Stylistics and Translation

基本的翻译技巧一般包括1).Diction(选词用字); 2).Amplification(增益); 3).Omission(省略);4).Repetiton(重复);5).Conversion(转换); 6).Restructuring(词序调整); 7).Negation(正说反译，反说正译);8).Division(长句拆译).遣词用字是任何翻译工作者自始至终需面临的一个现实问题。

由于英汉分属不同的语系，所以在翻译时源语与译语之间往往没用相对固定的词义对应关系。

本期用对比的方式归纳了英汉词字层次上的五种对应情况：1.完全对等，2.多词同义，3.一词多义，4.词义交织，5.无对等词语。

词义辨析是遣词用字的前提。

本期从四个角度探讨了如何判断某一英语词语的准确含义，即1.根据构词法辨别词义；2.根据指代关系辨别词义；3.根据上下文或词的搭配辨别词义；4.根据不同学科或专业类型辨别词义。

在词义辨析的基础上，本期归纳了英语词语翻译的8种常用技巧：1.推演法，2.移植法，3.引伸法，4.替代法，5.释义法，6.合并法，7. 图形法和8.音译法。

1. Correspondence Between English and Chinese at Word Level----英汉词字层次上的五种对应情况In most cases there is no existing pattern for sentence translation, nor are there fixed rules for word transformation. Generally speaking, the correspondence between English and Chinese at word level may be categorized as follows:1) Word-for-word CorrespondenceThis is most evidently shown in proper nouns and technical terms.For example: Marxism = 马克思主义Aspirin ＝阿斯匹林2) One Word with Multiple Equivalents of the Same MeaningThis is a common case in translation.For example:犬：dog, hound, spaniel, mastiff, pointer, setter, retriever, terrier……3) One Word with Several Equivalents of Different MeaningThis is also very common in translation. For example:carry: 搬、运、送、提、拎、挑、担、抬、背、扛、搂、抱、端、举、夹、捧…..走：walk, saunter, amble, stride, trudge, trapes, shamble, prance, scamper, clump, tiptoe ….羊：sheep, goat, ram, ewe, lamb……4) Equivalents Interwoven with One Another5) Words Without EquivalentsIn this case, an explanation is given instead of an equivalent.For example:clock-watcher: 老是看钟等下班的人阴：(in Chinese thought) the soft inactive female principle or force in the world阳：(in Chinese thought) the strong active male principle or force in the world（目不识）丁: (not know one's) ABC2. Methods to Discriminate the Original Meaning of an English Word-----词义辨析Since English words are prone to various meanings, it is of vital importance for a translator to discern the right meaning of a given word. And the following are the major methods of discriminating word meaning suggested by some linguists.1) Judging from the Word FormationIn order to discriminate the original meaning of an English word, it is necessary for us to have a knowledge of English lexicology, and specifically, a knowledge of word formation, such as compounding, derivation, affixation, blending, acronym, clipping, etc. A good command of them will help to shed light on the correct meaning of some difficult words.For example, the word ""parabiospheric"", which consists of para-(outside) +bio-(biologic) +spheric (having the form of a sphere). After a brief analysis, we may safely put it into ""外生物层的"". Another more complicated instance, pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis. This extremely long word seems appallingly complicated. However, an anatomic study of its composition enables us to get a clear understanding of its meaning: pneumono- (of lung) +ultra- (beyond) + micro (very small) + scopic- (of viewing or observing) + silico- (of silicon)+ volcano + coni- ( koni, of dust) + osis (forming the name of a disease). Even if we are not sure of the equivalent of this medical term, we may roughly get the right meaning of the long word: a kind of lung disease caused by extremely small silicon particles. And a look into some dictionary leads us to the definite answer: 硅酸盐沉着病，肺尘病（一种矿工易染的病）。

“文体与翻译”课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息开课单位：翻译学院课程名称：文体与翻译课程编号：223111英文名称：Stylistics and Translation课程类型：专业拓展课总学时： 36 理论学时：20 实验学时： 16学分： 2开设专业：翻译先修课程：英汉笔译（223102）、汉英笔译（223103）二、课程任务目标（一）课程任务本课程是一门英语翻译类的专业必修课，也是翻译专业学生学习和掌握不同文体文本翻译的主要课程。

