Different values3.Different patterns of behaviors. (Condon & Saito, 1974)5.6 RationaleWorldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions:First, changes in technology, travel, economic and political systems, immigration patterns, and population density have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures.Second, one’s cultural perceptions and experiences help determine how one sends and receives messages.5.7 Approach1.Fundamental to our approach to intercultural communication is the belief that all forms of human communication involve action.2.This book takes a view of intercultural communication that is both pragmatic and philosophical.5.8 PhilosophyFirst, it is to the advantage of all 5.5 billions of us who share the planet to improve our interpersonal and intercultural communication abilities.Second, most of the obstacles to understanding can be overcome with motivation, knowledge, and appreciation of cultural diversity.Activities: Right or Wrong?•You need to learn to accept and like other cultures.•You need to respect the validity of other cultures.•Underneath, people are fundamentally the same.•Culture is pervasive.•I can do exactly what I want. My actions are independent of my culture.•I don’t have total freedom of choice in my behavior.•Culture and ethnicity are the same.•If we have more contact, intercultural understanding will improve.•Cultural worth is in the eye of the beholder.•The perceptions of the individual relate to the perceptions of the group.Chapter Two Language Use and Communication•You cannot speak of ocean to a well-fog, ----the culture of a narrow sphere.•You cannot speak of ice to a summer insect,----the creature of a season.---Chang Tsu Communication:1.our ability to share our ideas and feelings2.is the basis of all human contact.1. Human Communication1.1 Intentional and Unintentional Behavio rThe first one describes communication as the process whereby one person deliberately attempts to convey meaning to another.The second school of thought proposes that the concept of intentionality fails to account for all the circumstances in which messages are conveyed unintentionally.1.2 A Definition of CommunicationCommunication occurs whenever meaning is attributed to behavior or the residue of behavior.1.3 The Components of CommunicationA. The Source=>B. Encoding =>C. The Message=>D. The Channel=>E. The Receiver =>F. Decoding =>G. Feedback2. Pragmatics: Language Use2.1 The Problem(1) We must first distinguish between using language to do something and using language in doing something.e.g. Hello Goodbye Pass the salt. Please. How old are you? It’ s raining.(2) What is (successful) linguistic communication? How does (successful) communication work?2.2 The Message Model of Linguistic of Linguistic CommunicationSpeaker HearerMessage MessageEncoding =»Sounds =»Decoding2.3 Problems with the Message ModelFirst, DisambiguationSince many expressions are linguistically ambiguous, the hearer must determine which of the possible meanings of an expression is the one the speaker intended as operative on that occasion.eg1, flying planes can be dangerous.eg2, A: We lived in Illinois, but we got Milwaukee’s weather.B: Which was worseSecond, Underdetermination of referenceThird, underdetermination of communicative intent (by meaning)Fourth, nonliteralityFifth, indirectionSixth, noncommunicative acts2.4 An Inferential Approach to CommunicationThe basic idea:linguistic communication is a kind of cooperative problem solving.The Inferential Model of communication proposes that in the course of learning to speak our language we also learn how to communicate in that language, and learning this involves acquiring a variety of shared beliefs or presumptions, as well as a system of inferential strategies.Presumptions: 1. Linguistic Presumption 2. Communicative presumption3.Presumption of literalness4.Conversational presumption2.5 Inferential Theories versus the Message ModelSix specific defects:1. The Message Model cannot account for the use of ambiguous expressions2.Real world referencemunicative intentions4.Nonliteral communication5.Indirect communication6.Noncommunicative uses of language3. The Characteristics of Communication3.1 No Direct Mind-to-Mind ContactIt is impossible to share our feelings and experiences by means of direct mind-to-mind contact.3.2 We can Only InferBecause we do not have direct access to the thoughts and feelings of other human beings, we can only infer what they are experiencing inside their individual homes, to continue our analogy.3.3 Communication Is SymbolicSymbols, by virtue of their standing for something else, give us an opportunity to share our personal realities.3.4 Time-Binding Links Us Together3.5 We Seeks to Define the World3.6 Communication Has A Consequence3.7 Communication Is Dynamic3.8 Communication Is Contextual3.9 Communication Is Self-Reflective4. The Brain Is an Open SystemFirst, this concept of the brain alerts us that while each of us can learn new ideas throughout the life, what we know at any one instant is a product of what the brain has experienced.Second, the notion of the brain as an open system reminds us that we can learn from each other.]Third, because learning is a lifelong endeavor, we can use the information to which we are exposed to change the way we perceive and interact with the world.5. We Are Alike and We Are DifferentWe are alike:First, everyone realizes at some point that life is finite.Second, each of us discovers somewhat early in life that we are isolated from all other human beings.Third, all of us are thrown into a world that forces us to make choices.Finally, the world has no built-in scheme that gives it meaning.We are different:First, the external world impinges on our nerve endings, causing something to happen with us.Second, we think about what is happening by employing symbols from our past.Activities: Right or Wrong?•Sophistication is a subjective concept which is “ in the eye of the beholder”•Realize that your language reflects and influences the way you se the world.•All cultures impose some constrains on the body.•Some language can’t distinguish between the present and the past.•All cultures express politeness by using words like “please” and “thank you”.•All cultures have standards for politeness and ways of being polite.