P-Focus on Form in Second Language Vocabulary Learning

2024江西学位英语考试真题及答案2024 Jiangxi College English TestPart I Listening Comprehension (30 points)Section A (10 points)Directions: In this section, you will hear 10 short conversations. At the end of each conversation, a question will be asked about what was said. Both the conversation and the question will be spoken only once. After each question, there will be a pause. During the pause, you must read the four choices marked A), B), C) and D), and decide which is the best answer. Then mark the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet with a single line through the center.1. A) Go ahead.B) You’re welcome.C) It’s a pleasure.D) You’re welcome.2. A) No, I didn’t.B) Yes, I know.C) No, you can’t.D) How do you do?3. A) Traffic in town.B) The latest film.C) The place of interest.D) The world population.4. A) Reading a book.B) Listening to music.C) Watching TV.D) Surfing the internet.5. A) It was expensive.B) It was helpful.C) She didn’t like it.D) She couldn’t hear it.6. A) You have lost it.B) It is here on my desk.C) Check with the lost and found.D) If you want it back, leave a message.7. A) A new coat.B) His opinion.C) Stress over grades.D) Wet weather.8. A) In September.B) In August.C) In November.D) In December.9. A) On Saturday.B) On Sunday.C) On Friday.D) On Monday.10. A) A bookshop.B) A shoe store.C) A flower shop.D) A fruit store. Section B (10 points)Directions: In this section, you will hear 3 short passages. At the end of each passage, you will hear some questions. Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet with a single line through the center.Passage OneQuestions 11 to 13 are based on the passage you have just heard.11. A) To enjoy the beautiful scenery.B) To have a barbecue.C) To go bird-watching.D) To take a walk.12. A) 4 hours.B) 3 hours.C) 1 hour.D) Half an hour.13. A) White.B) Red.C) Black.D) Brown.Passage TwoQuestions 14 to 16 are based on the passage you have just heard.14. A) The history of college dorms.B) Information about school traditions.C) The advantages of living on campus.D) Ways to improve the dorm life.15. A) Difficulties in paying the rent.B) Lack of social life.C) Dirty and noisy environment.D) High cost and limited facilities.16. A) Clean and quiet.B) Having plenty of restaurants.C) With comfortable beds and a nice view.D) Feeling lonely and unsafe.Passage ThreeQuestions 17 to 20 are based on the passage you have just heard.17. A) Here.B) In the classroom.C) In the library.D) In a restaurant.18. A) Title of the book.B) Author of the book.C) Number of copies.D) Total cost.19. A) Next Monday.B) This Monday.C) Last Monday.D) Two weeks from Tuesday.20. A) Pay the bill before leaving.B) Collect the book at noon.C) Read and return by 3 p.m. Friday.D) Come back to check on Friday.Part II Reading Comprehension (40 points)Section A (15 points)Directions: For each blank in the following passage, there are four words or phrases marked A), B), C) and D). Fill in each blank with the word or phrase that best fits the context.The projection is that the number of students in the stage would increase to 2 million people by 2024, which is 7 years later than the forecast in an annual report by a registered education business grant from the National Institute for Education. The standard 21 have filled 811,000 spots during a period 22 took public interest 23 the increase, creating an average of about 121,000 each year. However, the projection of 24 will have 2 million individuals researching on the same stage in 7 years, however, the rate of expansion is projected to 25 between 2021 and 2024 which will see the rate of filling 26 to 136,000 students each year. This progression has been slow, however it is very likely that the rate of absorption of students will increase by 27 which may be due to an increase in the standard of delivery from universities and technical institutions offering tutorials as well asan advanced form of academics as well as the realization by students in academic benefits.21. A) calculationB) estimateC) predictionD) assessment22. A) whoB) asC) whereD) which23. A) ofB) forC) intoD) with24. A) workB) employeesC) jobsD) recruitments25. A) raiseB) expandC) be higherD) increase26. A) upB) outC) downD) in27. A) dataB) tableC) sourcesD) numberSection B (15 points)Directions: Read the following three passages. Each passage is followed by several questions or unfinished statements. For each of them, there are four choices marked A), B), C) and D).Choose the best answer and mark the corresponding letter on the Answer Sheet.Passage OneFast Food RestaurantsFast food is one of the world’s most profitable industries, with companies earning billions of dollars each year. Fast food restaurants have in fact become so popular that there are now 44,000 locations in over 100 different countries.28. How many locations do fast food restaurants have worldwide?A) 44,000B) Over 100C) MillionsD) Thousands29. How much money do fast food companies earn yearly?A) MillionsB) BillionsC) TrillionsD) Thousands30. In how many countries do fast food restaurants have locations?A) 44B) 100C) 200D) 300Passage TwoBullying in SchoolsBullying has become a serious issue in schools worldwide, with many students experiencing verbal and physical abuse from their peers. It is estimated that over 20% of students are bullied in school each year.31. What percentage of students are bullied in school annually?A) 10%B) 20%C) 30%D) 40%32. What kinds of abuse do students experience from their peers?A) Verbal and physicalB) Emotional and mentalC) Physical and mentalD) Verbal and emotional33. Why has bullying become a serious issue in schools?A) Lack of disciplineB) Lack of awarenessC) Lack of attentionD) Lack of preventionPassage ThreeTechnology in EducationTechnology has revolutionized the way education is delivered in schools around the world. With the use of computers, tablets, and interactive whiteboards, teachers can now engage students in more interactive and creative ways.34. How has technology changed education?A) It has made it more engagingB) It has made it more difficultC) It has made it more traditionalD) It has made it more boring35. What devices are used in schools for teaching?A) Tablets and interactive boardsB) Books and pensC) Desks and chairsD) Paper and pencils36. In what way can teachers engage students using technology?A) By giving lecturesB) By assigning homeworkC) By using online resourcesD) By creating interactive lessonsSection C (10 points)Directions: Read the following passage. Answer the questions according to the information in the passage.Volunteering is a great way to make a difference in your community. Whether you are helping out at a local charity or organizing a community event, volunteering can be a rewarding experience. Not only does it provide you with the opportunity to give back, but it also allows you to meet new people and develop new skills.37. What is volunteering?38. What are the benefits of volunteering?39. What can you do as a volunteer?40. How can volunteering help you develop personally?Part III Writing (30 points)Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay on one of the following topics. You should write at least 150 words.1. The importance of learning a second language2. The impact of social media on society3. The benefits of travel4. The role of technology in educationSample answers:1. The importance of learning a second languageLearning a second language has numerous benefits. It allows people to communicate with others from different cultures and countries, which can lead to new friendships and opportunities. Additionally, learning a second language can improve cognitive abilities and enhance problem-solving skills. Overall, learning a second language is a valuable skill that can enrich one's personal and professional life.2. The impact of social media on societySocial media has had a profound impact on society, shaping the way people communicate and interact with each other. It has transformed the way information is shared and has created new opportunities for businesses and individuals to connect with others. However, social media also has its drawbacks, such as the spread of misinformation and the negative impact it can have on mental health. Despite these challenges, social media remains a powerful tool for connecting people and sharing ideas.3. The benefits of travelTraveling allows people to explore new cultures, broaden their perspectives, and create lasting memories. It provides an opportunity to step out of one's comfort zone and experience different ways of life. Traveling can also improve language skills, increase cultural awareness, and promote personal growth. Overall, travel offers countless benefits and can be a transformative experience for those who embark on new adventures.4. The role of technology in educationTechnology has revolutionized the way education is delivered, making it more accessible and interactive. It has allowed students to access information and resources from anywhere in the world, enabling personalized learning experiences. Technology in education has also transformed the way teachers engage with students, creating new opportunities for collaboration and creativity. While technology has its challenges, such as screen time and digital distractions, its role in education is undeniable and will continue to shape the future of learning.In conclusion, the 2024 Jiangxi College English Test covers listening comprehension, reading comprehension, and writing. By preparing for and taking this exam, students can improvetheir English language skills and gain valuable experience in academic testing. Good luck to all the test-takers!。

SYLLABUSCourse: Theoretical Foundations of ESL 二语习得与教学研究Instructor: Dr Xiaoguang ChengTime: Fall of 2011Course Materials:Brown, H. D. 2007 (Fifth Edition). Principles of language learning and teaching.NY: Pearson..Mitchell, R. and F. Myles. 2004. (Second Edition). Second language learning theories.London: Arnold.Order of Presentations:1. B. Chap 1. Language, learning, and teaching2. M & M. Chap 1. Second language learning: key concepts and issues3. M & M. Chap 2. The recent history of second language learning research4. B. Chap 2. First language acquisition （biological）5. B. Chap 3. Age and acquisition （biological）6. B. Chap 4. Human learning （cognitive）7. B. Chap 5. Styles and strategies （cognitive）8. B. Chap 6. Personality factors （affective）9. B. Chap 7 Sociocultural factors （sociocultural）10. B. Chap 8. Communicative competence （pragmatic）11. B. Chap 9. Cross-linguistic influence and learner language （linguistic）12. B. Chap 10. Toward a theory of second language acquisition13. M & M. Chap 3. Linguistics and language learning: the Universal Grammar approach14. M & M. Chap 4. Cognitive approaches to second language learning15. M & M. Chap 5. Functional/pragmatic perspectives on second language learning16. M & M. Chap 6. Input and interaction in second language learning17. M & M. Chap 7. Sociocultural perspectives on second language learning18. M & M. Chap 8. Sociolinguistic perspectives19. M & M. Chap 9. ConclusionDescription of the Course:Teaching is the most complicated human undertaking, and teaching ESL is more so because it involves almost all the disciplines of human study that one can think of—linguistics, pragmatics, philosophy, psychology, cognition, culture, sociology, communication, education, and so on. Therefore, English teachers and English graduate students must assume a rational approach, secure a solid foundation in the rationales of all related theoretical models, and study and research the nature and characteristics of English learning and teaching so as to eliminate all irrationality, intuition, and recklessness in their teaching practices. (英语教学专业的研究生和英语教师必须具有这些相关学科和英语教学的理论知识，研究、了解和掌握英语教与学的性质、特点和规律，从而避免非理性、直觉性和盲目性，科学地指导英语教与学的实践。