本课程的任务是使学生从实践的角度出发，在理论和实践上掌握不同文本类型在语言特征、交际重点、表现方式等方面的差异，培养学生从宏观上掌握文本特征的意识，并增强在翻译实践中处理具体的翻译问题的能力。

（二）课程目标在学完本课程之后，学生能够：1.了解文体翻译的研究内容和发展；2. 了解新闻、政论文体的语言特征和交际重点，掌握并灵活运用翻译技巧处理新闻文本的翻译问题；3. 了解商务文体的语言特征和交际重点，掌握并灵活运用翻译技巧处理商务文本的翻译问题；4. 了解法律文体的语言特征和交际重点，掌握并灵活运用翻译技巧处理法律文本的翻译问题；5. 了解文学文体的语言特征和交际重点，掌握并灵活运用翻译技巧处理文学文本的翻译问题；6. 学会翻译中的团队合作。

三、教学内容和要求（一）理论教学的内容及要求第一章文体翻译简介1. 了解文体的概念；2. 理解不同的文体分类，掌握实用文体和文学文体的区别。

第二章新闻翻译1．了解新闻文体特征；2．理解新闻文体的翻译原则，掌握新闻文体的翻译策略。

第三章政论文翻译1．了解政论文的文体特征和翻译特点；2．理解政论文翻译的四大原则，掌握政论文体的翻译策略。

第四章商务翻译1. 了解商务文体特征以及常见商务文本形似；2. 理解商务英语的翻译原则，掌握常用商务术语的翻译和商务文本的翻译策略。

第五章旅游翻译1. 了解旅游文本的分类和特性；2. 理解旅游翻译的原则和标准，掌握初阶和进阶水平的旅游文本翻译方法。

STYLISTIC CHOICE IN MACHINE TRANSLATIONChrysanne DiMarcoDepartment of Computer ScienceUniversity of WaterlooWaterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1AbstractThe study of comparative stylistics attempts to catalogue and explain the differ-ences in style between languages. We describe a formal model of comparative syntacticstylistics that could be implemented in a machine translation system, enabling the sys-tem to make a more informed decision about possible translation choices and theirpotential stylistic effects.1 Stylistic adequacy of translationWe have all had the experience of reading a translated text, and feeling that it was not quite right, but not being able to articulate exactly why this was so. The text may be divided into the correct number of paragraph units, the semantic content may all be there, but something in the way the material is presented strikes a false note: while the meaning of the source text may be intact, the style of the target text is faulty. We have argued (DiMarco and Hirst 1993) that style is not mere surface appearance, but conveys a good deal of meaning, so that if the style of a translation is not appropriate, then some significant aspects of meaning will have been lost.In earlier work (DiMarco and Hirst 1990), we showed the need to account for aspects of style in machine translation, and noted that style influences translations on all linguistic levels: lexical, syntactic, semantic, and textual. The particular choices of words, the specific arrangement of sentences, the selection of which details to carry over in the translation, all convey a particular stylistic effect. The linguistic choices the translator makes in selecting various ways of realizing the source text in the target language carry pragmatic import, and therefore affect the meaning communicated to the reader.As we observed in (DiMarco and Hirst 1990), consideration of style in translation involves two complementary, but sometimes conflicting, aims:•The translation must preserve, as much as possible, the author's stylistic intent—theinformation conveyed through the manner of presentation.•But it must have a style that is appropriate and natural to the target language.From comparative stylistics, we recognize that languages differ in their stylistic approaches, that each has its own characteristic stylistic preferences. Thus, what is needed for truly effective ma-chine translation is a way of incorporating knowledge of comparative stylistics to make the most appropriate choices during the process of generating target text.In (DiMarco and Hirst 1990), we first proposed the outline of a computational model of compar-ative stylistics for machine translation. The model focused on syntactic aspects of style; theoretical32details of the basic, unilingual, model were developed in (DiMarco and Hirst 1993; Green 1992; Hoyt 1993). In related work (DiMarco, Hirst, and Stede 1993), we have begun to extend our work on syntactic style to consider the effects of lexical style on machine translation and multilingual generation. In recent work (DiMarco and Mah (in press)), we extended the basic model to present a computational model of French-English comparative stylistics that we propose as the basis for a 'microtheory' of style in a machine translation or multilingual generation system.In this paper, we will focus on how our model might be used in a machine translation system, to provide additional information for making systematic choices among linguistic options, in full awareness of the kind of stylistic subtlety that will be conveyed by each choice.2 Overview of a computational model of styleOur basic model of style is a multi-level representation of stylistic grammar rules that takes as its starting point the notion that style is goal-directed, that is, a writer makes particular linguistic choices to achieve a particular stylistic goal, such as expressing clarity, being dynamic, or even being deliberately obscure. The top level of our model provides a definition of such stylistic goals, which we take to be the writer's intentions for high-level pragmatic properties of text. The stylistic goals are realized in terms of lower-level rhetorical properties, the abstract elements, which are general stylistic properties of groups of sentences. In turn, the definitions of the abstract elements are given in terms of primitive elements, stylistically significant syntactic properties of sentence components. Thus, the model ties together low-level syntactic structure and high-level stylistic goals, through the intermediary of classic rhetorical properties of sentence structure.The fundamental concepts that are used to integrate the multiple levels of the model are stylistic concord and discord, which we define as follows:Concord: A stylistic construction that conforms