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A Brief Introduction to the Chinese Translation in HistoryAs we all know ,China is a country with over five thousand year long history, while the history of translation has three thousand-year. Although translation studies cover such a wild field,it can be roughly divided into three general periods as follows: Ancient china,Contemporary China and Modern china. The paper is to provide general overview of translation history and corresponding characteristics in China from ancient to present times.The translation of Buddhist scripture and Science translation in Late Ming Dynasty formed the main stream in Ancient China.The earliest translation activities of China originated from Zhou dynasty, when the translation was carried out by government clerks, who paid much attention on ideological works.However,with the introduction of Buddhist scripture written in Sanskrit to China, a great efforts were needed to translate these scriptures into Chinese. Especially during the two Jin dynasties, Southern dynasty and Northern dynasty,translation of Buddhist scripture was officially organized on a large scale in China. Many State Translation School opened for this purpose. And one of the famous translators at this time is Dao An who advocated strict literal translation, while Kumarajiva ,another famous translator emphasized the accuracy of translation.Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty had brought the first peak of translation in China.Unlike translators of other periods, they were mainly Buddhist monks. Xuan Zang, who is the vital person we have to mention, contributed a lot to the development of Chinese translation, not only the theories but also the practices. He set down the famous translation criteria that translation "must be both truthful and intelligible to the populace, to some extent, he tried to take account of literal translation and free translation in the process of translation. Furthermore, he is also the first Chinese to translate famous works of Chinese into other languages, which laid a solid foundation for the international cultural exchange.As the times changed, the science translation was springing up quickly. In Yuan Dynasty ,due to the settlement of Arbas in China, they were engaged in translating scientific works from the West. Later, the subject of translation shifted from Buddhist scriptures to scientific and technological knowledge in Ming Dynasty. Scientists and government mainly had taken up the task of translation then. However, the disadvantages of this period should not be neglected. No translation theories were as well developed as the Tang Dynasty.The history of translation in Ancient China did also play a significant role in the promoting of translation in Contemporary and Modern China. In the Late Qing Dynasty,Chinese translators ,headed by Yan Fu welcomed the trend of new outlook from the western countries.A large number of works about Social Science had been translated.There is no doubt that Yan Fu was the most influential translator and translation theorist in this period. He had come up with the triple criteria of translation --- "Faithfulness, Fluency and Elegance", which was still spoken highly of by some relative experts at present.Meanwhile, literary translation was popular and marked another peak of translation in China. Many famous western works have been brought into China, in reverse, it make benefits to the enrichment of Chinese literature field. A group of excellent translators were emerging from time to time at this period. Take Lin Shu for example. He acted the equally important role in literature translation as Yan Fu insocial science translation. Regarded as the pioneer of literature translation in China, he opened a new Chapter for Chinese translation.Compared to the two former period, translation work in Modern China has a wider coverage,such as the translation of socialist and communist works,literature works and so on.The May 4th Movement was a famous activity happened in the Chinese history,which was also the starting point of the new democratic revolution in China. Great changes have taken place in translation in China. Karl Marx's (1818-1883) and Lenin's works on socialist and communist theories were the focus of our translation work , as it will guide the direction of our revolution. What’s more, literary translation was different from the past.The quality and quantity of literary translation were greatly improved. No matter where it comes from,the world famous literary works were translated into Chinese. Translators as Lin Yutang, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai were the three most famous .The translation theory was completed during this period of time,one of them was put forward by Lin,that is his three translation criteria:the first is fidelity,the second is coherence,the third is elegance.However, the heated topics on translation theory were still translation criteria, literary vs free translation.Even any little progress in the history of Chinese translation still means a huge leap to the development of our society. Without these efforts, China may haven’t avoided the mistakes that other countries have made, nor learned from the advanced technology around the world. Despite the achievement on translation theory we have already got, it turned out to be a failure to guide translation practice without any difficulty.There is still a long way ahead. To be in accordance with booming economy and the expansion of its political influence in the international community,China will continue to strive unremittingly all the time.。