《第二语言习得概论》课程教学大纲课程编码：30615001 学分： 2学分总学时：36学时说明【课程性质】《第二语言习得概论》是英语专业任意选修课。

【教学目的】帮助学习者在语言基础知识学习的基础上，掌握一些基本的教学理论，并使他们在学习的过程中形成自己的教学思路，为今后的教学实践或对其进一步的研究做准备。

【教学任务】通过对语言学习者学习语言过程的讨论，帮助学生将模糊的、无意识的实践性内容变成明确的、有意识的理论方法。

使他们在以后的教学中，能够批判性地接受现行的一些教学方法，并在实践过程中根据不同的受教育对象将其不断完善。

【教学内容】绪论；学习者语言的本质、中介语、中介语的社会层面；中介语的话语层面；中介语的心理语言学层面；中介语的语言学层面；二语习得中的个体差异；课堂教学和二语习得；结论【教学原则和方法】教学原则：理论和实践相结合，突出指导性和应用性。

教学方法：教师提出问题，并组织学生讨论，围绕具体问题进行讲解。

教师讲解与学生练习结合，学生每次课后书面回答具体问题。

【先修课程要求】“语言学概论”、“英语学习理论”课程的学习，有一定语言实践经验。

【教材与主要参考书】教材：Rod Ellis 《第二语言习得》上海外语教育出版社,2000年。

参考书：P. M. Lightbown and N. Spada 《语言学习机制》上海外语教育出版社, 20XX年。

Rod Ellis《第二语言习的研究》上海外语教育出版社, 1994年。

大纲内容第一部分Introduction: Describing and Explaining L2 Acquisition【教学目的和要求】教学目的：本章是全书的绪论，学习的目的是弄清第二语言习得的概念和目标。

教学要求：明确什么是学习者语言等相关概念，从而在整体上使学生对第二语言习得的基本理论有个概括性的了解。

【内容提要】Ⅰ.The definition of second language acquisitionⅡ.The goals of second language acquisitionⅢ.Two case studiesⅣ.Methodological issuesⅤ.Issues in the description of learner languageⅥ.Issues in the explanation of L2 acquisition【教学重点与难点问题】教学重点：the definition of second language acquisition教学难点：the goals of second language acquisition【复习参考题】1. In what respects is Wes a ‘good language learner’ and on what respects is he not one?2. What is your own definition of a ‘good language learner’?第二部分The Nature of Learner Language【教学目的和要求】教学目的：学生了解学习者语言的本质。