to the norm for a given genre.Discord: A stylistic construction that deviates from the norm.1Throughout the model, these concepts of concord and discord are used as the defining principles in determining stylistically significant terminology appropriate for each level of the model. At the lowest level, we consider two aspects of syntactic structure, the cohesive bonds of linear ordering and the nested structure of hierarchical organization,2 and give rules that relate these structures to primitive concordant and discordant stylistic effects. These primitive stylistic elements provide a precise syntactic basis to the model, yet also allow a mapping to the abstract elements.The abstract elements describe general rhetorical properties related to syntactic parallelism, structure nesting, and linear ordering. At this level also, we define different ways of obtaining stylistic concord and discord; for example, exact syntactic parallelism is very concordant, while disruptive interruptions of canonical linear ordering are discordant.1 Discord, in our view, is not necessarily 'bad'. Indeed, it is the strategic use of discord, deviation from the norm, that can give expressiveness to writing.2 These two complementary kinds of analysis are implicit in the work of most stylists and rhetoricians.33The abstract elements are in turn used as the basis for rules defining high-level stylistic goals. Stylistic goals can be organized along orthogonal dimensions. For example, a writer might try to be clear, or obscure, or make no effort either way. Clarity and obscurity are thus opposite ends of a stylistic dimension. Likewise, the goals of concreteness and abstraction form a dimension, and so do staticness and dynamism.We adapted descriptions of stylistic goals from textbooks of style and rewrote these descriptions in terms of our abstract elements. Clarity, for example, is characterized by simple sentences with a straightforward linear ordering, by more-complex sentences that are still concordant but have a hierarchical structure, and by parallel sentences. Concreteness is associated with sentences that highlight a particular component: these are sentences that interrupt the usual ordering or are otherwise discordant. And staticness is characteristic of 'fixed-form' sentences in which there is little stylistic variation, that is, sentences that are actually overly concordant.To this basic unilingual model of style, we added rules of comparative stylistics that describe how sentence structure in the source language may be preserved or modified in the target-language sentence, with consequent maintenance or variation in rhetorical structure and stylistic goals (Di-Marco and Mah (in press)). In the section below, we give examples of how our model could be used to choose among different structures for a target-language sentence and show how the stylistic goals would be affected.3 Applying the model to stylistic choiceAs we noted above, our model of comparative stylistics gives rules defining rhetorical properties related to syntactic parallelism, nested structure, and linear ordering. For all these properties, we can choose to vary syntactic structure to produce different stylistic effects. For example, we can decide whether to nest a component within a nominal group or 'break it out' into the top-level clause; we can also choose among different arrangements for the placement of components at the top level of the sentence. In the examples below, we show how these kinds of syntactic choices can be made in translation to either maintain the style of the original text or produce a different effect.3.1 Choosing the same styleThe default choice when we translate will be to produce a corresponding structure in the target language that will preserve the style of the source text. In sentence (1) below, we need to decide how to translate a postmodifying clause; in sentences (2) and (3), we show two possible variations, the literal translation and the more elegant actual translation:(l) Mais maintenant, les chercheurs présument que des radicaux libres d'oxygène, métabo-lites naturels, mais nocifs, pourraient être les principaux déclencheurs de la réaction enchaine qui aboutit à la cataracte.33 Andy Dappen. "A 1'attaque de la cataracte." Canadien, 4(9), janvier 1991, pp. 15-16.34(2)But now, the researchers presume that oxygen free-radicals, natural, but harmful, meta-bolic by-products, may be the main trigger of the chain reaction that leads to cataracts.(literal translation)(3)But now researchers feel free radicals of oxygen, natural but harmful bi-products of ourmetabolism, are the prime suspects in starting the domino reaction leading to cataracts.4 In this example, the relative clause in the French sentence could be translated either as another relative clause in English, or as a reduced relative (participle) clause. According to our model, the French relative clause is cohesive and concordant, producing an effect of clarity. Either variation (2) or (3) would maintain this effect, but sentence (3), which uses an elliptical structure, is considered more cohesive in English, and therefore slightly clearer. In this case, the second variation has been chosen to maintain the same degree of clarity across the translation.3.2 Choosing a different styleWhile maintaining the same style in translation may be the most usual choice, there will also be situations where the style has to be changed in order to make the