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自考现代汉语语法复习资料：简答题（1）简答：1、举例说明如何区分名词、动词、形容词?答：1)可以先用“不”测试，不能加“不”的是形容词。
2)再用“很”测试，能加“很”的是形容词和心理动词。
3)能带宾语的是动词。
4)单音节动词的重叠式是A.A，单音节形容词的重叠式是AA或AA的;双音节动词是ABAB，形容词是AABB.5)名词主要作主、宾语，也可以作定语，动词主要作谓语，形容词主要作定语和谓语。
2、名词有哪些语法特点?答：名词1)可以用数量短语修饰，如“一座山”。
2)不能用“不”修饰。
3)直接用在介词后组成介宾词组，如“在教室”。
3、什么是方位词?方位词的基本用法?答：方位词包罗单纯的和合成的两种。
1)单纯方位词，如“东南西北上下前后摆布表里中间旁”2)合成方位词是在单纯方位词的基础上形成的，前面加“以、之”如“以上、以前、之内、之间”。
方位词的基本用法从现在起：经常用在其他词或短语后边，组成方位短语。
方位短语的基本用法是1)表示处所，如“灯下、桌子上”;2)表示时间，如“放假前、比赛中”;3)表示某个方面，如“事实上、政治上”;4)表示边界，如”县以上、五天之内”。
4、数词的分类?词法特点是什么?答：数词是用来表示数目的，有基数词，如“一、三十、二百”等;有序数词，如“第一、初二”，还有概数词，如“二十多、三十上下”。
特点1)数词经常和量词组合，构成一个量词短语，充当句子成分。
2)数词不能单独直接用在名词或动词前面。
“一草一木、一知半解”是文言遗留现象。
5、什么是量词?举例说明量词的分类和语法特点?答：量词是用来计算事物或动作的单位的，包罗名量词、动量词和时量词。
名量词表示事物的量，如“一条鱼、一斤菜”;动量词表示动作的量，如“走一趟、看一遍”;时量词表示时间的量，如“跑了三小时、过了三年”。
特点：1)经常用在数词或指示代词后组成量词短语，如“一个、这次”。
2)不少量词可以重叠，表示“每一”的意思，如“句句是实话”。
现汉考研语法部分重点练习之简答题六、问答题1、略述语法单位所涉及的不同层面的种种关系。
2、划分词类的依据是什么？3、名词、动词、形容词各有哪些特点？4、数词和量词各有哪些特点？5、区别词和副词各有哪些特点？6、以“突然”和“忽然”为例说明形容词和副词在语法功能上的同异。
7、以“刚才”和“刚刚”为例说明时间名词和时间副词在语法功能上的同异。
8、举例说明如何区别介词和动词？9、什么是助词？有几类？10、举例说明句法结构的功能类跟结构关系类的关系。
11、举例说明句法结构层次切分的三个原则。
12、主语和宾语从语义关系上看主要可以概括为哪几类？13、时间名词和处所名词在什么情况下可以做主语？14、哪些动词可以带谓词性宾语？15、哪些动词可以带双宾语？16、如何区分结果补语的可能式和情态补语？17、什么是语气和语气词？语气词按表达的不同可以分为几类？18、如何区分宾语和补语？19、举例说明递加修饰语跟偏正短语做修饰语的不同。
20、如何归纳句型？哪些跟句子有关的因素不影响句型划分？21、什么是倒装？倒装句有哪些特点？22、什么是主谓谓语句？有哪些类型？23、如何区分兼语句和主谓短语做宾语的句子？24、存现句有哪些特点？25、对“是……的”句，如何区分表示判断的“是”和表示强调的“是”？26、“把”字句和“被”字句各有哪些特点？27、举例说明关联词语的单用、连用、叠用情况。
28、省略有哪些特点？有哪些类型？29、紧缩句有哪些特点？30、语序这种语法手段是不是只在短语中才能体现？31、“欲望”、“盼望”意义相近，是根据什么把前者看成是名词，而把后者看成是动词呢?32、“漂亮”和“关心”都可以受程度副词的修饰（很漂亮/很关心），为什么将“漂亮”归为形容词，将“关心”归入动词？33、如何辨析副词和助动词的异同？34、“二”和“两”在用法上有什么区别？35、兼属介词和连词的有哪些词，应该怎样辩析它们?36、“端正”可以带宾语(端正态度)，也可以加“很”(态度很端正)，所以我们把“端正”看成是形容词兼动词；“了解”也可以带宾语(了解问题)，同时也可以加“很”(很了解)，但我们却又不把“了解”作为兼类词处理，这是什么原因?37、“读一篇课文”和“读一遍课文”的内部结构关系是否一致，如果不同，应该如何辨析?38、动词后如果既有宾语，又有补语，那么这些短语内部的结构关系应该如何确定?39、“称他们英雄”和“称他们是英雄”这两个短语中，动词“称”后面的宾语部分是否都能算作双宾语？40、是不是所有的实词加上语调后在一定的语境下都能成为简单句子呢？41、“他的两个弟弟，一个是教师，一个是医生。
《现代汉语语法学》的学习与复习刘街生1．简述汉语语法的特点。
（1）汉语词类和句子成分之间不存在一对一的关系。
可以图示如下：名词动词形容词副词主宾语谓语定语状语（2）汉语句子的构造原则与与词组的构造原则基本上是一致的。
汉语当中，名词没有格的变化，动词又没有人称、数的变化，动词充当谓语里不必跟着主语而变化，这就使得汉语句子的构造原则与词组的构造原则基本上是一致的。
（3）述补结构是具有汉语法特色的句法结构。
第一，这一结构为汉语所有而英语所无的结构。
第二，这一结构是一种强陈述功能结构。
2．简述为什么划类词类在词组层面进行。
（1）汉语中词类和句子成分之间不存在一对一的关系，因此不能据词同句子成分的关系来划分词类，因此不能把句子当成划分词类的平台。
（2）词组是静态结构单位，词在词组平面的组合要受比句子平面更为严格的制约，从而显示出比较明显的类别。
（3）把词组作为划类词类的平台就是根据词在词组中的功能来划分词类。
3．简述划分词类的依据。
（1）划分词类就是把词分为名词、动词、形容词这样一些类别。
以往提出有三个标准：形态、意义、功能。
（2）单纯用形态给词分类，在汉语中行不通，因为汉语少形态，形态缺乏普遍性。
（3）用意义给词分类也行不通，因为意义具有模糊性，把握不住，比如“突然”和“忽然”语法功能大不相同，但意义区别难以弄清楚。
（4）划分词类的依据，从理论上讲只能是词的语法功能，词的语法功能就是词的分布。
因为词类是词与词组合当中体现出来的聚合类，分布就是词的组合能力和聚合能力的具体体现，同时形态只是语法功能的体现，语法功能又是语法意义在形式上的表现。
从操作上讲，也应是语法功能，根据词的分布来判定词类，但形态会以显性形式表明词的类，意义在判定词的同一性上有重要作用，简单地说，词义不同，就是不同的词项；词义相同，则是同一词项。
4．简述句法同构的不同类型。
句法结构是词与词的组合。
句法同构，就是组构成分之间的语法关系相同。
1.现代汉语语法的特点总特征不依赖于严格意义的形态变化，而主要借助于语序、虚词等其他的语法手段来表示语法关系和语法意义。
具体表现语序重要虚词重要词类多功能句法结构单位具有一致性2.词语的兼类、活用、借代之间的关系兼类：一个词在不同语境中，具有A和B两类词的语法功能，意义上又有密切的联系，这是兼类词。
活用：某个词属于A类，是由于表达的特殊需要，偶尔被用作B类词，这属于临时性的“活用”。
借代：某个词通常被看做A类，但在词汇意义基本不变的情况下可以临时“借用”为B类，而且这种用法是全社会公认的。
3.词类划分的标准划分词类的标准一般认为有三个：形态标准意义标准功能标准不同的标准适用于不同类型的语言。
（1）形态标准一个词属于什么词类，往往由词法上的形式来表示，这就叫形态。
包括形态标志和形态变化。
（2）意义标准词语，特别是实词，都是有意义的，这些意义可以帮助我们快捷地确定一个词的词性。
（3）功能标准词的语法功能指的是：一个词充当句法成分的能力，即在能否作主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语和补语这6大成分中的一个或几个，经常作什么成分，不能作什么成分。
如：老师都来了。
他是老师。
老师的脸色很苍白。
一个词能否与其他词的组合能力，如能以什么顺序组合、组合后表示什么关系。
如：*很老师好老师（4）划分词类的用途给词分类，有助于我们更好地了解、掌握各类词的语法特点，以便更准确地使用4.句子的动态变化？常见的动态变化类型有哪些？具体的句子在一定的语境中往往会发生许多变化，如句法成分的移位、省略、插入和追补等。
虽然不影响句型的划分，但是对句子的理解、解释和运用等都有很大的影响。
移位：出于表情达意或其他需要，改变句子常规语序，但句法结构不变，语义关系也基本不变的现象。
省略：省略是为了简洁，在一定的语境下，省略某些成分。
插说：插说属交际中的临时性添加成分，不同于插入语。
插入语是句子的特殊成分，是一些固定的习惯用语。
追补：追补也属于交际中的临时性添加成分，不同于插说的是位置，即话语完了后再追加补充。
大学语法考试知识点总结一、句子结构1. 简单句：由一个主语和一个谓语构成，可以包含宾语、补语或状语。
2. 并列句：由两个或两个以上的简单句通过并列连词连接而成。
3. 复合句：由一个主句和一个或多个从句构成。
4. 主谓一致：主语与谓语在人称和数上要保持一致。
二、词类1. 名词：代表人、事、物或抽象概念。
2. 代词：用来代替名词。
3. 动词：表示动作、状态或行为。
4. 形容词：用来修饰名词或代词。
5. 副词：修饰动词、形容词或其他副词。
6. 介词：用来表示名词或代词与其他词之间的关系。
7. 连词：用来连接词、短语或从句。
8. 冠词：位于名词前，用来限定名词的语法范畴。
9. 数词：表示数目或次序的词。
三、时态1. 一般现在时：表示经常性或习惯性的动作。
2. 一般过去时：表示过去某个时间内发生的动作或存在的状态。
3. 一般将来时：表示将要发生的动作或存在的状态。
4. 现在进行时：表示现在正在进行的动作。
5. 过去进行时：表示过去某个时间段内正在进行的动作。
四、语态1. 主动语态：表示主语是动作的执行者。
2. 被动语态：表示主语是动作的承受者。
五、语气1. 陈述语气：陈述事实或观点。
2. 祈使语气：表示请求、命令或劝告。
3. 疑问语气：表示疑问或疑虑。
六、句型转换1. 肯定句与否定句的转换。
2. 陈述句与疑问句的转换。
3. 定语从句与主句的转换。
4. 同位语从句与主句的转换。
在大学语法考试中，除了以上知识点外，还需要掌握一些高级语法知识，如虚拟语气、倒装、名词性从句、定语从句、状语从句等。
同时，还需要熟练掌握语法知识的应用和运用，在句子的书写和表达中正确运用语法规则。
在平时的学习中，学生可以通过大量的阅读和写作来提高语法应用能力，同时多做语法练习来加深对语法知识点的理解。