•All cultures are concerned about face. This is what motivates politeness.•The concept of “face” is universal. Without it, there would be no politeness.•Your way of showing that you are paying attention may be considered inappropriate by other cultures.•All cultures require and value politeness, but the ways in which the politeness is achieved may vary significantly.Chapter Three Culture and CommunicationCulture is the medium evolved by humans to survive. Nothing in our lives is free from cultural influence. It is the keystone in civilization’s arch and is the medium through which all of life’s events must flow. We are culture. (Edward T. Hall) Culture also determines the content and conformation of the messages we send. This omnipresent quality of culture leads hall to conclude that “there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture”(Edward THall,1977)Culture and communication are so inextricably bound that most cultural anthropologists believe the terms are virtually synonymous. This relationship is the key factor to understanding intercultural communication.Studying intercultural communication without studying culture would be analogous to investigation the topic of physics without looking at matter.In this chapter,We shall explain why cultures develop, define culture, discuss the major components of culture, and link culture to communication by offering a model of intercultural communication that isolates the characteristics of culture most directly related to communication.1. Culture is our invisible teacher1.1 The basic function of communicationPeople maintain cultures to deal with problems or matters that concern them.-------William A HavilandIt serves the basic need of laying out a predictable world in which each of us is firmly grounded and thus enable us to make sense of our surroundings.Malinowski: three types of needs:Basic needs (food, shelter, physical protection)Derived needs (organization of work, distribution of food, defense, social control)Integrative needs (psychological security, social harmony, purpose in life)1.2 Some Definitions of CultureE. Adamson Hoebel and Everett Frost: culture is an “integrated system of learned behavior patterns which are characteristic of the members of a society and which are not the result of biological inheritance (Hoebel and Frost, 1976.6) For them, culture is not genetically predetermined or instinctive.”First, as all scholars of culture believe, culture is transmitted and maintained solely through communication and learning, culture is learned.Second, scholars who take the sweeping view believe, each individual is confined at birth to a specific geographic location and thus exposed to certain messages while denied others.e.g. Geert Hofstede, a psychological perspective, defining culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another”(Hofstede,1984). Both of these definitions stress the mental conditioning that culture experiences impose.Daniel Bates and Fred Plog: culture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the member of a society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.This definition included not only patterns of behaviors but also patterns of thought (shared meaning that the member of a society attach to various phenomena, natural and intellectual, including religion and ideologies), artifacts (tools, pottery, house, machines, works of art), and the culturally transmitted skills and techniques used to make the artifacts (G.Bates, 1990, 7)We define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. Culture can therefore include everything from rites of passage to concepts of the soul.1.3 The Characteristics of CultureA. Culture is innate; it’s learned.1. Without the advantage of learning from those who lived before us, we should not have culture. You can appreciate, therefore, why we say that learning is the most important of all the characteristics of culture.2. Bates and Plog note: whether we feed ourselves by growing yams or hunting wild game or by herding camels and raising wheat, whether we explain a thunderstorm by attributing it to meteorological conditions or to a fight among the gods —such thins are determined by what we learn as part of our enculturation (Bates and Plog,1990,19).The term enculturation denotes the total activity of learning one’s culture. As Hoebel and Frost say, “conscious or un conscious conditioning occurring within that process whereby the individual, as child and adult, achieves competence in a particular culture”3. Enculturation takes place through interaction (your parents kiss you and you learn about kissing –whom to kiss, when to kiss, and so on ), observation (you watch your father do most of the driving of the family car and you learn about gender roles –what a man does, what a woman does), and imitation (you laugh at the same jokes your parents laugh at and you learn about humor –it is funny if someone slips as long as he or she does not get hurt).e.g. The mouth maintains silence in order to hear the heart talk. This saying expresses the value Belgians place on intuition and feelings in interaction.He who speaks has no knowledge, and he who has knowledge does not speak. This saying from Japan reinforces the value of silence.We concluded our description of the first characteristic of culture by reminding you of how our discussion directly relates to intercultural communication.First, many of the behaviors we label as cultural are only automatic and invisible, but also engaged in without our being aware of them.Second, common experience produces common behaviors.B. Culture is transmitted from Generation to GenerationFor culture to exist and endure, they must endure that their crucial message and elements are passed on.Richard Brislin: if there are values considered central to a society that have existed for many years, there must be transmitted from one generation to another. (Brislin,1993,6). This idea supports our assertion that culture and communication are linked: it is communication that makes culture a continuous process, for once culture habits, principles, values, attitudes, and the like are “formulated”they are communicated to each individual.The content of culture is what gets transferred from generation to generation.e.g. American tell each generation to always look