target-language text sound more natural. In the French sentence (4) below, the adverbial clause has been placed in a very canonical, concordant position at the end of the main clause. We might choose to maintain this position in translation, as in sentence (5), or move the clause, as in sentence (6):(4)L'instabilité régnera jusqu'à la mise en place de nouveaux arrangements.5(5)The instability will remain until the putting in place of new arrangements, (literal trans-lation)(6)Until a future arrangement is understood, there will be instability.6We consider the French sentence, (4), to have a clear, canonical structure, and we could choose to preserve this effect of clarity by keeping the same linear arrangement in the English translation, as in (5). But English tends to favour a more concrete style (Vinay and Darbelnet 1958), so that fronting the adverbial clause, as in (6), will highlight the clause and create an effect of immediacy and concreteness. Note though that the choice is not always so deterministic, as it may be the case that while the French source sentence has a concrete style, we may choose a simpler, clear structure for the English translation if the resulting effect sounds less disruptive.4 Andy Dappen. "Preventing cataracts." Canadian, 4(9), January 1991, pp. 15-16.5 Unknown author. "L'avenir du pays." Canadien, 4(9), janvier 1991, pp. 67-75.6 Unknown author. "Looking ahead." Canadian, 4(9), January 1991, pp. 67-76.353.3Choosing the same style in a non-obvious wayThe choice of whether to preserve or modify style in translation becomes even more complicated when we consider options that satisfy this primary aim, but do so in a non-obvious way. For example, in the translation below, an interrupting prepositional phrase can be maintained in the same position (8), or moved within the sentence (9):(7)Dans sa petite robe noire, les yeux cernés par les larmes et la fatigue, Germaine raconte:« Mon frère perdait son sang, et je n'ai rien pu faire. »7(8)In her little black dress, her eyes shadowed by tears and fatigue, Germaine said, "Mybrother was losing blood, and I couldn't do anything." (literal translation)(9)"My brother was losing blood, and I couldn't do anything for him," said Germaine,a woman in a little black dress, tearful and hollow-eyed with fatigue.8In either variation (8) or (9), we would preserve the highlighting of the prepositional phrase, and hence both versions would display concreteness. Both arrangements would preserve the style of the source sentence; the particular choice would depend on the degree of 'naturalness' or simply a desire for 'elegant variation' over a number of similar translations.3.4Choosing a different style in a non-obvious wayFinally, we may choose to modify the style in translation, but do so in an unexpected way to make a striking rhetorical statement. In the example below, the cohesive, concordant, canonical structure of sentence (10) could be maintained as in (11), but could also not only be modified, but in a rather unusual and emphatic manner, as in (12):(10)On leur a dit aussi que trop peu de professeurs méritent le qualificatif de remarquables oud'excellents, surtout à cause des attitudes vis-a-vis de 1'enseignement car la communautéuniversitaire ne souligne pas assez la valeur de 1'excellence à ce chapitre.9(11)We also told them that too few professors warranted the status of remarkable or excellent,particularly because of attitudes with regard to education for the university communitydoesn't stress enough the importance of this issue, (literal translation)(12)They also heard that too few teachers can be described as outstanding or excellent,primarily because of attitudes towards teaching—not enough is done in the academiccommunity to emphasize the value of teaching excellence.107 Françoise Chipaux. "Bsouss, village libanais martyr." Le Monde, octobre 1990, pp. 1, 3, 21-22.8 Françoise Chipaux. "Bsouss, the martyred village." Manchester Guardian Weekly, 143(17), 28 October 1990, p. 13.9 Gloria Pierre. "Encore à propos d'enseignement et de recherche." Affaires universitaires, 32(2), fevrier 1991, p. 2.10 Gloria Pierre. "What about teaching? and publishing?" University Affairs, 32(1), January 1991, p. 2.36In version (12), the clarity of the French sentence (10) been replaced by a concrete effect, by setting off the terminal clause by disruptive discordant punctuation. In this case, the straightforward structure of the source sentence, and its literal translation, have been avoided in favour of an emphatic, much more rhetorically strong, translation.4 A closer look at the computational model4.1Basic elements of styleAs we noted earlier, in our computational model, each component of a sentence is assigned a stylistic classification according to two syntactic properties: its contribution to cohesion within the sentence and its degree of nesting within the hierarchical structure of the sentence. In this paper, we are concerned only with stylistic effects that either contribute to or disrupt intrasentence cohesion.Cohesion is defined in terms of a component's 'conjunctness', or connectivity, and so a com-ponent can be conjunct0 (neither cohesive nor disruptive), conjunct1 (mildly cohesive), conjunct2 (moderately cohesive), and so on, up to conjunct6 (excessively cohesive). We also have a comple-mentary scale of antijunctness, which measures disruption in cohesive structure. We assign a degree of cohesion according to rules based on