Unit 1VocabularyI. 1. 1) alliance 2) at the cost of 3) stroke 4) limp5) minus 6) regions 7) declarations 8) sieg9) raw 10) bide his time 11)have taken their toll12) in the case of2. 1) is faced with 2) get bogged down 3) is pressing on4)drag on 5) get by 6) dine out 7) have cut back8) get through3. 1) The rapid advance in gene therapy may lead to the conquest of cancer in the near future.2)Production in many factories has been brought to a halt by the delayed arrival of raw materials due to the dock workers’strike.3)Sara has made up her mind that her leisure interests will/should never get in the way of her career.4)Obviously the reporter's question caught the foreign minister off guard.5)The introduction of the electronic calculator has rendered the slide rule out of date / obso-lete.4. 1) Being faced with an enemy forces much superior to ours, we had to give up the occupation of big cities and retreat to the rural and mountainous regions to build up our bases.2) Unity is crucial to the efficient operation of an organization. Failure to reckon with this problem will weaken its strength. In many cases, work may be brought to a halt by constant internal struggle in an organization.3) The Red Army fought a heroic battle at Stalingrad and won the decisive victory against the Germans. In fact, this battle turned the tide in the Second World War. During this famous battle, the Soviet troops withstood the German siege and weakened the German army by launching a series of counterattacks.II. More Synonyms in Context1) During the First World War, battles occurred here and there over vast areas. Some of the most dramatic fighting took place in the gloomy trenches of France and Belgium.2) Elizabeth made careful preparations for the interview and her efforts / homework paid off.3)1 spent hours trying to talk him into accepting the settlement, but he turned a deaf ear to all my words.4) Pneumonia had severely weakened her body, and I wondered how her fragile body could withstand the harsh weather.III. Usage1) But often it is not until we fall ill that we finally learn to appreciate good health.2) A rich old lady lay dead at home for two weeks—and nobody knew anything about it.3) It's said he dropped dead from a heart attack when he was at work4) Don't sit too close to the fire to keep warm—you could easily get burned, especially if you fallasleep.5 ) In those days people believed in marrying young and having children early.6) Little Tom was unable to sit still for longer than a few minutes.Comprehensive ExercisesI. Cloze(A)1. invasion2. stand in the way3. Conquest4. catching... off his guardunching7. campaign 6. declaration 8. drag on 9. reckon with 10. bringing...to a halt(B)1. allow 2 .reckoned 3. highly 4. forecasts 5. rapidly6. instant7. delivery8. advantage9. observing 10. PowerfulII. Translation1) Mr. Doherty and his family are currently engaged in getting the autumn harvest in on the farm.2) We must not underestimate the enemy. They are equipped with the most sophisticated weapons.3) Having been cut of a job/Not having had a job for 3months, Phil is getting increasingly desperate.4) Sam, as the project manager, is decisive, efficient, and accurate in his judgment.5) Since the chemical plant was identified as the source of solution, the village neighborhood committee decided to close it down at the cost of 100 jobs.长翻译：The offensive had already lasted three days, but we had not gained much ground. Our troops engaging the enemy at the front were faced with strong/fierce/stiff resistance. The division commander instructed our battalion to get around to the rear of the enemy and launch a surprise attack. To do so, however, we had to cross a marshland and many of us were afraid we might get bogged down in the mud. Our battalion commander decided to take a gamble. We started under cover of darkness and pressed on in spite of great difficulties. By a stroke of luck, the temperature at night suddenly dropped to minus 20 degrees Celsius and the marsh froze over. Thanks to the cold weather, we arrived at our destination before dawn and began attacking the enemy from the rear. This turned the tide of the battle. The enemy, caught off guard, soon surrendered.Unit 2Language Sense Enhancement on P 38-391) cure 2) impact 3) orbiting4) warn of 5) location 6) At any given time7)vibrate 8) detected 9) calculate 10) convertedI. Vocabulary: Ex.1 on P41-421.expansion2. automated3. vapor4. take control of5. hazards6. satellite7.vibrated8.magnetic9. bunched 10. in the air 11. got stuck in 12.approximately Vocabulary: Ex.2 on P421. send out2. stand up for3. pass for4. were closing in on5. starting up6. went through7. fill out8. fall intoVocabulary: Ex.3 on P431) incorporates all the latest safety features.2) two trees ten feet apart.3) awarding lucrative contracts to his construction firm.4) the prototype of a new model before they set up a factory to make the cars.5) are correlated in all racial groups.Vocabulary: Ex.4 on P431) the application, remote, has turned into a reality, are poised to2) that vibrate, can detect, frequency3) lanes, are mounted in, alert a, hazardII. Word Formation on P45Kilogram Medical careMemorandum Electronic mailGymnasium Communications satelliteLiberation News broadcastDoctor Sky hijackVeterinarian European dollarPreparatory Breakfast and lunchAutomobile Television broadcastinfluenza Oxford and CambridgeIII. Usage on P45-461) swimming pool2 ) drawing board3 ) enriched Middle English4 ) disturbing change5 ) fully developed prototype6 ) Canned foods7 ) working population8 ) puzzling differencesComprehensive Exs.:I. cloze1. text-related on P461) computerized 2) start up 3) be poised to 4) alert5) hazards 6) monotonous 7) take control of8) steer 9) lane 10) decrease 11) calculate 12) eliminate13) getting stuck in 14) mounted 15) detect 16) vapor2. theme-related on P471) generates 2) related 3) revolutionized 4) enabled5) opportunities 6) overall 7)manufacturing8) dependent 9) interact 10) fatalitiesII. TranslationEx. 1 on P47-481) There was an unusual quietness in the air, except for the sound of artillery in the distance.2) The expansion of urban areas in some African countries has been causing a significant fall in living standards and an increase in social problems.3) The research shows that atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are closely correlated with global temperatures.4) The frequency of the bus service has been improved from 15 to 12 minute recently.5) The diver stood on the edge of the diving board, poised to jump at the signal from the coach. Translation : Ex. 2 on P48Automobiles have, since their invention, revolutionized transportation, changing forever the way people live, travel, and do business. On the other hand, they have brought hazards, especially highway fatalities. However, today the application of computer technology and electronic sensors in designing and manufacturing cars makes it possible to eliminate most of traffic accidents. For example, electronic sensors mounted in your car can detect alcohol vapor in the air and refuse to start up the engine. They can also monitor road conditions by receiving radio signals sent out from orbiting satellites and greatly reduce your chances of getting stuck in traffic jams.UNIT3Language Sense Enhancement on P721) checked with 2) interview 3) grill 4) clippings5) be right for 6) follow up 7) indicating8）hand-delivered 9) prepared 10) prospectiveLanguage focus Voc. Ex. 1 on P751) rude 2) physically 3) structure4) made a difference 5) blurted (out) 6) chuckling7) Measurable 8) prospective 9) preparations10) Sparkled 11) took a crack at 12) partnerVoc. Ex. 2&3 on P76§Ex. 2.1) go after 2) look back at/on 3) be put up4) stood for 5) build in 6) follow up7) be hooked up to 8) closed up§Ex. 3.1) grilled her about where she had been all night2) beyond Cinderella’s wildest dreams that she could oneday dance in the King’s palace3) will be in readers' hands soon4) do your homework before going on an interview.5) was in the neighborhood of 150 dollars.§Voc . Ex. 4 on P771）applicants, veteran, the prospective2）From his standpoint, has made every endeavor to goafter3) as the saying goes, to have a crack at, barelyII. Words with Multiple Meanings on P 781. Behave2. used to avoid repetition3. clean4. get along5. perform/complete6. perform/complete7. Study 8. be enough 9. be acceptableiii. Usage on P79-801. There is so much to say and it is hard to know where tobegin.OK,I’ll talk about myself first.2. Thank you very much, John, for your beautiful Christmascard. Bythe way, I have something here for you.3. The new computer language can be quite easily understoodby anyone who can read the daily newspaper.Now, why isthis an advantage?4. I’m going to work out the outline and will let you know howit goes.By the way, I will see you in February, as I plan toattend your seminar in Shanghai.5. OK, you got the job.Now, howto maximize your profitswith as little effort as possible?6. Chris is back from Australia.Incidentally, thosepicturesyou sent me are wonderful.Comprehensive Exercises Cloze§1. text-related on P80(1) Prospective (2)As I see it(3) done your homework (4) beforehand(5) Endeavor (6) structure(7) Partners (8) Respond(9) take a crack (10) from the standpoint(11) make a difference (12) follow up§2. theme-related on P81(1) encouraging(2) inquiry(3) relevant (4) samples(5) references (6) advice(7) preparing (8) seriously(9) probably (10) exhibitTranslation on P81-821) Despite theinadequatelength of the airstrip in thisemergency landing, theveteran pilotmanaged to stop theplane aftertaxiing foronly a short while.2)Grilled bythe reporters, the movie star eventuallyblurted(out) thatshe had undergone two plastic surgeries.3) We have the technology and ourpartner hasthe capital.Working together, we’ll have the futurein our hands.4) If I had knownbeforehand thatyou would bring so manyfriends home, I would have made betterpreparations. Yousee, I havebarely enoughfood and drinks for a snack.5) People gavegenerously uponlearning that new schoolrooms with strongerstructures wereto be built in theearthquake-stricken area.Translation 2. on P82Well begun, half done ,as the saying goes. It is extremely important for a job applicant to do his homework while seeking employment .From my standpoint, whether or not one has done his homework clearly makes a difference in his chance of success.I have a friend who is earning somewhere in the neighborhood of100,000 dollars a years in a large computer software company. He told me that from his own experience the decision makers who interview prospective employees like people who are well prepared. Those who make no endeavor to learn as much about his prospective employer as possible don’t have much of a chance of success.Unit 4VocabularyI.1) advantageous 2) let alone3) witnessing/vanishing 4) landmark5) entitled 6) displace7) Establishment 8) patriotic/strengthen9) contradictions 10) aspires11) divorced 12) pendulums2. 1) come to 2) dozed off3) believed in 4) was set apart5) take in 6) sucks in7) clean up 8) turn away3. 1) For me, it makes no/little difference whether we go there by train or by bus.Toyata has overtaken General Motors as the world’s biggest car maker.Shortly after their marriage, Mr. Chambers was at odds with his wife over money matters.Henry has been at the forefront of nanotechnology research.She doesn’t even know how to boil potatoes, let alone cook a meal.a) is increasingly/to accelerate/their investmentb) economy/make an earnest/domestic/strike a balance betweenc) a handful of/be endorsed by/on a large scaleII. Word FormationIII. UsageAn unusual present, a book on ethics, was given to Henry for his birthday.The reason(he gave) that he didn’t notice the car till too late was unsatisfactory.Football, his only interest in life, has brought him many friends.Cloning had been raised as a possibility decades ago, then dismissed, something that serious scientists thought was simply not going to happen anytime soon.Comprehensive ExercisesI. Cloze2. networking4. growth6. facilitate8. outlook10. patriotic12. strike a balance(A)1. academics3.a variety of5. vanish7. endorsing9. sweeping aside11. erasing(B)1. aided2.effects3.distances4. connected5. invested6. features7. prevailing 8. qualitatively9. volume 10. DistinguishingII. Translation1 ) Due to his pessimistic outlook on the European economy, John has moved his assets from Europe to elsewhere.2 )I like hiring young people. They are earnest learners and committed to work.3 ) Unlike her girl friends who center their lives on their children, Mary cares more about her personal growth.4 ) Why is it that a considerable number of colleagues are at odds with you?5 ) The Chinese government has introduced a variety of policies to strengthen cooperation with developing countries.2．Globalization has great implications for young Chinese. For example, young farmers are moving on a large scale to urban areas to look for jobs. And for those young people who aspire to study abroad or work in foreign-invested enterprises, English has become increasingly important. At the same time, a considerable number of overseas Chinese students have returned home in recent years, for they hold an optimistic outlook for the long-term growth of the Chinese economy. The internet has strengthened the links between Chinese young people and those elsewhere. They follow the latest trend and copy foreign fashions. Some of them don’t seem to care for traditional Chinese virtues, let alone carry them forward, which has given rise to worries that the traditional Chinese culture might one day vanish.Unit 5VocabularyI1) In a way 2) in accordance 3) vacancy 4) in good condition 5) transparent 6) rub 7) spicy 8) hitherto9) with (a) bad grace 10) instinct 11) pawned 12) current2.1) turned up 2) will stick to 3) brought back 4)go about5) driving at 6) put away 7) over 8) took aback3.1) has a very weak constitution --- she may not be able to survive the operation.2) was taken aback by the insurance company’s rejection of my compensation claim3) was something of a surprise when we ran into each other in a place like that.4) needs trimming/ to be trimmed ---it’s getting too long.5) are often seceptive4.1) Oddly enough /went broke /wrinkled / he had gone all to pieces2) definite / is capable of /her vanity3) too mild / sipping / strokeII. Usage1. Except for2. except that3. except4. except when5. except to6. except what7. except where8. except thatIII.Comprehensive exercisesCloze1.1. insane2. current3. candid4. capable5. was taken aback6. in good condition7. constitution8. go all to pieces9. gone broke 10. vacancy 11. mild 12. deceptive2.1. suspected2. pleading3. confirmed4. stunned5. lucrative6. jewellery7. wealthy8. urge9. spell 10. arrested Translation1.I have an instinct that Henry will seek to join the expedition, because he is something of an adventurer.He is capable of sticking to the task at hand, even if he is exposed to noises.The trademark was registered in accordance with the laws hitherto in force.Oddly enough, many people volunteered to help organize the meeting, but only a few turned up. The teacher’s affectionate words, along with his candid comments, changed the way Mike perceived the society and himself.2.For my own part, I find that appearances are all too often deceptive. For instance, you might be wrong if you judged by appearances only people like Edward Hyde Burton. In appearance, he seemed a man all of a piece. He was a tiny little fellow with white hair and mild blue eyes, gentle and candid. Nevertheless, he turned out to be very cruel. He insulted and fooled Lenny who was down and out and made him commit himself to an insane venture. What was still more surprising was that he was completely indifferent to Lenny’s death. Without doubt, Burton was a man with a heart of stone.Unit 6Vocabulary 11) appliances 2) comparative 3) multiply4) distribution 5) prosperity 6) decorate 7) famine 8) large quantities of/ a large quantity of 9) streamline 10) fax 11) pointed the way to 12) bewilderedVocabulary 21) eat into 2) cling to3) stand out/ stood out 4) wears away5) set about 6) switch off7) will be turned loose 8) poured inVocabulary 31)is forecast to be below average next year, which at the moment is 4 percent.2)to enter the building and find the baby girl proved futile as rescuers were drivenout by the heat and flames.3)was urged to divert some of its attention from expanding production and get moreinvolved with issues of market demand.4)can really eat heavily into your profits when you are selling suits at ￡900 anddresses at ￡2,000.5)has toiled endlessly over the exercise machine for the last twenty years in order tokeep her body in shape.Vocabulary 41)reaction to; discontent; provoked2)Convention; evading tax; the confines of3) a burden; are always on the go/ seem forever on the go; to copeII. Confusable Words1. 1) nervousness 2) tension 3) stress; stress 4) tension2. 1) honorary 2) Honorable 3) honorable 4) honorary 5) honorable 6) HonoraryIII. Usage1)Dealing with the extinction crisis is no simple matter. Is it sensible, we may ask,to spend large sums of money to save some species –be it an elephant or an orchid – in a nation in which a large proportion of the population is living below the poverty line?2)This new technology could be used anywhere large numbers of people need to bequickly screened --- at airports, train stations, bus terminals or border crossings.However, experts suspect, there is also the risk that people will learn to fool the machine the same way they try to fool polygraph readings by controlling their breath or taking drugs to relax themselves.3)With a high percentage of marriages ending in divorce, often due to financialdifficulties, you would say that money is a big factor in making a good marriage.But, believe it or not, it isn’t money that ensures you a happy marriage; it is your philosophy of life that does.4)Not all the risks on the Internet are sexual, you know. Sites promoting violenceare just a click away, and may include instructions for making bombs and other destructive devices.Cloze (Text-related)1) switch off 2) obliged 3) on the go 4) cope5) shortage 6) large quantity of 7) pouring in 8) by nature 9) fraction 10) futileCloze (Theme-related)1)advantage 2) wisely 3)faithfully 4)waking5)includes 6) schedule 7) sticking 8)priorities9) set 10) respectTranslation1)They are exploring the new frontiers of medical science in an attempt to findremedies for incurable diseases/ cures for diseases that are beyond remedy so far.2)Her unique teaching methods apart, Ms Wilson, my math teacher, never tried tocram knowledge into my head.3)The regular weather forecast by the Central TV Station keeps us up with thechanges of weather wherever we go on a trip.4)The appalling explosion started a big fire and caused the partial collapse of thebuilding.5)In the modern world, there are more ways than ever to waste away time, and allkinds of distractions are eating into our precious time.2.Today we are under constant pressure to work longer hours, to produce more, and to possess more. Lots of people hold the wrong perception that happiness lies in working hard and earning well/ good money.Many women today feel the same stress to work and get ahead and, at the same time, to nurture their offspring and shoulder the burden of domestic responsibilities.Research shows that workaholism tends to distance us from our immediate families. It forces us to toil longer and longer hours, leaving a minute fraction of our time to be physically and emotionally available to our loved ones. Intimacy among family members is doomed to die in the process.。