总的来说，大学语法考试知识点包括句子结构、词类、时态、语态、语气、句型转换等内容，学生需要在平时的学习中加强对这些知识点的掌握，同时通过大量的练习来提高语法应用能力。
语法答问知识点总结语法是语言学中一个非常重要的研究领域，它主要研究语言的结构和规则。
在学习语法的过程中，我们经常会遇到很多问题，比如什么是主谓宾结构、什么是名词性从句、怎样使用连词等等。
本文将对这些常见的语法问题进行总结，希望能够帮助大家更好地理解和掌握语法知识。
一、名词1. 什么是名词？名词是指人、事、物、地点、时间等具体或抽象的东西的名称。
它可以用来表示相应的事物，如：desk, book, boy, girl, etc.2. 名词的性质有哪些？名词有以下几种性质：可数名词和不可数名词、专有名词和普通名词、单数和复数等。
3. 名词的数有哪些？名词的数分为单数和复数。
在英语中，一般情况下，在名词后加-s或-es构成复数形式。
4. 名词的所有格如何构成？名词所有格的构成有以下几种方式：1) 单数名词在末尾加-apostrophe和-s，如：the boy's book；2) 复数名词在末尾加-apostrophe，如：the boys' book。
5. 什么是可数名词和不可数名词？可数名词是指可以用数量单位来计数的名词，如：book, pen, boy, girl, etc. 不可数名词是指不能用数量单位来计数的名词，如：water, bread, rice, etc.二、代词1. 代词的种类有哪些？代词包括人称代词、物主代词、指示代词、疑问代词、不定代词、反身代词等。
2. 人称代词的构成有哪些？人称代词分为主格和宾格。
主格人称代词有I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they。
宾格人称代词有me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them。
3. 物主代词的构成有哪些？物主代词有my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their。
4. 指示代词和疑问代词的用法有哪些？指示代词包括this, that, these, those，用于指出离说话者较近或较远的事物。
语法和修辞部分（五）简答题答案1.语法里的词法和句法各研究些什么？语法学里的词法和句法各有研究范围。
词法以词为研究对象，研究词的内部结构、词的形态变化和词的语法分类。
例如语素构成词的类型有哪几种，词形变化的方式及其表示的意义有哪些，词能分多少类，每类词以至每个词有哪些功能或用法，等等。
句法以短语和句子为研究对象，研究语句结构的类型和规则。
例如短语、句子的结构层次如何，每层中各组成成分之间有什么关系，形成什么类型，表示什么意义，句子有什么语用条件，等等。
2.什么是语法体系？对语法体系的分歧应采取什么态度？语法体系有两个含义，一个是指语法结构成分的组合规则和关系所构成的整体。
在这个意义上，一种语言只能有一个客观的语法体系。
但是在语法学界，由于众多语法研究者的认识不尽相同，所使用的析句方法和术语也就不同，对同一语法现象分析的结果和解释会出现分歧，从而形成不同的语法体系，这一含义的语法体系应该说成语法学体系。
不同的语法学体系都是为了帮助大家认识和运用好各种语法结构的，它们往往大同小异，各有长短，因此学习的时候要细心观察，拿它来同语言实体相印证，采用符合事实的说法。
不能因体系分歧而否定学习语法的必要性和可能性。
语法学体系的分歧，是人类认识规律决定的，不可避免的。
只有通过对语法的深入研究才有可能逐步减少分歧。
我们有必要分清语法体系的两个含义，知道通常说的语法体系往往是指语法学体系。
3.举例说明语法的抽象性和稳固性。
语法的抽象性指语法不管词、短语和句子的具体意义，而只管其中的语法意义、语法形式和规则。
例如“牛、太阳、飞机、春天、经济、势力”这些词的词汇意义各不相同，而语法形式和意义有共同点，即指它们有常作主语、宾语、定语的功能，能单独受数量短语修饰，都有事物意义。
又如“蓝蓝的天、善良的愿望、奔跑的羊群、火车的速度、一本书”，这些短语的具体意义不同，但是语法不管这些，只注意每个短语都是有修饰关系的偏正结构，是定语性质不同的定中短语。
自考英语语法问答题总结第一篇：自考英语语法问答题总结自考《现代英语语法》总结Chapter One1.What are the four major types of sentence and what discourse functions are they normallyassociated with?Statements are normally associated with declaratives and primarily concerned with giving information.Questions are associated with interrogatives and primarily concerned with requiring mands are associated with imperatives and primarily concerned with requiring actions.Exclamations are associated with exclamatives and primarily concerned with expressing the speaker’s impression of something.2.What are the verbs which transferred negation often occurs with? What is their sharedsemantic feature?The verbs which transferred negation often occurs with are: think, believe, suppose imagine and expect.They are the verbs that express “opinion”.3.Explain the differences between a tag question with a final rising tone and one with a finalfalling tone.With a rising tone, the question expresses the speaker’s neutral expectation of the hearer’s response and invites the hearer to verify the truth of the proposition in the statement.With a falling one, the speaker asks for the hearer’s confirmation of the statement.It can be regarded as similar to an exclamation.Chapter 44.Can the definite article be used for generic reference and the indefinite article for specificreference? If they can, give one example for each use.The definite article can be used for generic reference.For example, the panda is a rare animal.The panda here still denotes the whole species.The indefinite article can also be used for specific reference.For example, a dog chained at me when I was on my way home last night.Here a dog points to a particular, actual e xample of the class.Here “a” shows indefinite specific reference.5.What are some of the constraints that the double genitive is subject to?The second noun in the double genitive almost always refers to persons, never to objects, and the first noun usually has indefinite reference(typically premodified by the indefinite article and the second noun is always definite.)Chapter 56.Why do most contemporary English grammarians adopt a two-tense system?Because tense is a verb form.Morphologically only present tense and past tense have their forms of verbs.A language which has no verb forms has no tense.7.If tense is related to time, what is aspect related to?When ten points to the temporal location of an event or a state of affairs, aspect “reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time.”8.Why is the past tense often used for politeness?Because the past tense can make a question or a statement or a suggestion less direct.It is more polite to use the past tense on the part