Halliday and Hasan's (1976) classifications of the relative cohesive strengths of substitution, ellipsis, reference, and conjunction. We also added a new factor, interpolation, a disconnective factor that works against cohesion. So, for example, an instance of ellipsis is classified as strongly connective, conjunct4, while a referential structure is judged to be only moderately connective, conjunct2.114.2Abstract elements of comparative stylisticsThe basic elements of style are grouped into patterns that describe the more general abstract elements. In our model, we use the following groups of abstract elements to describe stylistic properties, associated with cohesive structure, that can be maintained or modified in translation: Concord: Elements associated with effects of cohesion in translation.A concord can be augmented (the degree of cohesion is increased in translation), dimin-ished (the degree of cohesion is decreased), or sustained (the same degree of cohesion ismaintained).Discord: Elements associated with too little or too much cohesion.A discord can also be augmented, diminished, or sustained, depending on whether the de-gree of cohesion is increased or decreased too much, becomes concordant, or is maintainedat the same level in the translation.11 Green (1992) and Hoyt (1993) present the full details of all the classifications at the basic level of our model of English stylistics.37Heteropoise: Elements associated with an interruption, or parenthesis, in the linear ordering ofa sentence in translation.A heterpoise can be augmented (a parenthesis is introduced in the translation), diminished(a parenthesis is removed), or sustained (a parenthesis is maintained). There are severaltypes of sustained heteropoise: non-shifted (parenthesis remains in the same positionwithin the sentence in translation), front-shifted (parenthesis moves to start of sentence),medial-shifted (parenthesis moves to middle), or end-shifted (parenthesis moves to end).In Section 3.1, we observed how the relative clause, qui aboutit à la cataracte, in the French sentence (1) would best be translated as the reduced relative clause, leading to cataracts, in the English sentence (3). In our model, a full relative class is classified as an instance of reference, and so is a conjunct2 postmodifier; a reduced relative clause is classified as an instance of ellipsis, and so is a more cohesive conjunct4 postmodifier.Such correspondences between French and English syntactic structure axe grouped according to the kind of stylistic transformation that they describe. A rule of comparative stylistics is formed from the pairing of a type of transformation, i.e., an abstract element of comparative stylistics, with all the correspondences that can produce it. For example, an augmented concord could be realized in a translation by a change from a conjunct2 postmodifier (a relative clause) to a conjunct4 postmodifer (a reduced relative clause).In DiMarco and Mah (in press), we present the full set of rules in our model and discuss how it might be incorporated into a general machine translation system to provide additional information on the various translation choices and their potential stylistic effects.5 ConclusionWhen we translate, we often have a number of different ways of expressing the content of the source-language sentence and each variation can have a subtly different stylistic nuance that will affect the overall meaning conveyed. We have shown how a computational model of comparative stylistics provides rules that can be used to select among the possible translations, using knowledge of the stylistic effect of each choice. Such stylistic decision-making can enable a machine translation system to make more informed decisions about the effectiveness and the appropriateness of the resulting target-language text.AcknowledgementsWe would like to thank Graeme Hirst and Bruce Jakeway for carefully reviewing an earlier draft of this paper.38ReferencesDiMarco, Chrysanne and Hirst, Graeme. "Accounting for style in machine translation." Proceed-ings of the Third International Conference on Theoretical and Methodological Issues in Machine Translation of Natural Languages, Austin, Texas, June 1990, pp. 148-153.DiMarco, Chrysanne and Hirst, Graeme. "A computational theory of goal-directed style in syntax."Computational Linguistics, 19(3), September 1993, pp. 448-497.DiMarco, Chrysanne; Hirst, Graeme; and Stede, Manfred. "The semantic and stylistic differen-tiation of synonyms and near-synonyms." Proceedings, AAAI Spring Symposium on Building Lexicons for Machine Translation, Stanford, March 1993, pp. 114-121.DiMarco, Chrysanne and Mah, Keith. "A model of comparative stylistics for machine translation."To appear in Machine Translation. 39 pages.Green, Stephen J. A functional theory of style for natural language generation. Master's thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Waterloo, 1992. [University of Waterloo Faculty of Mathematics Technical Report CS-92-48].Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, Ruqaiya. Cohesion in English. Longman Group Limited, London, 1976.Hoyt, Patricia A. A goal-directed functionally-based stylistic analyzer. Master's thesis, Depart-ment of Computer Science, University of Waterloo, 1993. [University of Waterloo Faculty of Mathematics Technical Report CS-93-48].Vinay, J.-P., and Darbelnet, J. Stylistique comparée du francais et de I'anglais. Paris: Didier, 1958.39。