The Role of Output in Second Language AcquisitionAbstract:Output is a major terminal action in second language acquisition. For this action scholars have carried out a great number of researches. Among them one of the mostfamous is Output Hypothesis. This paper mainly reviews Output Hypothesis and thenexamines its positive role in the process of second language acquisition (SLA).Key Words: input, positive role, second language acquisition1. IntroductionIt was not until the late twentieth century that second language acquisition was regarded as an independent discipline, with the development of which arose a lot of theories, in the midst of which, Swain’s Output Hypothesis is among one of the most influential. In her theory, Swain clearly pointed out the positive role of output in SLA. This paper mainly reviews the Output Hypotheses and discusses its positive role in the process of second language acquisition and finally draws the conclusion.2. An Overview of Output HypothesisOutput Hypothesis was put forward by the Canadian linguist Merrill Swain in 1985. Based on her research on the French immersion students’language ability, Swain challenged the reliability of the Input Hypothesis. She studied the French immersion programs in Canada, whose aim was to develop English students’ French ability through teaching their other disciplines in French. By testing, Swain found that though these students’ability on listening comprehension, language fluency, and discourse functions were good, yet, their grammatical accuracy was not that satisfactory. As a result, Swain proposed the “Comprehensible Output Hypothesis”.Swain claimed that “producing output is one way of testing a hypothesis about comprehensibility or linguistic well-formedness”. [1] Second language learners test their language correctness through their output. By the metalinguistic reflection function, Swain means “output can serve to control and internalize linguistic knowledge”. [2]3. Enlightenments of Output in Assisting Second Language AcquisitionInput is crucial in SLA, however, output should not be neglected. In order to put what we have input into our own language ability, we must have enough output. Output not only enhances our language fluency but also increases our language accuracy.In the output process, we should not only pay attention to the style but the content of the output and we should always try our best to pick out the new language that we have got in our input to internalize that knowledge.As for the ways of output, there are also various. The first is sentence making. We can use some words or phrases to make up sentences, translate sentences, recite andretell paragraphs and make some questions according to the passages and then answer by ourselves. Second is interaction. For this method, we can find someone that we can speak the target language with and practice. Some easy conversations can be the starters. Then with the development of the pair, difficult words or phrases can be added. A third way can be rewriting. After reading something we can rewrite what we have read in our own language. This kind of exercise can make us practice different kinds of language skills. For example, we can use antonyms and synonyms in our rewriting to develop our understanding and analyzing ability. Fourthly, we can make some plays and act them out to output our language knowledge. Fifthly, discussion, debate, and speech are good output methods for us to practice second language. In a word, we should make any use of opportunity to produce our second language and make our output as much as possible.4. ConclusionIn recent years, more and more people start to join the area of language acquisition research. Among the researchers and researches, Swain’s Output Hypothesis is of crucial importance. Swain based on her study found out that input only can not facilitate the language learners’ language ability. Therefore, she proposed the Output Hypothesis and emphasized the important role of output in language acquisition. Actually, both input and output are essential to second language acquisition. As a result, we should make full use of these two factors and get as much as input as well as output as possible to make our language acquisition faster and more accurate.Works Cited[1]Swain, Merrill and Yang Luxin. Output Hypothesis: Its History and Its Future[J]. ForeignLanguage Teaching and Research. 2008(1). 45-49.[2]谭志敏. 输入，输出与情感过滤理论在大学听力教学中的应用研究[D].北京: 北京第二外国语学院, 2008.。

写作反馈对比分析：教师反馈和同伴反馈Literature Review on Feedback in EFL Writing: Teacher Feedback and Peer Feedback摘要：写作是一种重要的语言技巧，相比较听力、口语和阅读，写作更能全面的展现学习者的语言精准水平。