of the speaker.9.Why can some non-progressive verbs occur in the progressive form?Some non-progressive verbs can occur in the progressive form, which happens in the circumstances where they suggesttemporariness, gradual increase and decrease.10.List at least 4 means of expressing future time.1)Will / shall do sth(e.g.I’ll come and see you next week.);2)be going to do sth(e.g.My grandma is going to learn to drive.);3)present progressive(e.g.The trees are losing their leaves soon.);and 4)simple present(e.g.T omorrow is Saturday.)11.As a future time expression, what special meaning does the simple present impart?The simple present, as a future time expression, denotes especially the future of unusual definiteness, such as the future events that are determined in advance by calendar or timetable.Chapter 612.How many types of voice constraints for passive voice?There are three types of voice constraints for passive voice, namely, grammatical constraint, semantic constraint, and stylistic constraint.13.What are the two major types of the subjunctive mood?They are the be-subjunctive and the were-subjunctive.Chapter 714.What are the two major semantic categories of modal auxiliaries?The two major semantic categories of modal auxiliaries are predictive and non-predictive.15.What do modal auxiliaries in the predictive use generally express?in the predictive use, modal auxiliaries are generally concerned with the a speaker’s subjective assumption or assessment of probability, rather homogeneous in nature.And in most cases, indicates the speaker’s confidence(or lack of confidence)in the truth of his statement.Chapter 816.How many types in form can non-finite verbs be dividedinto? What are they?The non-finite verbs can be divided into three types.They are infinitive,-ing participle and –ed participle.17.Give at least two grammatical functions of the –ing participle.The –ing participle can serve as the subject in a clause, the modifier of a noun, the object to a verb or the adverbial.18.what kind of grammatical functions can the –ed participle perform? Give at least two kinds.Part of the verb phrase to form the perfective aspect or the passive voice;premodifier in the noun phrase;post modifier as a subject complement or an object complement.19.what is the meaning of dangling participle?When the subject of a participle is not expressed, it is normally understood to be the subject of the main clause.But the rule is often broken when the subject is vaguely understood to be “one”, “we”, “you”, people in general: 1)standing on the church tower’ the whole village could be seen;2)caught in a traffic jam, it is easy to lose patience.Chapter 920.What are the differences between determiners and adjectives?Determiners and adjectives are different in five ways: 1)determiners usually precede adjectives in pre-modification;2)The choice of determiners is often determined by the head word but not that of adjectives;3)Adjectives describe the head word by showing its characteristics, but determiners determine the head word by identifying or quantifying;4)adjectives can post-modify the head word, but not determiners(except enough);and 5)adjectives have comparative forms, inflectional or periphrastic, but not determiner(except few, little, many and much).Chapter 1121.What are the similarity and difference betweencoordination and subordination?Coordination and subordination are the two important ways in which two or more units are combined into larger and more complex units.But coordination is realized by coordinators which join units at the same level.For example, Peter is a doctor and Mary is a nurse.Subordination is realized by subordinators which join units at different levels so that they form a hierarchy.For example, I am wondering whether to punish him or not.Chapter 1222.List the types of antecedents.The antecedent is divided into nominal antecedent and non-nominal antecedent.Nominal antecedents fall into different subclasses: they may be common nouns or proper nouns, personal pronouns or demonstrative pronouns.Non-nominal antecedents can be subdivided into three types: clause, verb phrases, predicative adjective.23.What is a double relative clause? How many types of the double relative clause do we have?Double relative clause is a type of multiple postmodification which is realized by more than one relative clause modifying the same head word.It falls into two types: one that consists of parallel clauses and the other of hierarchical clauses.Chapter 1324.How many