Ferdinand de Saussure is described as "the father of modern linguistics" and "a master of a discipline which he made modern"Saussure's most influential work, Course in General Linguistics plays an important role in history of language study.He was responsible for three key directions in the study of language.First, he pointed the distinction between historical linguistics and the state of language at any point in time. He was determined to delimit（限定）and define the boundaries of langue study. To this end he began by distinguishing between historical linguistics and descriptive linguistics, or diachronic and synchronic analyses respectively.de Saussure's second contribution was the distinction between language and parole. The distinction between Langue and parole is important. In distinguishing them, we are separating what is social from what is individual, and what is essential from what is accidental.Saussure's third main theoretical contribution was to clarify the concept of a language system and many linguists feel that it was this facet（方面）of his thought that had the most profound influence on subsequent scholarship.The most immediate and significant impact of de Saussure's structural theory was in the area of phonology. It led to the concept of the phoneme as a distinct and indivisible sound of a language. The influence de Saussure had on language was revolutionary. It is he that pushed linguistics into a brand new stage and all linguistics in the 20th century are Saussurean linguistics.Chomsky is an American famous linguists.The publication of Syntactic Structures marked the beginning of the Chomskyan revolution and the Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory, which challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. This approach takes utterances to have a syntax characterized by a formal grammar; in particular, a context-free grammar extended with transformational rules.A distinction introduced by Chomsky into linguistic theory but of wider application. Competence refers to a ideal user’s knowledge of the rule of his language as manifest in his ability to produce and to understand a theoretically infinite number of sentences most of which he may have never seen or heard before. Performance refers to the realization of this knowledge in utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non-linguistic features like hesitations, accompanying the use of language. Competence like organization describes the potentiality of a system. Performance like structure describes the forms actually realized as a subset of those conceivable.Perhaps his most influential and time-tested contribution to the field, is the claim that modeling knowledge of language using a formal grammar accounts for the "productivity" of language. In other words, a formal grammar of a language can explain the ability of a hearer-speaker to produce and interpret an infinite number of utterances, including novel ones, with a limited set of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms.M.A.K. Halliday an English linguist. His Systemic-Functional Grammar is a sociological oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20th century, having great effect on various disciplines related to language, such as language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistics, and machine translation.He has sought to create an approach to linguistics that treats language as foundational for the building of human experience. His insights and publications form an approach called systemic-functional linguistics. Systemic-functional linguistics (SFL), as its name suggests, considers function and semantics as the basis of human language and communicative activity. It includes three functions: the ideational function, interpersonal function and the textual function.A key concept in Halliday's approach is the "context of situation" which obtains "through a systematic relationship between the social environment on the one hand, and the functional organization of language on the other”.Leonard BloomfieldLeonard Bloomfield (April 1, 1887 –April 18, 1949) was an American linguist who led the development of structural linguistics in the United States during the 1930s and the 1940s. Bloomfield made important empirical contributions to three major subfields of Linguistics: Indo-European comparative-historical linguistics (including work on Sanskrit as well as Germanic); the study of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, principally Tagalog; and descriptive and comparative Algonquian linguistics.Firstly He made significant contributions to Indo-European historical linguistics; Bloomfield made extensive use of Indo-European materials to explain historical and comparative principles in both of his textbooks, An introduction to language (1914), and his seminal Language. Secondly, he made a description of Austronesian languages, then he published Tagalog texts with grammatical analysis, which includes a series of texts dictated by Santiago in addition to an extensive grammatical description and analysis of every word in the texts.Thirdly, he made a description of languages of the Algonquian family. Bloomfield’s work on Algonquian languages had both descriptive and comparative components.Bloomfield published An Introduction to the Study of Language. This book laid out his basic ideas about the nature of language, following on basic Boasian lines, which were becoming characteristic of Linguistics in the U.S.His influential textbook Language, published in 1933, presented a comprehensive description of American structural linguistics.Bloomfield's most significant influence in the field came from his ideas on the theory of Linguistics, which were carried on in basic respects by a new generation of American structuralists in the 1950s.Bloomfield's approach to linguistics was characterized by its emphasis on the scientific basis of linguistics, adherence to behaviorism(行动主义) especially in his later work, and emphasis on formal procedures for the analysis of linguistic data.。