所以我们需要对英语写作的教与学投入更多的精力。

然而我们当前的大学英语写作教学收效并非显著。

一方面，老师花费大量的精力和时间去阅读和修改学生的英语写作，但成效颇低；另一方面，学生只是表面肤浅的理解老师的建议及评语或者甚至直接忽视老师给予的纠错反馈。

在一定程度上来看，造成这种现象的原因可以追溯到结果教学法在英语写作教学中的广泛应用而带来的影响。

结果教学法把英语写作过程看成是一个线性的活动，在这一过程中没有课堂活动部分，没有互动。

而与之相对应的过程教学法把写作看成是一个复杂的、相互重叠的认知过程，在这个过程中有学生的积极参与。

反馈作为过程教学法的重要组成部分而引起广泛的关注，它包括：教师反馈、同伴反馈、自我反馈和计算机辅助反馈。

其中，教师反馈和同伴反馈是其主要的两大部分。

在二语学习环境下关于这两种反馈效果的研究很多，但研究结果有所不同，有的研究者认为教师反馈的效果更佳而有的研究更倾向于在写作中使用同伴反馈。

在以往的研究中，研究者们大多只侧重于其中一种反馈方式在大学英语写作教学中的应用，而将两者教学方法结合起来应用的研究不是很多。

因此，本研究尝试将两种反馈应用到大学英语写作教学中并期待通过实证研究能够在不久将来证实其可行性和效度。

关键字：反馈；教师反馈；同伴反馈；外语写作Abstract: As an important language skill, writing can comprehensively present the learners?language proficiency compared with other basic skills such as listening, speaking and reading. Therefore, much attention should be paid to the teaching andlearning of English writing. However, at present time, ourcollege English writing instruction seems unsatisfactory. On the one hand, teachers contribute a great deal of time and energy to reading and correcting student?s composition but with low efficiency; on the other hand, students spend less time superficially understanding teacher?s suggestions and comments or even directly neglect teacher?s error correction. To a certain extent, this current situation can be traced back to the prevailing traditional product-oriented approach which assumes writing as a liner process, in which there is no students? interaction within writing activities. On the contrary, the process-oriented approach assumes writing as a cognitive process, with which students can actively participant in writing activities. Feedback, an indispensable part of process-oriented approach of writing, has attracted great attention, which mainly encompasses teacher feedback and peer feedback. In ESL context, many studies on the effects of two types of feedback has been done. Nevertheless, the results of them varied greatly in these studies. Some scholars reviewed that teacher feedback is more favorable in writing class while others prefer to use peer feedback. Up to now, most of the researchers just focus on either peer feedback or teacher feedback, and few researchers have combined the two kinds of feedback in the context of the EFL writing. Hence, the study attempts to apply peer feedback and teacher feedback into EFL writing through an empirical study and look forward to its feasibility and effectiveness will be approved in the near further study in writing pedagogy. Keywords: feedback; teacher feedback; peer feedback; EFL writing1.IntroductionFeedback plays a prominent role in improving student?s learning ability and strengthening his or her learningachievement in language pedagogy. In writing, feedback refers to “reader?s comprehensible input from author whose function is of fering information to reader to modify composition” (Zhu, 2010). The efficiency of writing feedback will directly affect students? writing level as well as reflecting the effectiveness of teacher?s writing strategies. Feedback in EFL writing mainly focus on: teacher feedback; peer feedback; self-feedback and computer-generated feedback.From which teacher feedback refers to the input provided by the teacher for the revision of students? writings or assessment of learning performance (Keh, 1990) and peer feedback is defined as a system in which individuals evaluate counterparts?or peers?achievements of language learning including writing and reading (Topping, 1998). Teacher feedback plays a dominant role in L2 writing, while in recent years teacher feedback was given great attention through the popularity of process writing approach. Domestic and foreign scholars have already conducted a great deal of empirical research on teacher and peer feedback, but have not reached a consensus on the effectiveness and the ranges, methods and strategies of application. And many researches paid attention to the single study on different modes of feedback as well as focusing less on the comparative study of the efficiency, merits and demerits of integrating teacher feedback and peer feedback. Based on which this study will explore the effectiveness of combining teacher feedback and peer feedback and look forward to providing practically and significantly instructional feedback in EFL writing.2.Related Studies of Teacher Feedback and Peer Feedback at Home and AbroadThe study of writing feedback began in the 1950s. Thescholars made a comparison between teacher?s error correction and peer?s error correction with the guidance of teachers, the results of which examined that the efficiency of the latter is better than the former one. In the following 60 years, domestic and international scholars made a detail study on the practical effectiveness of peer feedback (Keh, 1990; Ferris, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2006; Paulus, 1999; Tsui & Ng, 2000; Ming, 2005; Liu, 2002; Gong, 2007; Meng, 2009; Wang, 2010; Xu, 2010; Guo, 2011; Hu & Zhang, 2011). These researchers stated that singly using teacher feedback will not truly and efficiently improve students?writing ability. “Teachers often spend a gre at deal of time and energy in modifying composition and putting forward many comments and suggestions on writing, however, students always neglect teachers?correction comments as well as superficially understand the correction suggestions. This kind ofsingle and passive feedback have no effect on stimulating student?s learning interests and enthusiasm”(Zhou, 2013: 121). On the contrary, peer feedback attracted more attention to scholars and teachers. They found that in the process of face-to-face communication, negotiation and discussion, peer feedback can mutually, actively and accurately state what students want to express. Meanwhile, student?s self-learning ability and collaborative spirit could be exerted to the utmost as well as writing and thought ability being exerted to a higher extent.Some other studies investigated the essence of teachers?feedback behaviors (Connors & Lunsford 1993: 200-223; Ferris, 1997: 315-339; ); the effectiveness of feedback types (Ferris & Roberts, 2001: 161-184; Kepner, 1991: 305-313); students?perceptions of feedback (Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990: 155-177; Hedgocock & Left-kowtz, 1994: 141-165). Totally,students generally considered that peer feedback is much more effective than teacher feedback. In terms of teacher feedback, domestic researches focused more on the importance and values of student?s recognition process and its development (Zhang et al., 2000: 24-28; Xie, 2011: 50-51); and its efficiency in improving student?s attention and their ability (Li & Wu, 2005; Bei, 2009); and its influences on the accuracy, fluency and complexity of student?s writing (Wang & Liu, 2012: 49-53); or even the effectiveness of different types of teacher feedback and correction and teachers?and students?attitudes towards teacher feedback (Wang, 2006: 24-30; Zhang & Liu, 2010: 115-118). These studies just singly focused on different aspects of teacher feedback, there are less studies on the combination of peer feedback and teacher feedback and explanation of theirs reliability and efficiency in EFL writing.In recent writing instruction, peer feedback (Richards et al., 2005: 128) refers to “the activity in the process of composition modifying and in this activity where students read peers? composition in groups and then make comments and suggest ions on them”. International writing researches firmed the application of peer feedback in ESL writing (Hansen & Liu, 2005: 31-38; Jacobs et al., 1998: 301-317 ). Also many scholars conducted researches from the perspective of cognition, who put forward that peer feedback could cultivate student?s analytic ability and expand their thinkingspace (Paulus, 1999: 265-289). In addition, students could also communicate with peers and improve the ability of using target language in specific communicative contexts (Hansen, 2005: 31-38). However, the researchers pointed out that although peer feedback could make up drawbacks for teacher feedback,its accuracy, reliability and efficiency are being questioned and the practical operation is needed to be explored further.From the above review, we can conclude that domestic and international scholars just singly conducted researches on either teacher feedback or peer feedback or made studies on the types, characteristics or strategies of feedback as well as a comparative study on peer feedback and teacher feedback. However, there are less researches on combing this two kinds of feedback from now on. Based on which, this study looks forward to making contribution to feedback in EFL writing by integrating peer feedback and teacher feedback.3. Definition of Terms3.1 Feedback TheoryFeedback is wisely seen in education as crucial for both encouraging and consolidating learning (Anderson, 1982; Vygotsky, 1978), and the importance has also been acknowledged in the field of English writing. In the traditional American dictionary (2006), feedback is defined as “transferring process and system input into a part of output”. In the process of writing, the effects of writing cannot be neglected. Keh (1990: 302) referred to feedback as an indispensable part in the process writing pedagogy.In language learning, feedback means evaluative remarks which are available to language learners concerning their language proficiency or linguistic performance (Larsen-Freeman, 2005). In the field of teaching and learning, feedback is defined as many terms, such as response, review, correction, evaluation or comment. No matter what the term is, it can be defined as “comments or information learners receive on the success of a learning task, either from the teacher or from other learners(Richards et al., 1998)”.A more detail description of feedback in terms of writing is that the feedback is “input from the reader to a writer with the effect of providing information to the writer for revision”(Keh, 1990). From the presentation of general grammatical explanation to the specific error correction is all the range of feedback. The purpose is to improve the writing ability of students by the description and correction of the errors.The role of feedback is to make writers learn where he or she has misled or confused the reader by supplying insufficient information, illogical organization, lack of development of ideas, or something like inappropriate word-choice or tense (Keh, 1999).From the perspective of teachers, feedback can be seen as a form of evaluation, aiming at producing a supportive teaching environment and helping students finish assignments better with the aid of feedback from the previous ones. From the perspective of learners, feedback can be considered as a self-assessment, which enables learners to see in what area they need to improve and understand. And feedback can be classified as teacher feedback and peer feedback in terms of the source of feedback which writers receive.3.1.1Teacher FeedbackTeacher feedback refers to the input provided by the teacher for the revision of students?writings or assessment of learning performance (Keh, 1990). Students usually hole the view that teacher feedback is more believable for the