types of time adjuncts do we have?We have three types of time adjuncts: when-adjuncts, duration-adjuncts and frequency-adjuncts.25.Provide examples to illustrate style-disjuncts and content-disjuncts.Style-disjuncts express the speaker’s attitude towards what is being said.For example, Frankly, he isn’t working h ard enough.Content-disjuncts denot the speaker’s comment on the content of what is being said.For example, Obviously, she could deal with these problems.One formal criterion that helps to distinguish the twotypes of disjuncts is whether or not we can insert the word speaking.26.What is the difference between a coordinator and a conjunct?Conjuncts are different from coordinators in that most conjuncts are mobile but not coordinators which are put before the clause that they introduce, and coordinators are mutually exclusive, but not with conjuncts.Chapter 1427.Explain the three principle of concord with examples.The three complementary principles of concord are the grammatical principle, the notional principle and the principle of proximity.Pronoun has referential meanings.When it is used, it must refer to a noun previously mentioned in the context.This noun is its antecedent from which the reader or the hearer know the identity of the pronoun.In this case, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, in gender, in person, otherwise the identity of the pronoun can be ambiguous.That is why pronoun co-reference often cause our hesitation in the use of English.Chapter 1528.Why does an average English sentence contain the given information and the new information?Where is each normally located in the sentence?In order for our communication to be smooth and meaningful, it is a general rule that our utterance often needs to contain given information, without which the utterance would probably strike as irrelevant and, more importantly, new information, without which the utterance would probably be considered as sheer nonsense.Generally speaking, the given information is offered at the beginning in each sentence while the new information is consistently found in the predicate which normally constitutes the latter half of a sentence.29.Explain thefeatures of the existential sentence.1)The existential there is the formal subject.2)Apart from the typical use of the lexical verb be, other intransitive verbs which denote or incorporate the meaning of “existence” can be used.第二篇：自考秘书学概论问答题总结自考秘书学概论问答题总结1.秘书长座谈会的意义：提出三服务指导思想和四个转变要求，突出了秘书部门参谋作用问题，强化了信息、督促检查、综合协调、后勤工作2.80年代我国秘书学还没有诞生：没有秘书专著、秘书学校、秘书刊物与秘书学术活动，相关的行政管理学也未诞生3.秘书学科诞生的主要标志：学科专业论著的问世与学术带头人的出现4.我国何时出现院校，有多少所：1980年左右，最多时约120 所5.秘书学研究对象定位于秘书工作及其规律的意义：有助于更明确、规范地为秘书工作者服务，并为之接受6.举例广义秘书学包括内容：文书、档案、信访、机关行政事务等7.交叉学科：凡超越一个已知学科的边界而进行的涉及两个以上学科的学科8.简述民间秘书工作的政治性：它与党政机关秘书虽有不同，但必须坚持四项基本原则，坚持改革开放，遵循政策法规9.秘书学的内容组成应包括：秘书历史、秘书职业、秘书部门、秘书环境及其他10.学好秘书学的主要方法：实习、参观、请教、借鉴11.我国秘书学诞生的意义⑴推动了我国上层建筑的建设⑵推动了新时期秘书工作的飞跃⑶推动了秘书人才的培养12.我国秘书学诞生的标志⑴秘书论著及其作者的出现⑵秘书院校、学会、秘书学学术活动、秘书杂志等的出现13.把秘书学研究的对象定位于秘书工作及规律⑴理论界虽有多种说法，但并无很大的实质区别，离开了实际的具体的秘书工作，抽象的秘书活动或秘书现象是难理解的⑵党和国家正式文件中，都使用秘书工作的规范概念⑶秘书学是实践性很强的应用学科14.同秘书学交叉综合的学科的主要方面⑴文史哲经济心理等传统学科⑵政治管理领导决策等政治系列学科⑶文书档案机要会议等秘书专业的分支学科⑷数学等自然科学⑸信息论系统论等方法论学科与应用技术15.我国秘书学的政治性很强原因⑴秘书和秘书工作都是直接为领导决策服务的，我国秘书的主体是党和国家的公务人员，秘书工作的许多方面诸如文书、信访、信息、督查、保密等无不政策性很强16.三服务的内容：即秘书部门工作知心朋友为本级领导服务，为各部门服务，为人民群众服务17.秘书学科性质的特点⑴新兴学科⑵综合学科⑶政治性很强的学科⑷应用性很强的学科18.秘书工作的内容⑴方针政策⑵任务内容⑶工作方法技能⑷工作规律或带规律性的总是19.秘书环境的内容⑴秘书的职能环境，包括内部外部环境等⑵秘书办公环境、手段、设备特别是自动化与信息网络化的问题⑶秘书的人际有关系，最主要的是秘书与本级领导的有关系20.狭义的秘书定义：专门从事办公室程序性工作，协助领导处理政务及日常事务并为领导决策及其实施服务的人员21.秘书定义研究中的重要特点：近身、直接、综合、服务，反映了秘书定义的实质22.按行业（口）对秘书分类的优缺点：优点是行业清楚，对秘书的要求与培训方向也比较明确；缺点是现代社会行业越来越多，分类过多过细很难分清，就等于没有分23.按型分类可把秘书分：参谋型、文字型、办事型、技术型、公共关系型、财经型、综合型、法律型、涉外型等9 型24.非公务（民间）秘书概念的意义是：从理论上，概括了公务秘书以外的众多其他秘书，比私人秘书的提法更符合我国的实际25.私人秘书的要点是⑴处于私有制单位或私人所聘请、领导⑵工资由么认支付⑶与其领导的有关系性质是社会主义初级阶段的雇佣关系26.80 年代中央对机要秘书的资格要求：必须努力学习马列主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和文化科学业务知识，坚决拥护党的路线、方针、政策，对党无限忠诚，严守党和国家机密，服从组织，遵纪守法，谦虚谨慎，艰苦朴素，作风正派，熟悉业务，有强烈的革命事业心和政治责任性，努力完成党交给自己的任务27.概括秘书长的基本任务：参与政务，掌管事务，搞好服务28.对秘书的两大部类分类法是指：公务秘书和非公务秘书两大部类，非公务秘书也称为民间秘书，其中包括私人秘书29.我国秘书定义曾存在的问题⑴定义的外延过宽⑵定义的内涵过窄⑶对秘书的要求与估价过高⑷对秘书的要求与估价过低30.秘书定义不清在现实和理论上会带来的问题⑴在现实中说不清楚谁是秘书，谁不算秘书，一个单位有多少秘书，如何培训秘书，培训什么样的秘书⑵在理论上对于秘书资格、秘书修养、秘书历史，以及秘书理论中的许多总是都将认识不一，秘书学建设的障碍就会很大31.广义秘书定义的科学性⑴这个定义中的领导一词对于公务秘书、非公务秘书，对于领导个人或领导集体都适用，适合复杂多样的领导的现实情况⑵这个定义表达了秘书所居的近身位置，对领导的直接服务关系，以及从事事务与信息助手等工作，这些均系秘书职业带本质的特征32.为什么不把秘书定义为秀才、笔杆子⑴文字和文书工作是重要的、传统的秘书工作，然而它只是秘书工作中的一个方面，现代秘书工作的范围远不只此⑵超越秀才笔杆子论，有助于社会对秘书认识的提高，为秘书学建设的必要性提供了理论依据，如果秘书只是秀才，那就只需要文章学、文书学就行了33.对秘书两在部类分类的必要性⑴理论上是正确的，因为公务秘书与非公务秘书的单位性质、职业定位、工薪来源都不相同⑵从实际情况看，非公务秘书的工作任务、素质要求、工作方法等与公务秘书有相当差别⑶我国的许多有关秘书的法规、条例，都是针对党政机关的公务秘书的，而非公务秘书的数量却在不断发展，有着自身的规律需要研究34.非公务秘书概念的范围与意义⑴范围指公务秘书以外的广阔领域，包括三资企业、乡镇企业、非国有或国有控股很少的股份制企业、私人企业、民间其他法人组织如民间学会或民办学校等、其他⑵我国目前现实，在公务秘书之外，有着广阔的模糊空间，非公务秘书的概念，解决了这个模糊领域的秘书问题35.秘书资格全面探讨的四点要求⑴坚持四项基本原则，坚持改革开放，是强调秘书要在政治上同党保持一致⑵努力钻研业务，实现又红又专，是指秘书必须提高业务、技能，以适应工作需要⑶精通本行业的知识是为本行服务的必要的前提⑷秘书的具体工种岗位很多，还必需精通该工种的业务36.秘书内部人员层级分⑴秘书长⑵办公室主任⑶其他一般秘书人员37.狭义的秘书部门及其名称设置：也是典型的秘书部门，是指各级党政领导机关与企业事单位的领导机关如厂矿的厂部，学校的校部等机构中的办公厅（室）、秘书处、科股等。