暨南大学翻译硕士专业学位研究生培养方案（专业学位类别码：055200 方向：笔译）一、学科简介暨南大学翻译专业硕士学位（MTI）于2010年获教育部批准，2011年正式招生。

该专业经学校研究决定由暨南大学外国语学院和翻译学院共同建设。

外国语学院的前身是创办于1927年的外国语言文学系，历史上曾有许多著名专家学者在该系任教，如叶公超、梁实秋、钱钟书、许国璋教授等。

外国语学院于2001年在原文学院外语系和大学英语教学中心的基础上成立，目前该院已拥有英语语言文学系、商务英语系、日语系、大学英语教学部四个教学单位；有外国语言文学研究所、应用语言学研究所两个专门科研机构；拥有外国语言文学硕士一级学科，英语语言文学、外国语言学及应用语言学两个硕士二级学科。

其中英语语言文学硕士点（1981）是暨南大学最早取得硕士学位授予权的单位之一，曾以文学为主、专长翻译。

著名学者翁显良、曾昭科、张鸾铃、谭时霖、黄均、黄锡祥等教授曾先后担任导师。

翻译学院是在外国语学院英语专业翻译方向的基础上于2010年6月成立，现有“翻译研究所”和“翻译中心”两个教学研究与实践基地。

外国语学院和翻译学院现有英语教授10人，副教授50余人，其中博士生导师2人，硕士生导师21人。

目前，研究生导师主持国家社科基金项目5项，省部级人文社科项目近20项，在外语类和社科类权威期刊发表论文数十篇。

二、培养目标翻译专业硕士学位（MTI）旨在培养德、智、体全面发展、能够适应我国经济飞速发展和全球经济一体化进程，以及提高我国在国际竞争中的综合实力需求、适应我国社会发展与建设的需要高层次、应用型、专业性笔译人才。