forward.In China, the message is to look to the past for guidance and strength..For Mexicans and Native Americans, the message is that cooperation is more important than the contest.In Korea, the message is to respect and treasure the elderly.C . Culture is based on SymbolsOur symbol—making ability enable us to both learn our culture and pass it on from individual to individual, group to group, and generation to generation.The portability of symbols allows us to package and store them as well as transmit them. The mind, books, pictures, films, videos, computer disk and the like enable a culture to preserve what it deems to be important and worthy of transmission. Culture Is therefore historical and preservable.D Culture is subject to ChangeCultures are dynamic systems that do not exist in a vacuum, so they are subject to change.Cultures change through several mechanisms, the two most common are innovation and diffusion.Innovation is usually defined as the discovery of new practices, tools, or concepts that many members of the culture eventually accept and that may produce slight changes in social habits and behaviors (Nanda, 1994, 26)Diffusion is the borrowing by one culture from another and another way in which changes occursE. Culture is integratedThe nature of language makes it impossible to do otherwise, yet in reality culture functions as an integrated whole. This one aspect of culture has altered American attitudes, values, and behaviors.F Culture is EthnocentricWilliam Sumner: defined ethnocentrism as “the technical name for the view of things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it”(Sumner,1940,13)Ethnocentric is the perceptual lens through which cultures interpret and judge each other.Ethnocentric is found in every culture.The logical extensions of Ethnocentric are detachment and division, which can take a variety of forms, including war.e.g. East Indians looking down on the Pakistanis, the Japanese feeling superior to the Chinese, and ethnic rivalries causing strife between Serbs and Croats in the former Yugoslavia.Why culture is such a puissant influence on all our lives?The life history of the individual is first and foremost an accommodation to the patterns and standards traditionally handed down in his community. From the moment of his birth the customs into which he is born shape his experience and behavior. By the time he can he the little creature of his culture, and by the time he is grown and able to take part in its activities his impossibilities.2. Language and CultureLanguage and culture are inextricably linked, so that learning language means learning culture and vice versa.With language and culture so inextricably linked, it is obvious that a language learner has more to do than master a new grammar and vocabulary. He must also learn what utterances are appropriate to particular situations.3.Teaching CultureIn order to successfully integrate considerations of cultural appropriacy into language teaching, it is necessary that both teacher and students examine their own assumptions of what is natural. This mutual exploration, and the establishment of the relativity of what is considered to be natural, allows participants from both cultures to be both teachers and learners. The mayor skills involved are the ability to suspend judgment, to analyze a situation as a native of that culture would analyze it, and choose acourse of action that is most culturally appropriate to the situation.4. Forms of Intercultural CommunicationInterracial communication occurs when source and receiver are from different races. The team race pertains to physical characteristics, such as color of skin, contour of head, shape of eyes, texture of hair, and the like. Interethnic communication occurs when the participants are of the same race but of different ethnic origins or backgrounds.Intercultural communication is communication between members of the same culture.Two things should be obvious at this point in our description of the forms of intercultural communication.First, many people hold membership in a number of different groups and co-cultures are also influenced by the norms and values of the dominant culture. As Julia Wood points out, these affiliations can be based on race, ethnic background, gender, age, sexual preference, and so forth (Wood, 1994, 157).Second, although there might be minor distinctions among instances of interracial, interethnic, and intercultural communication. They all share the same processes and elements.Two essential characteristics of culture can be applied to co-cultures.First, the process by which culture dictates what one experiences.Second, the process whereby culture, through carriers transmits these experiences so that they are learned by each new set of members-be they children or adul ts.5. An Intercultural Communication (P119)In this figure, three cultures are represented by three geometric shapes: Cultures A and B are similar to one another and are represented, respectively, by a square and an irregular octagon that resembles a square; and Culture C, which is quite different from Cultures A and B, is distinguished from both by its circular shape and its distance from Cultures A and B. Culture’s influence on intercultural communication is a function of the dissimilarity of the cultures, which is indicated in the model by the degree of change in the pattern of the message arrows. The change that occurs in messages between Cultures A and B is much less than that in messages between Cultures A and C and between Cultures B and C. This is because Cultures A and B are similar. Hence, the repertories of social reality, communicative behaviors, and meanings are similar and the decoding process produces results compatible with the original content of the message. Because Culture C is quite different from Cultures A and B, the decoded message is different and resembles more closely the patterns of CultureC.6. Elements of Intercultural CommunicationThese elements fall into three general groupings-perception, verbal processes, and nonverbal processes.6.1 PerceptionMarshall Singer says: “the process by which an individual selects, evaluates, and organizes stimuli from the external world”(Singer, 1987, 9) Perception is an internal process whereby we convert the physical energies of the world