The brief introduction to China History For quite a long time Chinese truly believed that China was the center of the world.(Today they still call China Zhongguo which means central kingdom in English.)They were so proud of themselves and living peacefully. And for quite a long time their economy remained self-sufficient that they never needed to trade with anybody for anything. Their world was closed and so much isolated. But we also found some good reasons for this unique and interesting Chinese social pattern due to its special geographical location in the world. Actually Chinese culture started from the middle reaches of the Yellow River, same as Egypt, India and Babylon originating from some big rivers or lakes as well. But China was bordered by the huge mountains like Himalayas in the south, the terrible deserts in the west, the forever frozen Siberia up in the north and the Pacific Ocean to the east. Obviously Chinese were not able to go beyond these barriers and to meet anybody easily, maybe once they wished and tried, but the fact was they had been living alone for so many years. So far no records could show China ever had any contacts of any kinds with India until 1st century AD though they were so close to each other like neighbors and their cultures began almost the same period of time, and the Himalayas stood between these two great countries keeping our people from meeting each other. About 3000 years ago Mongols grew up and began to ply with Chinese from the north. This was the first time that Chinese had been made to rethink who they were and where these Mongols were from. Now we can imagine how difficult it was for Chinese to change for a new way of living and thinking and how hard it was for them to share their world with others. Their easy and peaceful life and their pride in being the only people in the world were challenged so much. They got lost completely. They once tried to rebuild their country and system, but we saw they failed the wars to Mongols continuously; they even became hostile toward their own neighbor states in the end. It caused a terrible confusion regarding the value of life and left such a social chaos. This lasted for almost 500 years. Somebody terms it the Warring States Period; others may use the word like the Spring and Autumn Period. Since then their pride and self-confidence were gone and they began to trust nobody and started to make the famous walls of China we see today, attempting to keep everybody away regardless of friends or enemies. And finally they walled themselves in, like a snail in its shell. Higher the wall they built more isolated, reserved and ignorant they became. Eventually they rejected anything foreign. This was what we saw in the last 300 years. In the Chinese history few dynasties really ruled outside these walls, but they fought wars with Mongols constantly. The 2nd dynasty, Han dynasty once attempted to make peace with Mongols. They used to send their emperors ‘daughters and concubines over to intermarry Mongols. But we know marriages are not dependable, cannot make peace last very long. For so many years it seemed that Chinese had never had time to seriously think of themselves and Mongols. It was very strange that sometimes Chinese appeared arrogant, superior when these foreign devils were outside these walls, but sometimes these foreign devils would become Chinese distinguished Foreign Quests being treated so deferentially when they finally got inside these Chinese walls. Marco Polo was the first to come to China from Europe. It was even a bigger surprise now to see thesered haired and blue eyed people while Mongols first came, but it didn’t surprise them that much because they brought a new culture, but we still looked alike .Soon they even saw some black people too. They finally understood they were actually living with so many strangers around them in the smear world. They became lost again. This psychological problem had been perplexing Chinese for centuries. Today it still is. By the turn of the 19th century, over a dozen of cities were opened along the coast for free trade by foreign forces. Western products were brought into China. This meant Chinese had to change again. The fact was Chinese liked western powerful engines, new machines, beautiful clocks, colorful stained glasses and so on, but not foreign ideas. This is as ridiculous as buying eggs without their shells in the market. They didn’t understand all these together made this new and different culture from the west..So it resulted in two opium wars both in 1840 and 1860 and the boxer Rebellion in 1900. Today few still remember as early as in 1870,some Chinese students once were sent overseas to study the western Culture hoping to find something in common for both Chinese and foreigners. Some students came back with science and technology which they thought could make China a strong country and Chinese people stand up again. They opened some factories near the coast like in Shanghai and Tianjin. But it didn’t made China a strong country at all .China once boasted very advanced technology long time ago such as the four great inventions(gun powder, paper, printing and compass).Obviously it was not a matter of technology. Others believed China needed to learn to practice the western election system of democracy, but it never really worked in China. The fact was we couldn’t have democracy alone.We need a big middle class to support it like in America. Some students learnt about the communism in France and Germany. It was believed Communism was a better system in which everybody could get something he needed. The idea is great and wonderful. But