笔译分为英译中和中译英两大部分，其中包括文学翻译、科技翻译、商务翻译和法律翻译等。

笔译为书面语，要求译文要忠实原文，因此双语译文的准确、完整、严谨是对译文的高标准要求，尤其当译文涉及国际协议、条约、合同、国际会议文件、政府外交声明、领导人讲话稿等，对笔译的准确度则要求更高。

基本的翻译技巧一般包括1).Diction(选词用字); 2).Amplification(增益); 3).Omission(省略);4).Repetiton(重复); 5).Conversion(转换); 6).Restructuring(词序调整); 7).Negation(正说反译，反说正译); 8).Division(长句拆译).遣词用字是任何翻译工作者自始至终需面临的一个现实问题。

由于英汉分属不同的语系，所以在翻译时源语与译语之间往往没用相对固定的词义对应关系。

本期用对比的方式归纳了英汉词字层次上的五种对应情况：1.完全对等，2.多词同义，3.一词多义，4.词义交织，5.无对等词语。

词义辨析是遣词用字的前提。

本期从四个角度探讨了如何判断某一英语词语的准确含义，即1.根据构词法辨别词义；2.根据指代关系辨别词义；3.根据上下文或词的搭配辨别词义；4.根据不同学科或专业类型辨别词义。

在词义辨析的基础上，本期归纳了英语词语翻译的8种常用技巧：1.推演法，2.移植法，3.引伸法，4.替代法，5.释义法，6.合并法，7. 图形法和8.音译法。

1. Correspondence Between English and Chinese at Word Level----英汉词字层次上的五种对应情况In most cases there is no existing pattern for sentence translation, nor are there fixed rules for word transfor mation. Generally speaking, the correspondence between English and Chinese at word level may be categori zed as follows:1) Word-for-word CorrespondenceThis is most evidently shown in proper nouns and technical terms.For example: Marxism = 马克思主义Aspirin ＝阿斯匹林2) One Word with Multiple Equivalents of the Same MeaningThis is a common case in translation.For example:犬：dog, hound, spaniel, mastiff, pointer, setter, retriever, terrier……3) One Word with Several Equivalents of Different MeaningThis is also very common in translation. For example:carry: 搬、运、送、提、拎、挑、担、抬、背、扛、搂、抱、端、举、夹、捧…..走：walk, saunter, amble, stride, trudge, trapes, shamble, prance, scamper, clump, tiptoe ….羊： sheep, goat, ram, ewe, lamb……4) Equivalents Interwoven with One Another5) Words Without EquivalentsIn this case, an explanation is given instead of an equivalent.For example:clock-watcher: 老是看钟等下班的人阴： (in Chinese thought) the soft inactive female principle or force in the world阳： (in Chinese thought) the strong active male principle or force in the world（目不识）丁: (not know one's) ABC2. Methods to Discriminate the Original Meaning of an English Word-----词义辨析Since English words are prone to various meanings, it is of vital importance for a translator to discern the rig ht meaning of a given word. And the following are the major methods of discriminating word meaning sugge sted by some linguists.1) Judging from the Word FormationIn order to discriminate the original meaning of an English word, it is necessary for us to have a knowledge of English lexicology, and specifically, a knowledge of word formation, such as compounding, derivation, af fixation, blending, acronym, clipping, etc. A good command of them will help to shed light on the correct me aning of some difficult words.For example, the word ""parabiospheric"", which consists of para-(outside) +bio-(biologic) +spheric (havingthe form of a sphere). After a brief analysis, we may safely put it into ""外生物层的"". Another more complicated instance, pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis. This extremely lon g word seems appallingly complicated. However, an anatomic study of its composition enables us to get a cl ear understanding of its meaning: pneumono- (of lung) +ultra- (beyond) + micro (very small) + scopic- (of vi ewing or observing) + silico- (of silicon)+ volcano + coni- ( koni, of dust) + osis (forming the name of a dise ase). Even if we are not sure of the equivalent of this medical term, we may roughly get the right meaning of the long word: a kind of lung disease caused by extremely small silicon particles. And a look into some dicti onary leads us to the definite answer: 硅酸盐沉着病，肺尘病（一种矿工易染的病）。