reason that it is originated from the influence of the traditional product-oriented approach in writing. And many teachers feel that they have the duty to make substantial comments on students?compositions for the purpose of giving a response to students?efforts, offeringassistance for the improvement of students? writing performance and justify the grades they acquired (K, Hyland, 2003).Researchers considered teacher feedback from various aspects—examining the nature of teacher?s responding behaviors in order to find out the effectiveness of teacher feedback (Connors & Lunsford, 1993; Ferris, 1997; Sommers, 1982; Zamel,1985); comparing students? perceptions of teacher feedback with those peer feedback (Chaudron, 1984); and analyzing students?views on teacher?s feedback (Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990; Hedgcock & Leftkowtz, 1992). The main method of response to the writing is the handwritten commentary on students drafts and teacher feedback is most emphasized in students?expectation for revision. One of the major issues that have been addressed is whether teachers? written comments can help students enhance their writing ability without checking the texts appropriately (Brannon & Knoblauch, 1982; Straub, 1996, 1997).In fact, several early L1 studies that teacher feedback does not serve serve as a mean of effective communication between teacher and student (Brannon & Knoblauch, 1982; Faigley & Witte, 1981). However, the role of teacher feedback on students? writing has transferred when it refers to second language learning. Although this mode may cause some wrong communication and misunderstanding between teacher and student, teacher feedback has the potential value for stimulating students to revise their drafts (Saito, 1994; Zhang, 1995) and to improve their writing (Fathman & Whalley, 1990; Ferris, 1995, 1997, 2006; Goldstein & Conrad, 1990). 3.1.2 Peer Feedback Different from teacher feedback, peer feedback is defined asthe use of learners as sources of information and interaction for each other in such a way that learners assume roles and responsibilities normally taken on by formally trained teacher, tutor or editor in commenting on and critiquing each others drafts in both written and spoken formats in the process of writing (Liu & Hansen, 2002). For many years, the unique benefits of language learners can offer to each other were ignored in writing classrooms, especially in ESL and EFL classrooms. The Process Writing Theory and The Collaborative Learning Theory have justified the use of peer feedback activities in the writing process. These theories have provided the evidence that peer feedback activities not only help L2 learners improve their writing ability but also their overall language abilities through the negotiation of meaning which typically take place during these activities.There are various forms in peer feedback, such as offering spoken suggestions and correcting errors in written form. The well-known mode of peer feedback of SL writing class is that students who work in pairs in small groups read peer?s compositions carefully, pointing out problems and doubts, and offer suggestions and comments (Richards et al., 2005). The essence of feedback is to hear multiple perspectives from a wide audience (Shepherd, 1992; Cho, Schunn, & Charney, 2006). This method, which is supported by the writing workshop pedagogy, and is widespread in the first language teaching.4. Theoretical Foundations of Feedback4.1 Collaborative LearningCollaborative learning, also called cooperative learning, is the second theoretical basis that back for the application of feedback in writing class (Hiltz, 1997). It is feasible that studentscommunicate actively with each other in the classroom.Collaborative learning emphasizes that both students and instructors participate and communicate actively (Hiltz, 1997). Collaborative learning is viewed from both behavioral and humanistic perspectives (Slavin, 1987). The behavioral perspective stresses that students are encouraged to study under a cooperative situation and rewarded in the form of group rather than individual ones. From the humanistic perspective, more understanding and better performance are gained from the interaction among peers. Hence, it is obvious that collaborative learning puts more attention to the influence of peers, which is different from the previous EFL writing theories (Johnson and Johnson, 1986).Collaborative learning makes it possible that students discuss and accomplish tasks that they can not do finish by themselves without higher motivation. Students acquire certain kinds of knowledge and benefit from each other in the way of spoken and written communication, which occurs in the atmosphere of collaborative learning.Researches in L1 writing has found that the writing is strengthened with the help of collaborative learning strategies (Bruffee, 1984). For example, students inwriting groups negotiate meaning as they revise the peers?writings; learning in writing teams is conducive to improving the students?writing proficiency (Gere, 1987).As to the impact of collaborative learning on L2 writing instruction, many benefits of applying collaborative learning strategies in the classroom has also been stated in the study. In some researches it is mentioned that students can make decisions reasonably and effectively compare notes from thecontent and application through the group work. Collaborative learning also offers students raise opportunities review and use their growing knowledge of L2 writing through interaction with peers in writing groups (Hivela, 1999: 8). There are many opportunities for students to share and communicate ideas with each other.4.2 Process-Oriented ApproachCompared with the product-oriented approach, the process approach is an essential component of composition instruction and research. It is obvious that product-oriented approach attaches great importance to grammar, spelling, punctuation and vocabulary and so on. The process-oriented approach in EFL writing began to appear in the late of 1960s and early 1970s in L1 writing (Elbow, 1973; Emig, 1971). The process-oriented approach was introduced to L2 studies by Vivan Zamel (1976). She argues that advanced L2 writers who are similar to L1 writers would benefit from this approach (Matsuda, 2003). Although there are various process approaches in writing instruction, some noticeable features can be concluded. The features of process-oriented approach are as followed:1)Putting attention to the process of writing rather than the final product;2)Offering suggestions and help to compose student?s writing;3)Putting forward strategies of pre-writing, drafting and rewriting;4)Attaching great importance to the stage of revising;5)Assisting students find the correct content when they write the compositions;6)Emphasizing feedback no matter from teachers or peers;7)Encouraging to hold individual feedback meetings in the groups throughout theprocess of writing.A process-oriented approach, which lays the first theoretical foundation for feedback that attaches great importance to the cyclical phases of writing, for example, pre-write, draft, revision, and edit and final draft. At the beginning, many tasks including producing a topic through reading or listening or analyzing the structure that has been carried out to the writing. Next, students from create the first drafts for further reading and revising by forming their ideas into a liner structure. Then, the second draft appears and the interactive activity among peers can be repeated after the second on the condition that there is enough for students to discuss their compositions. Finally, students accomplish the final draft based on the feedback from both peers and the teachers. Therefore, it is clear that process of writing is the center of process-oriented approach (Keh, 1990: 294). And the reader?s feedback exerted great influence on the multiple-draft process because it is the motivation for the writer get the final draft through the writing process.The importance of the revision process of writing has been strengthened (Leki, 1990) and how to revise the writing from the reader?s feedback has also become the focus of the process of writing (Zhang, 1995). 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The University of Michigan Press, 2002.[18] Lin, N. F. & Careless, D. Peer Feedback: The learning element of peer assessment [J]. CATESOL Journal, 2001, (3): 5-17.[19] Min, H. T. 2005. “Training students to become successful peer reviewers”. System 33/2.[20] Paulus, T. The effect of peer and teacher feedback on students?writing [J]. Journal of Second Language Writing, 1999, 8(3): 265-289.[21] Richards, C. J. and R. Schmidt. (eds.). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics[J]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research press, 2005.[22] Saito, H. 1994. “Teachers …practices and students?preferences for feedback on second language writing:A case study of adult ESL learners ”. TESL Canada Journal 11.[23] Sommers, N. Responding to Student Writing [J]. College Composition and Communication, 1982, (33): 148-156.[24] Topping, K. Peer feedback between students in colleges and universities [J]. Review of Educational Research, 1998, 68(3): 249-276.[25] Tsui, A. B. & Ng, M. Do secondary L2 writers benefit from peer comments? [J]. Journal of Second Language writing, 2000, 9(2): 147-170.[26] Vygotsky, L. S.Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological process [M]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978.[27] Zamel, V. Writing: The process of discovering meaning [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 1982, 16: 195-209.[28] Zamel, V. Responding to student writing [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 1985 (1): 79-101.[29] Zhang, S. Q. Examining the affective advantage of peer feedback in the ESL writing class [J]. Journal of Second Language Writing, 1995, 4(3): 209-222.[30] Zhu, W. Effects of teaching for peer feedback on students?comments and interaction [J]. Written Communication, 1995, 12(4): 492-528.[31] 贝晓武. 写作任务的练习效应和教师反馈对不同外语水平学生写作质量和流利度的影响[J]. 现代外语, 2009(4): 389-398+437.[32] 郭晓英. 英语写作评价模式的多元化设计[J]. 北京邮电大学学报(社会科学版), 2011, (4): 105-113.[33] 龚晓斌. 英语写作教学: 优化的同伴反馈[J]. 国外外语教学, 2007, (3): 49-53.[34] 韩冰. 同伴互评在大学英语写作教学中的功效—基于写作流利性, 复杂性及准确性的实证研究[J]. 教育理论与实践, 2009(21): 40-42.[35] 胡茶娟, 张迎春. 大学英语写作教学中的同伴互评效果的比较研究—基于135名学生的分组对照试验[J]. 湖南农业大学学报, 2011, (3): 68-72.[36] 李红, 吴胜梅. 英语写作中教师反馈对学生注意影响的研究概况[J]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版), 2005(2): 88-91.[37] 孟晓. 同伴反馈在英语写作教学中的应用研究[J]. 山东外语教学, 2009, (4): 61-64.[38] 王俊菊. 总体态度, 反馈类型和纠错种类—对大学英语教师书面反馈的探究[J]. 国外外语教学, 2006(3): 24-30.[39] 王颖, 刘振前. 教师反馈对英语写作准确性, 流利性, 复杂性和总体质量作用的研究[J]. 外语教学, 2012(6): 49-53.[40] 徐颖. 英语写作教学中的同伴反馈[J]. 四川教育学院学报, 2010, (10): 76-79.[41] 谢晓燕. 大学英语专业课堂教师反馈研究[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报, 2011(2): 50-55.[42] 杨苗. 中国英语写作课教师反馈和同伴反馈对比研究[J]. 现代外语, 2006, (3): 293-301.[43] 朱秋娟. 反馈机制与写作教学—国内外研究及对大学英语写作教学的启示[J]. 长春理工大学学报(社会科学版), 2010, (3): 160-162.[44] 张义君, 刘燕梅. 教师反馈类型对大学生英语写作的影响[J]. 首都经贸大学学报, 2010(1): 115-118.[45] 周一书. 论同伴反馈在大学英语写作课堂中的有效性[J]. 江苏教育学院学报, 2013, (2): 121-124.。