《现代汉语语法学》的学习与复习刘街生1．简述汉语语法的特点。
（1）汉语词类和句子成分之间不存在一对一的关系。
可以图示如下：名词动词形容词副词主宾语谓语定语状语（2）汉语句子的构造原则与与词组的构造原则基本上是一致的。
汉语当中，名词没有格的变化，动词又没有人称、数的变化，动词充当谓语里不必跟着主语而变化，这就使得汉语句子的构造原则与词组的构造原则基本上是一致的。
（3）述补结构是具有汉语法特色的句法结构。
第一，这一结构为汉语所有而英语所无的结构。
第二，这一结构是一种强陈述功能结构。
2．简述为什么划类词类在词组层面进行。
（1）汉语中词类和句子成分之间不存在一对一的关系，因此不能据词同句子成分的关系来划分词类，因此不能把句子当成划分词类的平台。
（2）词组是静态结构单位，词在词组平面的组合要受比句子平面更为严格的制约，从而显示出比较明显的类别。
（3）把词组作为划类词类的平台就是根据词在词组中的功能来划分词类。
3．简述划分词类的依据。
（1）划分词类就是把词分为名词、动词、形容词这样一些类别。
以往提出有三个标准：形态、意义、功能。
（2）单纯用形态给词分类，在汉语中行不通，因为汉语少形态，形态缺乏普遍性。
（3）用意义给词分类也行不通，因为意义具有模糊性，把握不住，比如“突然”和“忽然”语法功能大不相同，但意义区别难以弄清楚。
（4）划分词类的依据，从理论上讲只能是词的语法功能，词的语法功能就是词的分布。
因为词类是词与词组合当中体现出来的聚合类，分布就是词的组合能力和聚合能力的具体体现，同时形态只是语法功能的体现，语法功能又是语法意义在形式上的表现。
从操作上讲，也应是语法功能，根据词的分布来判定词类，但形态会以显性形式表明词的类，意义在判定词的同一性上有重要作用，简单地说，词义不同，就是不同的词项；词义相同，则是同一词项。
4．简述句法同构的不同类型。
句法结构是词与词的组合。
句法同构，就是组构成分之间的语法关系相同。
现代汉语句子的基本语法句子是具有一个句调(形式上带句号、问号、叹号)，能够表达一个相对完整的意思的语言单位。
如：①妙！②谁？③刮风了。
④他身体很壮。
⑤只有努力学习的同学，才能取得好成绩。
按不同的标准，句子可以分为多种类型，其中按结构可分为单句和复句两大类。
类型一单句单句是由短语或单个的词构成的句子，上面的举例①—④都是单句。
在一个完整、典型的句子中，句子各种成分之间的关系、顺序一般是： 例句：(全体)同学‖ [都] 做 〈完〉了 (语文)作业。
(定语) (主语) (状语)(谓语) (补语)(定语) (宾语) 划分句子成分时一般要用“符号图示法”：2.句子的主干所谓主干，是指把句子的所有定语、状语和补语都压缩掉以后剩下的部分 如：北京的工人们立刻修好了一座桥。
这个句子如作分析，是这样的：(北京)的工人们，‖[立刻]修〈好〉了(一座)桥。
主语：北京的工人们；谓语：立刻修好了一座桥；动词“修”的宾语：一座桥。
那么如上分析，把句子主语、谓语中包含的定语、状语、补语压缩下去，因宾 语是短语，压缩掉其定语，那么句子的主干就显露出来了。
这个句子的主干：工人们修桥。
关于主干，换一个角度说，就是句子主语、谓语以及宾语的中心语。
再看几个例子：(我)的弟弟‖[已经]准备〈好〉(一切)用品。
主干：弟弟准备用品。
(我)的朋友‖[最近]写〈出〉了(一部)(长篇)小说。
主干：朋友写小说。
抓句子的主干，可使句子的主干和枝叶分得较清楚，对理解比较长的复杂的句子是有帮助的。
如：马克思‖[第一次][彻底]地解释〈清楚〉(自然和社会的发展)规律。
这个句子比较长。
谓语的中心语是“解释”，前面有两个状语，后面有一个补语和宾语；宾语又是由一个短语充当，其中心语是“规律”，前面又有一个名词性短语作定语。
那么抓住了句子的主干“马克思解释规律”，理解这样一个较长的句子就比较容易了。
由此可以看出，抓主干、压缩枝叶，便于逐层分别检查，有利于迅速准确找到句子的语法毛病。
英语语法简答题汇总1. What are the two major types of alternative questions?They are the type of YES-NO questions, e.g.A: Would you like tea or coffee?B: Tea, please.And the type of WH-questions, e.g.A: What would you like, tea of coffee?B: Tea, please.2. Why do we need to go beyond the sentence and study the text?Because to express a clear and complete idea or thought, we need more than one sentence. It is quite rare that we only use one sentence to express our ideas. When an idea or thought is expressed in more than one sentence, we have a text, which relates sentences together. In other words, sentences in a text are coherent so that they help each other in expressing a complete idea. The study of the text is to know how sentences can be joined together coherently so that they can best express ideas.3. Explain the syntactic distinction between the predictive and non-predictive useof modal auxiliary with examples.The syntactic distinction between the predictive and non-predictive use of modal auxiliary is clear in the following two sentences:1) He can’t have been there yesterday.2) He couldn’t be there yesterday.The two sentences reveal two quite different uses of the modal auxiliary. The first sentence, where the predictive can’t relates to impos sibility and the main verb is marked for past time reference, refers to the speaker’s present denial of possibility ofa past event. In the second, the modal auxiliary itself, in non-predictive use, is markedfor past tense, referring to lack of ability in the past.4. What’s the function of relative pronoun?The relative pronoun serves as a “link” between the relative clause and its antecedent.It performs two functions: showing concord with its antecedent and indicating its function within the relative clause.5. Provide example to illustrate nominal, verbal and causal ellipsis.1) Nominal ellipsis: Why give me two cups of coffee? I only asked for one.2) Verbal ellipsis: --Have you seen him before?--Yes, I have (seen him before).3) Causal ellipsis: --Are you OK?