into meaningful internal experiencesFirst, people behave as they do because of the ways in which they perceive the world.Second, one learns these perceptions, and the behaviors they produce, as part of one’s cultural experiences.The three major socio-cultural elements that directly influence the meanings we attach to our perceptions are as follows: beliefs, values, and attitudes; world view; and social organization.A Beliefs ,Values ,and Attitude SystemsBeliefs are subjective probabilities that some object or event is related to some other object or event or to some value, concept, or attribute.For example, we have beliefs about religion (Jesus is the son of God), events (the Desert Storm war was necessary), other people (I know John is smart), and even ourselves (I am very witty).Values are the evaluative components of our belief, value, and attitude systems. Values generally are normative in that they inform a member of a culture what is good and bad, right and wrong, true and false, positive and negative, and the like.An attitude is a learned tendency to respond in a consistent manner to a given object of orientation. Our attitudes prepare us to react to the objects and events in our environment.B．World ViewWorld view is most important because it is a culture’s orientation toward such things as God, nature, life, death, the universe, and the other philosophical issues concerned with the meaning of life and existence.World view influences a culture at a very deep and profound level. Its effects often are quite subtle and do not reveal themselves in obvious ways. It might be helpful to think of a culture’s world view as a pebble tossed into a pond.C Social OrganizationThe manner in which a culture organizes itself is reflected in that culture’s institutions. These institutions have a variety of configurations and can be formal or informal. Our schools, families, and governments all help determine how we perceive the world and behave in it.The family is also important because by the time the other major cultural institutions influence the child, the family has already exposed it to countless experiences.School, whether it be a private academic institution or a thatched hut, is another social organization that exerts its influence on perception and communication.6.2 V erbal ProcessesA . Verbal LanguageLanguage is an organized, generally agreed upon, learned symbol system used to represent the experiences within a geographic or cultural community.B . Patterns of Though6.3 Nonverbal ProcessesA Bodily BehaviorIn Germany, women as well as men shake hands at the outset of every social encounter; in the United States, women seldom shake hands.B Concept of TimeThe Germans and the Swiss are even more aware of time than we are. For them, trains, planes, and meals must always beon time.C Use of SpaceAmericans prefer to sit face-to-face or at right angles to one another, whereas Chinese generally prefer side-by-side seating.Chapter 4: Culture Diversity in PerceptionWarming Exercises1.What are the different opinions about moon between cultures?RE: American perception: they often see a man in the moon, many Native Americans perceive a rabbit.Chinese perception: they claim that a lady Chang Er who lives on the moon is fleeing her husband.Samoans’ percep tion: they report that a woman is weaving.2.What does “V” symbolize in American and Australian culture?Re: Americans think the gesture that is made with two fingers usually represents victory.Australians equate this gesture with a rude American one which is usually made with the middle finger.In both of these examples, the external objects (moon and hands) are the same, yet the response are different.The reason is perception.3.What is perception?Re: Perception is the means by which we make sense of our physical and social world.4.Why must we learn perception in intercultural communication?Re: Because our information and knowledge of external physical and social world are mediated by perceptual processes, perception is primary in the study of intercultural communication. As Trenholm and Jensen remind us, “culture is that makes social cognitions ‘social’”.1. Understanding Perception----the process of selecting, organizing ,and interpreting sensory data in a way that enable us to make sense of our world.----based on beliefs, values, and attitude systems.1) Beliefs are our convictions in the truth of something.—with or without proof.2) An attitude is a combination of beliefs about a subject, feeling toward it ,and any predisposition to act toward it.3) Values are enduring attitudes about the preferability of one belief over another.Phi2. Stages of Process of PerceptionThe first stage is recognition or identification, in which a configuration of light or sound waves is identified.E.g. the perception of a car or music.At the second stage, the interpretation and evaluation which has been identified take place.The result of this process is not the same for all people, however, the process is learned therefore influenced primarily by culture.How we interpret and evaluate what we hear is very much a function of our culture.1.1 Culture and PerceptionCulture primarily determines the meanings we apply to the stimuli that reaches us. Not everyone in a particular culture is exactly the same. There is diversity within cultures just as there is diversity between cultures.American and Japanese are different in the credibility when they talk.Here are some stories to illustrate the differences in credibility between American and Japanese.American 1: Do you like the music? American 2: No. It’s too noisy.American 1: Do you like the music? Chinese: It’s a bit noisy. Except for that, all is good.As for Americans, credible people seem to be direct, rational, decisive, unyielding, and confident.Once the US humor writer Dave Barry was in Japan. He had to fly from Tokyo to Osaka. So he went to the airport for the ticket.DB: A ticket to Osaka please.Ticket seller with smile: ah, ticket to Osaka, just a moment please.DB: How much?Ticket seller: It’s really good to take a train from Tokyo to Osaka. You can have some nice views on your way. Do you want atrain ticket?DB: No. an airline ticket, please.Ticket seller: ah…actually, it is good to take a bus. It is fully equipped, very comfortable. How about a bus ticket?。