Second-language acquisitionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia(Redirected from Second language acquisition)Second-language acquisition or second-language learning is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition (often abbreviated to SLA) also refers to the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's first language; although the concept is named second-language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth, or subsequentlanguages.[1] Second-language acquisition refers to what learners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching.The academic discipline of second-language acquisition is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics. It is broad-based and relatively new. As well as the various branches of linguistics, second-language acquisition is also closely related to psychology,cognitive psychology, and education. To separate the academic discipline from the learning process itself, the terms second-language acquisition research, second-language studies, and second-language acquisition studies are also used. SLA research began as an interdisciplinary field, and because of this it is difficult to identify a precise starting date. However, it does appear to have developed a great deal since the mid-1960s.[2] The term acquisition was originally used to emphasize the subconscious nature of the learningprocess,[3] but in recent years learning and acquisition have become largely synonymous.Second-language acquisition can incorporate heritage language learning,[4] but it does not usually incorporate bilingualism. Most SLA researchers see bilingualism as being the end result of learninga language, not the process itself, and see the term as referring to native-like fluency. Writers infields such as education and psychology, however, often use bilingualism loosely to refer to all forms of multilingualism.[5] Second-language acquisition is also not to be contrasted with theacquisition of a foreign language; rather, the learning of second languages and the learning of foreign languages involve the same fundamental processes in different situations.[6].There has been much debate about exactly how language is learned, and many issues are still unresolved. There are many theories of second-language acquisition, but none are accepted as a complete explanation by all SLA researchers. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field of second-language acquisition, this is not expected to happen in the foreseeable future.∙∙∙ 3 Learner languageo 3.1 Item and system learningo 3.2 Interlanguageo 3.3 Sequences of acquisitiono 3.4 Variabilityo 3.5 Language transfer∙ 4 Factors contributing to successful acquisitiono 4.1 External factors▪ 4.1.1 Input and interaction▪ 4.1.2 Social aspectso 4.2 Internal factors▪ 4.2.1 Cognitive approaches▪ 4.2.2 Sociocultural approaches▪ 4.2.3 Linguistic approaches∙ 5 Individual variationo 5.1 Affective factors∙ 6 In the classroom∙7 Factors contributing to acquisition difficultyo7.1 Phonologyo7.2 Grammaro7.3 For native English speakers∙8 See also∙9 Notes∙10 References∙11 Further reading∙12 External links[edit]HistoryAs SLA began as an interdisciplinary field, it is hard to pin down a precise starting date.[2] However, there are two publications in particular that are seen as instrumental to the development of the modern study of SLA: Pitt Corder's 1967 essay The Significance of Learners' Errors, and Larry Selinker's 1972 article Interlanguage. Corder's essay rejected a behaviorist account of SLA and suggested that learners made use of intrinsic internal linguistic processes; Selinker's article argued that second-language learners possess their own individual linguistic systems that are independent from both the first and second languages.[7]In the 1970s the general trend in SLA was for research exploring the ideas of Corder and Selinker, and refuting behaviorist theories of language acquisition. Examples include research into error analysis, studies in transitional stages of second-language ability, and the "morpheme studies" investigating the order in which learners acquired linguistic features. The 70s were dominatedby naturalistic studies of people learning English as a second language.[7]By the 1980s, the theories of Stephen Krashen had become the prominent paradigm in SLA. In his theories, often collectively known as the Input Hypothesis, Krashen suggested that language acquisition is driven solely by comprehensible input, language input that learners can understand. Krashen's model was influential in the field of SLA and also had a large influence on language teaching, but it left some important processes in SLA unexplained. Research in the 1980s was characterized by the attempt to fill in these gaps. Some approaches included Lydia White's descriptions of learner competence, and Manfred Pienemann's use of speech processing models and lexical functional grammar to explain learner output. This period also saw the beginning of approaches based in other disciplines, such as the psychological approach of connectionism.[7]The 1990s saw a host of new theories introduced to the field, such as Michael Long's interaction hypothesis, Merrill Swain's output hypothesis, and Richard Schmidt's noticing hypothesis. However, the two main areas of research interest were linguistic theories of SLA based upon Noam Chomsky's universal grammar, and psychological approaches such as skill acquisitiontheory and connectionism. The latter category also saw the new theories of processability and input processing in this time period. The 1990s also saw the introduction of sociocultural theory, an approach to explain second-language acquisition in terms of the social environment of the learner.[7] In the 2000s research was focused on much the same areas as in the 1990s, with research split into two main camps of linguistic and psychological approaches. VanPatten and Benati do not see this state of affairs as changing in the near future, pointing to the support both areas of research have in the wider fields of linguistics and psychology, respectively.[7][edit]Comparisons with first-language acquisitionPeople who learn a second language differ from children learning their first language in a number of ways. Perhaps the most striking of these is that very few adult second-language learners reach the same competence as native speakers of that language. Children learning a second language are more likely to achieve native-like fluency than adults, but in general it is very rare for someone speaking a second language to pass completely for a native speaker. When a learner's speech plateaus in this way it is known as fossilization.In addition, some errors that second-language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For example, Spanish speakers learning English may say "Is raining" rather than "It is raining", leaving out the subject of the sentence. French speakers learning English, however, donot usually make the same mistake. This is because sentence subjects can be left out in Spanish, but not in French.[8] This influence of the first language on the second is known as language transfer.Also, when people learn a second language, the way they speak their first language changes in subtle ways. These changes can be with any aspect of language, from pronunciation and syntax to gestures the learner makes and the things they tend to notice.[9] For example, French speakers who spoke English as a second language pronounced the /t/ sound in French differently from monolingual French speakers.[10]This effect of the second language on the first led Vivian Cook to propose the idea of multi-competence, which sees the different languages a person speaks not as separate systems, but as related systems in their mind.[11][edit]Learner languageLearner language is the written or spoken language produced by a learner. It is also the main type of data used in second-language acquisition research.[12] Much research in second-language acquisition is concerned with the internal representations of a language in the mind of the learner, and in how those representations change over time. It is not yet possible to inspect these representations directly with brain scans or similar techniques, so SLA researchers are forced to make inferences about these rules from learners' speech or writing.[13][edit]Item and system learningThere are two types of learning that second-language learners engage in. The first is item learning, or the learning of formulaic chunks of language. These chunks can be individual words, set phrases, or formulas like Can I have a ___? The second kind of learning is system learning, or the learning of systematic rules.[14][edit]InterlanguageMain article: InterlanguageOriginally, attempts to describe learner language were based on comparing different languages and on analyzing learners' errors. However, these approaches weren't able to predict all the errors that learners made when in the process of learning a second language. For example, Serbo-Croat speakers learning English may say "What does Pat doing now?", although this is not a valid sentence in either language.[15]To explain these kind of systematic errors, the idea of the interlanguage was developed.[16] An interlanguage is an emerging language system in the mind of a second-language learner. A learner's interlanguage is not a deficient version of the language being learned filled with random errors, nor is it a language purely based on errors introduced from the learner's first language. Rather, it is a language in its own right, with its own systematic rules.[17] It is possible to view mostaspects of language from an interlanguage perspective, including grammar, phonology, lexicon, and pragmatics.There are three different processes that influence the creation of interlanguages:[15]∙Language transfer. Learners fall back on their mother tongue to help create their language system. This is now recognized not as a mistake, but as a process that all learners go through. ∙Overgeneralization. Learners use rules from the second language in a way that native speakers would not. For example, a learner may say "I goed home", overgeneralizing the English rule of adding -ed to create past tense verb forms.∙Simplification. Learners use a highly simplified form of language, similar to speech by children or in pidgins. This may be related to linguistic universals.The concept of interlanguage has become very widespread in SLA research, and is often a basic assumption made by researchers.[17][edit]Sequences of acquisitionMain article: Order of acquisitionIn the 1970s several studies investigated the order in which learners acquired different grammatical structures.[19] These studies showed that there was little change in this order among learners with different first languages. Furthermore, it showed that the order was the same for adults and children, and that it did not even change if the learner had language lessons. This proved that there were factors other than language transfer involved in learning second languages, and was a strong confirmation of the concept of interlanguage.However, the studies did not find that the orders were exactly the same. Although there were remarkable similarities in the order in which all learners learned second-language grammar, there were still some differences among individuals and among learners with different first languages. It is also difficult to tell when exactly a grammatical structure has been learned, as learners may use structures correctly in some situations but not in others. Thus it is more accurate to speakof sequences of acquisition, where particular grammatical features in a language have a fixed sequence of development, but the overall order of acquisition is less rigid.[edit]VariabilityAlthough second-language acquisition proceeds in discrete sequences, it does not progress from one step of a sequence to the next in an orderly fashion. There can be considerable variability in features of learners' interlanguage while progressing from one stage to the next.[20] For example, in one study by Rod Ellis a learner used both "No look my card" and "Don't look my card" while playing a game of bingo.[21] A small fraction of variation in interlanguage is free variation, when the learner uses two forms interchangeably. However, most variation is systemic variation, variation which depends on the context of utterances the learner makes.[20] Forms can vary depending on linguistic context, such as whether the subject of a sentence is a pronoun or a noun; they can vary depending on social context, such as using formal expressions with superiors and informal expressions withfriends; and also, they can vary depending on psycholinguistic context, or in other words, on whether learners have the chance to plan what they are going to say.[20] The causes of variability are a matter of great debate among SLA researchers.[21][edit]Language transferMain article: Language transferOne important difference between first-language acquisition and second-language acquisition is that the process of second-language acquisition is influenced by languages that the learner already knows. This influence is known as language transfer.[22] Language transfer is a complex phenomenon resulting from interaction between learners’ prior linguistic knowledge, thetarget-language input they encounter, and their cognitive processes.[23] Language transfer is not always from the learner’s native language; it can also be from a second la nguage, or athird.[23] Neither is it limited to any particular domain of language; language transfer can occur in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, discourse, and reading.[24]One situation in which language transfer often occurs is when learners sense a similarity between a feature of a language that they already know and a corresponding feature of the interlanguage they have developed. If this happens, the acquisition of more complicated language forms may be delayed in favor of simpler language forms that resemble those of the language the learner is familiar with.[23]Learners may also decline to use some language forms at all if they are perceived as being too distant from their first language.[23]Language transfer has been the subject of several studies, and many aspects of it remain unexplained.[23] Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain language transfer, but there is no single widely-accepted explanation of why it occurs.[25][edit]Factors contributing to successful acquisition[edit]External factors[edit]Input and interactionThe primary factor affecting language acquisition appears to be the input that the learner receives. Stephen Krashen took a very strong position on the importance of input, assertingthat comprehensible input is all that is necessary for second-language acquisition.[26][27] Krashen pointed to studies showing that the length of time a person stays in a foreign country is closely linked with his level of language acquisition. Further evidence for input comes from studies on reading: large amounts of free voluntary reading have a significant positive effect on learners' vocabulary, grammar, and writing.[28][29] Input is also the mechanism by which people learn languages according to the universal grammar model.[30]The type of input may also be important. One tenet of Krashen's theory is that input should not be grammatically sequenced. He claims that such sequencing, as found in language classrooms where lessons involve practicing a "structure of the day", is not necessary, and may even be harmful.[31]While input is of vital importance, Krashen's assertion that only input matters in second-language acquisition has been contradicted by more recent research. For example, students enrolled in French-language immersion programs in Canada still produced non-native-like grammar when they spoke, even though they had years of meaning-focused lessons and their listening skills were statistically native-level.[32] Output appears to play an important role, and among other things, can help provide learners with feedback, make them concentrate on the form of what they are saying, and help them to automatize their language knowledge.[33] These processes have been codified in the theory of comprehensible output.[34]Researchers have also pointed to interaction in the second language as being important for acquisition. According to Long's interaction hypothesis the conditions for acquisition are especially good when interacting in the second language; specifically, conditions are good when a breakdown in communication occurs and learners must negotiate for meaning. The modifications to speech arising from interactions like this help make input more comprehensible, provide feedback to the learner, and push learners to modify their speech.[35][edit]Social aspectsAlthough the dominant perspective in second-language research is a cognitive one, from the early days of the discipline researchers have also acknowledged that social aspects play an important role.[36]There have been many different approaches to sociolinguistic study of second-language acquisition, and indeed, according to Rod Ellis, this plurality has meant that "sociolinguistic SLA is replete with a bewildering set of terms referring to the social aspects of L2 acquisition".[37] Common to each of these approaches, however, is a rejection of language as a purely psychological phenomenon; instead, sociolinguistic research views the social context in which language is learned as essential for a proper understanding of the acquisition process.[38]Ellis identifies three types of social structure which can affect the acquisition of second languages: socialinguistic setting, specific social factors, and situational factors.[39] Socialinguistic setting refers to the role of the second language in society, such as whether it is spoken by a majority or a minority of the population, whether its use is widespread or restricted to a few functional roles, or whether the society is predominantly bilingual or monolingual.[40]Ellis also includes the distinction of whether the second language is learned in a natural or an educational setting.[41] Specific social factors that can affect second-language acquisition include age, gender, social class, and ethnic identity, with ethnic identity being the one that has received most research attention.[42] Situational factors are those which vary between each social interaction. For example, a learner may use morepolite language when talking to someone of higher social status, but more informal language when talking with friends.[43]There have been several models developed to explain social effects on language acquisition. Schumann's Acculturation Model proposes that learners' rate of development and ultimate level of language achievement is a function of the "social distance" and the "psychological distance" between learners and the second-language community. In Schumann's model the social factors are most important, but the degree to which learners are comfortable with learning the second language also plays a role.[44] Another sociolinguistic model is Gardner's socio-educational model, which was designed to explain classroom language acquisition.[45] The inter-group model proposes "ethnolinguistic vitality" as a key construct for second-language acquisition.[46]Language socialization is an approach with the premise that "linguistic and cultural knowledgeare constructed through each other",[47] and saw increased attention after the year 2000.[48] Finally, Norton's theory of social identity is an attempt to codify the relationship between power, identity, and language acquisition.[49][edit]Internal factorsInternal factors affecting second-language acquisition are those which stem from the learner's own mind. Attempts to account for the internal mechanisms of second-language acquisition can be divided into three general strands: cognitive, sociocultural, and linguistic. These explanations are not all compatible, and often differ significantly.[edit]Cognitive approachesMuch modern research in second-language acquisition has taken a cognitiveapproach.[50] Cognitive research is concerned with the mental processes involved in language acquisition, and how they can explain the nature of learners' language knowledge. This area of research is based in the more general area of cognitive science, and uses many concepts and models used in more general cognitive theories of learning. As such, cognitive theories view second-language acquisition as a special case of more general learning mechanisms in the brain. This puts them in direct contrast with linguistic theories, which posit that language acquisition uses a unique process different from other types of learning.[51][52]The dominant model in cognitive approaches to second-language acquisition, and indeed in all second-language acquisition research, is the computational model.[52] The computational model involves three stages. In the first stage, learners retain certain features of the language input in short-term memory. (This retained input is known as intake.) Then, learners convert some of this intake into second-language knowledge, which is stored in long-term memory. Finally, learners use this second-language knowledge to produce spoken output.[53] Cognitive theories attempt to codify both the nature of the mental representations of intake and language knowledge, and the mental processes which underlie these stages.In the early days of second-language acquisition research interlanguage was seen as the basic representation of second-language knowledge; however, more recent research has taken a number of different approaches in characterizing the mental representation of language knowledge.[54] There are theories that hypothesize that learner language is inherentlyvariable,[55] and there is the functionalist perspective that sees acquisition of language as intimately tied to the function it provides.[56] Some researchers make the distinctionbetween implicit and explicit language knowledge, and somebetween declarative and procedural language knowledge.[57] There have also been approaches that argue for a dual-mode system in which some language knowledge is stored as rules, and other language knowledge as items.[58]The mental processes that underlie second-language acquisition can be broken down intomicro-processes and macro-processes. Micro-processes include attention;[59] workingmemory;[60] integration and restructuring, the process by which learners change their interlanguage systems;[61] and monitoring, the conscious attending of learners to their own languageoutput.[62] Macro-processes include the distinction between intentional learning and incidental learning; and also the distinction between explicit and implicit learning.[63]Some of the notable cognitive theories of second-language acquisition include the nativization model,the multidimensional model and processability theory, emergentist models, the competition model, and skill-acquisition theories.[64]Other cognitive approaches have looked at learners' speech production, particularlylearners' speech planning and communication strategies. Speech planning can have an effect on learners' spoken output, and research in this area has focused on how planning affects three aspects of speech: complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Of these three, planning effects on fluency has had the most research attention.[65] Communication strategies are conscious strategies that learners employ to get around any instances of communication breakdown they may experience. Their effect on second-language acquisition is unclear, with some researchers claiming they help it, and others claiming the opposite.[66][edit]Sociocultural approachesWhile still essentially being based in the cognitive tradition, sociocultural theory has a fundamentally different set of assumptions to approaches to second-language acquisition based on the computational model.[67] Furthermore, although it is closely affiliated with other social approaches, it is a theory of mind and not of general social explanations of language acquisition. According to Ellis, "It is important to recognize ... that this paradigm, despite the label 'sociocultural' does not seek to explain how learners acquire the cultural values of the L2 but rather how knowledge of an L2 is internalized through experiences of a sociocultural nature."[67] The origins of sociocultural theory lie in the work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist.[68][edit]Linguistic approachesLinguistic approaches to explaining second-language acquisition spring from the wider study of linguistics. They differ from cognitive approaches and sociocultural approaches in that they consider language knowledge to be unique and distinct from any other type of knowledge.[51][52] The linguistic research tradition in second-language acquisition has developed in relative isolation from the cognitive and sociocultural research traditions, and as of 2010 the influence from the wider field of linguistics was still strong.[50] Two main strands of research can be identified in the linguistic tradition: approaches informed by universal grammar, and typological approaches.[69]Typological universals are principles that hold for all the world's languages. They are found empirically, by surveying different languages and deducing which aspects of them could be universal; these aspects are then checked against other languages to verify the findings. The interlanguages of second-language learners have been shown to obey typological universals, and some researchers have suggested that typological universals may constrain interlanguage development.[70]The theory of universal grammar was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, and has enjoyed considerable popularity in the field of linguistics. It is a narrowly-focused theory that only concentrates on describing the linguistic competence of an individual, as opposed to mechanisms of learning. It consists of a set of principles, which are universal and constant, and a setof parameters, which can be set differently for different languages.[71] The "universals" in universal grammar differ from typological universals in that they are a mental construct derived by researchers, whereas typological universals are readily verifiable by data from world languages.[70]It is widely accepted among researchers in the universal grammar framework that all first-language learners have access to universal grammar; this is not the case for second-language learners, however, and much research in the context of second-language acquisition has focused on what level of access learners may have.[71][edit]Individual variationMain article: Individual variation in second-language acquisitionThere is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn quickly and reach a near-native level of competence, but others learn slowly and get stuck at relatively early stages of acquisition, despite living in the country where the language is spoken for several years. The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of language learning aptitude in the 1950s, and later with the good language learner studies in the 1970s. More recently research has focused on a number of different factors that affect individuals' language learning, in particular strategy use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long-standing debate.。