--Yes (, I am OK).6. If tense is related to time, what is aspect related to?When tense points to the temporal location of an event or a state of affairs, aspect “reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respec t to time”.7. Apart from querying the truth of a statement, what other potential functions cana No question perform?They may be regarded as the speaker’s invitations or suggestions, made in a tentative way as they often are, rather than his negative assumptions. They are like imperatives.For example:Won’t you come in?Won’t you sit down?They can also be like exclamations:Isn’t it lovely?Aren’t you silly?8. List the types of antecedents.The antecedent is divided into nominal antecedent and non-nominal antecedent.Nominal antecedents fall into different subclasses: they may be common nouns or proper nouns, personal pronouns or demonstrative pronouns. Non-nominal antecedent can be subdivided into three types: clause, verb phrase, predicative adjective.9. Provide examples to illustrate result-adjuncts and purpose-adjuncts that areintroduced by so that.He worked harder, so that he managed to pass the examinations. (result)He worked harder so that he could pass the examinations. (purpose)10. Provide examples to illustrate the three degrees of comparison.My brother is as tall as me. (positive degree)My brother is taller than my father. (comparative degree)My brother is the tallest in the family. (superlative degree)11. When the simple present refers to the present time, what are its characteristic uses? When the simple present refers to the present time, it is suitable for the general timeless statements or the expression of so-called “eternal truths”. At the same time, it also denotes the present existence or state of affairs. Besides, it can express regular recurrence such as a habit, and it is also found in the presentation of an event that happens simultaneously with speech.12. Under what general circumstances do we prefer genitive to of-phrase and vice versa. When nouns refer to people, and the relation between the nouns is one of definition, classification, etc. genitives are preferred. When nouns refer to inanimate, lifeless objects, and the head words of noun phrases are classifying adjectives, of-phrases are classifying adjectives, of-phrases are preferred.13. What is the primary of a WH-question?The primary function of a WH-question is to ask for information concerning what, when ,why, whose, which and how.14. What are contingency adjuncts? How many types of contingency adjuncts have we recognized?Contingency adjuncts are an adverbial category that includes adjuncts denoting some kind of cause-effect relation. They can be divided into subclasses: reason-adjuncts, result-adjuncts, purpose-adjuncts, concession-adjuncts and condition-adjuncts.15. Explain the differences between a double relative clause and an embedded relative clause.In double relative clauses, there are two relative clauses, one enclosing the other, whereas in embedded relative clause there is only one relative clause which itself is embedded in a clause.16. Provide examples to illustrate some different types of time adjuncts.1) When-adjuncts: soon, on Friday morning, now, etc.2) Duration-adjuncts: for ten years, very long, since we met, etc.3) Frequency-adjuncts: daily, weekly, often, etc.17. What kind of relative clause do we normally use to modify a non-nominal antecedent? We normally use non-restrictive-relative clause to modify a non-nominal antecedent. e.g.1) Her husband is my brother and my wife is her sister, which makes us double in-laws.2) She dance well, which I don’t.3) Nick is tall, which I will never be.18. Where are given information and the new information located in the sentence. Generally speaking, the given information is offered at the beginning in each sentence while the new information is consistently found in the predicate which normally constitutes the latter half of sentence.19. Explain the relationship between tense and time.Time and tense are not the same thing: time is concept and tense is a grammatical device. Different tenses can express the same period of time, such as the present.20. What are two major types of exclamations?The two major types of exclamations are WHAT-exclamations and HOW-exclamations. The former is followed by a noun phrase, the latter is followed by an adjective or adverb.21. What is the pseudo-passive?A pseudo-passive sentence is passive in form but active in meaning. Its ed-participle is adjectivalzed so that it becomes a subject complement in the SVC structure. As an adjective, therefore, it can occur in a comparative construction, with a variety of prepositional phrases other than by-phrase, and with other link verbs besides be and get.22. Explain the conditions in which we need to use non-assertive