跨文化交际概论-课程各章节内容要点整理第一章跨文化语言交际概述第一节文化、语言和交际一、关于文化的概念（一）文化的内涵和特性1、关于文化的内涵概括地讲，文化即是人们所思、所言（言语和非言语）、所为、所觉的总和。

在不同的生态或自然环境下，不同的民族创造了自己特有的文化，也被自己的文化所塑造。

交际即文化，文化即交际，如果没有交际，文化是难以形成的。

科学的提法是：“文化是冻结了的人际交流，而交际是流动着的文化。

”2、关于文化的特性（1）文化由人们的内稳和外显的行为组成。

（2）文化是通过符号被人们习得和传授的知识。

（3）文化是群体行为规则的集合。

（4）文化与社会是潜在现实中两种类型或两个层面上的概念。

（5）文化是历史所衍生及选择的传统观念。

（6）文化和交际具有同一性。

（7）文化是动态多变的。

（8）文化具有选择性。

（9）文化是群体或民族中心主义的意识产物。

（10）文化是个非常复杂的系统。

（二）文化定势、群体文化、亚文化1、文化定势和群体文化世界上大多数社会中都可能存在着若干群体或社团，这些群体或社团对地域、历史、生活方式、世界观，以及价值观等方面的共享，使其成员形成并发展和强化了自己独特的文化和与其相关的交际文化。

存在两种不同类型的文化范畴：一是全民族的文化，即整体的文化形象，二是具体的个性文化，即是按个人的社会情况或个人所属文化群体为基础的文化，有的学者把这种文化称之为群体文化或副文化。

2、亚文化与亚群体在跨文化交际研究中，对文化分类的一种较为传统的做法是把文化分成主流文化和亚文化。

亚文化是指存在于某一主流文化之中的一种非主流文化，某一少数群体的文化，这一文化中的行为模式区别于主流文化的行为模式。

二、关于语言的概念（一）语言是交际工具1、交际媒介言语交际是人类社会中必需的另一种交换活动，交换的是信息、思想、情感。

语言就是一个符号系统，一个人脑子里贮存了符号和符号的组合规则，他就可以和别人交际，传情达意，沟通信息。