语言学名词解释和问答题答案（只供参考）四、名词解释：1)Parole话语：①it refers to the realization of langue in actual use.②it is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.③it is concrete, refers to the naturally occurring language events.④it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2)Applied linguistics应用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often beapplied to the solution of such practical problems as recovery of speech ability.The study of such applications is known as applied linguistics.3)Reference（所指）语义: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4)Illocutionary act言外行为：the act of expressing the speaker’s intention,it is th eact preformed in saying something.5)Regional dialect地域方言：it is a linguistic variety used by people living in thesame geographical region. It has been found that regional dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers and swamps.6)LAD(Language Acquisition Device)语言习得机制：It was described as animaginary "black box" existing somewhere in the human brain.7)CA（Contrastive Analysis）对比分析：starting with describing comparablefeatures of the native language and the target language, CA compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter.8)Neurolinguistics（神经语言学）：it is the study of two related areas：languagedisorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.9)Predication analysis述谓结构分析：①It is proposed by the British Linguist G.Leech.②The basic unit is call ed predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.③This applies to all forms of a sentence.④ A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.10)Cross-cultural communication(intercultural communication)跨文化交流：itis communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.11)Cross-association互相联想：In English we sometimes may come across wordswhich are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the twoleads to confusion. Such interference is often referred as cross-association.12)CPH（Critical Period Hypothesis）临界期假说：a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.①The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.②The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s case s)13) Prescriptive（grammer）规定语法：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard " behaviour in using language to ell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.14) Performance语言运用；言语行为：the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication .15)Duality双重性(double articulation)：language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower or basic level is of sounds, which are meaningless. The higher level can be meaningful.五、问答题：Chapter 11.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientificstudy of language?Linguistics studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observelanguage facts,which are found to display some similarities ,and generalizations are made about them,then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure .But the hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.6. How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyThey are similar in two aspects: the definition and the content of study.On one hand, Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community, and parole as the realization of langue in actual use.Chomsky d efines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. We can see that langue and competence both refer to the abstract issue, conventions and knowledge, and parole and performance both are their actual realization, the concrete use.On the other hand, in Saussure’s opinion, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole as parole is too varied and confusing. And this is the same as Chomsky. He thinks linguists should study the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociologicalview of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockettto show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1)Arbitrariness:this means that there is no logical connection between meanings andsounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language.2)Productivity:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals of its users.3)Duality:language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. Atthe lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) Displacement: Language can be use to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past ,present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission:Language is passed on from one generation to next through teachingand learning rather than by instinct.Chapter 23.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrowone transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound [l]8.what’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?① A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].② A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].③Allophone—the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentsPhone is different from phoneme,The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/1.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?1)The naming theory命名论was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Thelinguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things. The semantic relationship holding between words and things is the relationship of naming.2)The conceptualist view概念论: This view holds that there isno direct link between alinguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and Richards:3)Contextualism语境论: Representatively proposed by the British linguist J. R. Firthwho had been influenced by the Polish anthropologist Malinowski and the German philosopher Wittgenstein.It holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context-elements closely linked with language behavior. …the meaning of a word is its use in the language.4)Behaviourism行为主义论: Based on contextualist view by Bloomfield who drew onbehaviorist psychology in defining “meaning”.Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language from as the “situation in which th e speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.6.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example: "You have left the door wide open."The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes asfollows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity数量原则E.g. A: When is Susan's farewell party?B: Sometimes next month.It is flouting the maxim of quantity(2) The maxim of quality质量原则E.g. A: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?B: I'm afraid I have got a class on Sunday.(3) The maxim of relation相关原则E.g. A: How did the math exam go today, Tom?B: We had a basketball match with the other class.(4) The maxim of manner方式准则E.g. A: Shall we got something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Chapter92.What do you think of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? Give examples or proof to support your point of view.Sapir-Whorf believe that language filters people's perception and the way they categorize their experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. There are mainly two different interpretations about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influences the later.I agree with the weak one. Here is an example, the word snow. For Eskimo snow is extremely important and so crucial to life that each of its various forms and conditions is named. In English-speaking cultures, snow is far less important and simple word snow usually suffices the need. When some needs become more specific, however, longer phrases can be made up to meet these needs: “corn snow”, “fine powder snow”, and “drifting snow”.Chapter102.Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.1)Behaviourist view---language is behavior ,language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.In this theory,imitation and practice are preliminary(开始),discrimination （识别）and generalizaition are key to language development.2)An innatist (语法天生主义者)view----In the human brain, there is an imaginary “black box”called Language acquisition device which is said to contain principles that are universal to all language.Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular /doc/2b1619803.html,ter Chomsky prefer this innate endowment as UG and hold that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language make use of these principles and the variations in those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.3) An interactionist(互动主义者)view----language develops asa result of the complex interplay,between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which child develops.In a word,Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects,the innatist accounts most reasonable in explaining children's acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Chapter111、To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experience?(please list your own experience.) The studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and pratical levels. Theoretically the new findings and advances in first language acquisition in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. Just as Littlewood summarizes, the first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and undrerstanding new facts about second language learning.2.Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusion can you reach about the role of Chinese in your English learning? On what occasions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning and using English? Chinese plays an inseparable role in our Englishlearning and people can't afford to ignore it. Hence, the role of Chinese in our English learning is worth careful examination. In addition, English learning have been influnenced by Chinese learning at both theoretical and practical levels.(1)Theoretically, the new findings and advanced in Chinese acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminate (helping) in understanding English acquisition.(2)The techniques used to collect and analyze data in Chinese learning also provides insights and perspectives in the study of English learning.Occasion: Recent studies have discovered that there are three interacting factors in determining language transfer in second language learning:1)a learner's psychology, how a learner organizes his or her native language;2)a learner's perception of native-target language distance,3)a learner's actual knowledge of the target language.。