words in positive statements and assertive words in question.When a positive answer is expected, assertive words can be used in questions, such as: Is there some news for me? Is somebody waiting for me? And in affirmative sentences in which there are if clauses, putative should-clauses, and comparative clauses,non-assertive words can be used, such as: If anyone calls me, it must be John. It’s odd that he should say anything like that. He is better than anyone else in this class.23. List the major types of postponement.Postponement is generally realized by active-to-passive transformation, by extraposition of a clause element, by discontinuity of adjacent elements.24. Provide examples to illustrate reference as realized by pronouns, demonstratives and comparison.1) Reference by pronouns: Look at the man. I think he’s the person wanted by the police.2) Reference by demonstratives: They finally arrived at an agreement to stop fire. Thatagreement saved the country from war.3) Reference by comparison: John is both stupid and lazy. His brother is no better.25. Provide examples to illustrate nominal, verbal and clausal substitution.1) Nominal substitution: I know I need a good car, but I can’t afford one.2) Verbal substitution: --Have you finished all the essays?--I have done one.3) Clausal substitution: --Is he the right person for the job?--I suppose so.26. What’s the major function of preposition? And list the two types of preposition.The major function of preposition is to connect words of nouns verbs and adjectives to other part of the sentence. We divide prepositions into two types: simple preposition and complex preposition.27. Provide examples of partial inversion and complete inversion.Partial inversion: Under no circumstances can you underestimate your rival.Complete inversion: The door burst open and in rushed a large angry crowd.28. What is a unified text?The unified text is one that is not only structurally well-integrated but also semantically coherent.29. As a future time expression, what special meaning does the simple present impart? When there is something we conceive as unalterable and we can be as confident of as we are of the given facts, we use the simple present to refer to the future time. Something that happens on calendar or timetable falls into this category.30. What are the verbs which transferred negation often occurs with? What is their shared semantic feature?The verbs which transferred negation often occurs with are: think, believe, suppose, imagine and expect. They are the verbs that express “opinion”.31. What are the three principle of concord?The three complementary principles of concord are the grammatical principle, the notional principle and the principle of proximity.32. What order do the different types of place adjuncts follow when they co-occur? When place adjuncts of different types co-occur, they usually follow this order: distance + direction + source + goal + position.33. What are the semantic and functional differences between a prefix and a suffix?The function of a prefix tends to be semantically oriented. That is, it adds new meaning to a base. Most of prefixes do not change word classes while only a few (like a-, be -,em/en-etc) change word classes. Suffixes are basically class-changing morphemes. They change nouns to verbs, adjectives, or change adjectives to nouns, verbs, or adjectives to nouns, verbs, or adjectives to adverbs.34. What are the four major types of sentences and what discourse functions are they normally associated with?The four major types of sentences are declaratives, interrogatives imperatives and exclamatives. These four types are respectively associated with giving information, requiring information, requiring actions and expressing the speaker’s impression of something.35. Why is the past tense often used for politeness?Because the past tense can make a question or a statement or a suggestion less direct. It is more polite to use the past tense on the part of the speaker.36. Do we always use the singular verb with a clausal subject?No. Generally, a one-clause subject takes the singular verb and a two-clause subject, theplural verb. The notional principle of concord applies if the context suggests the plurality ofa one-clause subject.37. Provide examples to illustrate the three major types of non-finite subordinate clause.1) Infinitive clauses: He didn’t know what to do with his enemy.2) –ing participle clauses: She kept nodding her head from time to time as though understanding every word of his lecture.3) –ed participle clauses: Work hard until told to stop.38. What are the typical expressions of the future time?The future time can be expressed by will/shall do something, be going to do something, present progressive, and simple present.39. What are some of the constraints that the double genitive is subject to?The second noun in the double genitive almost always refers to persons, never to objects. And the first noun usually has indefinite reference (typically premodified by the indefinite article) and the second noun is always definite.40. Distinguish root, stem and base as morphological terms.“Root”, “stem” and “Base” may refer to the same thing in some cases, but they are different from each other in that: A root is that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed; A root is not farther analyzable in morphological forms; A stem has to do with inflectional features and is the part that remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed; A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.41. Explain the principle of proximity of concord with examples.The principle of proximity denotes “agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject”. For example:Neither my wife nor I am coming to the ceremony.Not only the layers but also the coach was responsible for the defeat.42. List the types of subordinate clauses.Subordinate clauses are usually divided into three types by their function: relative clauses, adverbial clauses and nominal clauses. In form, subordinate clauses may also be divided into finite clauses and verbless clauses.43. Explain the differences between a tag question with a final rising tone and one with a final falling tone.With a rising tone, the question express the speaker’s neutral expectation of the hearer’s response and invites the hearer to verify the truth of the proposition in the statement. With a falling one, the speaker asks for the hearer’s confirmation of the statement. It can be regarded as similar to an exclamation.44. What are generic reference and specific reference?Generic reference and specific reference are the two uses of articles, Generic reference indicates the whole species or kind, while specific reference indicates one specific people or thing.45. Given the present time as its most important meaning, what is special about the simple present when it is used to refer to the past and the future?When the simple present refers to the past, it brings the past events or states to the present time as if they were actually happening at the moment of speech, it is used in narrative writing to achieve vividness. It can also be found in1) Newspaper headlines2) Photographic captions3) Stage directions4) Utterances with verbs of communication (say, hear, tell, etc). Simple present referring to the future is common in dependent clauses.46. What concord principle do we normally apply to the existential sentence?Concord in the existential sentence normally complies with the notional principle. The verb agrees with the notional subject.47. What are restrictive adjectives and non-restrictive adjectives?A restrictive adjective helps identify the referent of the noun by describing its distinctive qualities. Whereas a non-restrictive adjective merely provide some additional information which is usually not essential for the identification of the referent.48. Point out instances of the stative and dynamic uses of prepositions with reference to spatial relations.The car was parked in front of the building. (In front of indicates a static location)He jumped into the river. (Into indicates the direction of a movement)49. What are the differences between determiners and adjectives?Determiners and adjectives are different in five ways:1) Determiners usually precede adjectives in premodification;2) The choice of determiners is often determined by the head word but not that of adjectives;3) Adjectives describe the head word by showing its characteristics, but determiners determine the head word by identifying or quantifying;4) Adjectives can postmodify the head word, but not determiners (except though);5) Adjectives have comparative forms, inflectional or periphrastic, but not determiners (except few, little, many and much).50. What are some of the typical semantic components of the present progressive? Some of the typical semantic components of the present progressive are: duration, simultaneity, temporariness, incompleteness, vividness, emphasis, etc.。