it can never work in anywhere because it is surely against the human nature Family Privacy. In 1911 Qing dynasty was overthrown, Manchu emperors were gone. But what really happened was since the industrial revolution started in England, it changed Europe and it changed the whole world. But Chinese were still proud of their old culture, still in fantasy of No.1 middle kingdom of the world. Now Europeans built their ships bigger and bigger, but we still farmed the same way our grand fathers farmed one thousand years ago. We were made to compete with the westerners unfairly. Our economy got crumbled gradually. The governors of those provinces surely felt Qing dynasty was going up to the end. They all chose to wait and see if they could get hold of some more government armies or local forces. They hoped they might get an upper hand in the next dynasty or a new government of some kind they were not quite sure about yet. At this moment Chinese communists were getting active and the Qing government was overthrown unexpectedly fast. Those big provinces became independent states. But when they finally discussed who was going to be the new leader, they found everybody had enough armies and was powerful enough to be this new leader. At the end they compromised and got an outsider to act as their new leader who actually had no power in his hand. This lucky and unlucky person was Dorsum absent. And this was our warlord period in the 1920s. Since then China has never been reallyruled and controlled by either Jiang Chichimec or Chairman Mao, because today we are still one country but two different systems. In the last 100 years we have had so many power struggles and revolutions in which our people suffered innocently. Every revolution left our people something different from what they were promised. Our people were cheated and made fools of. Today we have TVs, computers, some may even have cars and nice houses. but we still cannot choose our leaders yet. In China you may still find much similarity of what was commonly practiced in Qing dynasty. Official may get certain treatment according to his rank. They are granted a power to enjoy and to abuse even to be forgiven. To some extents this government is no better than the old. Because there are too many emperor like officials today while there was only one emperor who could enslave our people in old China. No country, no system, no people in the world can afford these many emperor like officials. Mao was a great man in deed. He was a man who really cared our people. He was born in a rich farmer family in Hunan. He had good traditional education in his hometown. If he were not becoming one of the most important Chinese communist leaders, he might be remembered as a great poet, historian, strategist, philosopher and calligrapher. In his early poems he was found ambitious and outstanding. He had all necessary powers and abilities a Chinese emperor needed already. In 1921 Chinese communist party was founded in Shanghai, soon they established a relation with Soviet Union. They swore to make China another communist. Eventually Soviet Union brought Dr. Sun’s nationalist and the communist together. And they cooperated for a few years. In 1925,Dr Sun passed away. Mr. Jiang took his position quickly, He believed sooner or later Chinese communists were going to be his dangerous political enemies. So in 1927 Mr. Jiang killed hundreds of communists in the south near Canton, but those communist escapees got together again in deep mountains where no warlords cared. It was this event that taught Mao Spears and rifles bring a birth to a new government. They started from scratches again. And they set up a few Soviet governments very quickly there. When Mr. Jiang was aware of what happened there it was too late already. In 1934 Mr. Jiang brought the troupes from 6 different provinces to try to wipe out Mao’s farmer forces.Mao led his farmers away and played Tom and Jerry with Mr. Jiang. Mao didn’t want to have war with Mr. Jiang now yet. He started the famous long march instead. They fought through 13 provinces and got up in the north to fight against the Japanese. He knew he could win the whole country by winning the minds of the poor. He was showing the public that he was fighting against the Japanese for China alone; on the contrary Mr. Jiang was doing nothing but killing the Chinese communists. This may best answer why with 8 million well armed soldiers and millions of dollars from US every year Mr. Jiang still lost the war to Mao later? In 1949 new China was founded and we hoped we might live better by having a new country and system., but we found those communist leaders move into emperors ‘beautiful palaces and take concubines of the old warlords and officials and do the same as the farmer rebels did in the past revolutions. Chairman Mao tried to correct it and he started several movements to remove those senior leaders. I understand this was also why he started the Cultural Revolution in 1965.Before he passed away he taught us We need a revolution every 7 to 8 years toclean out. Now we know we just need a second party to check them. But unfortunately we haven’t had the system yet.We see more and more corrupt officials today. It’s unfair to blame Mao, one dad man who couldn’t argue any more for all hardships we had before, because he couldn’t make the revolution happen himself..We should check and blame ourselves for all what we shouldn’t have done to each other. Our people have suffered enough. We all got hurt in these revolutions, didn’t we? In 1976 Mao passed away. China was getting reopened and we were all wakening up from nightmares slowly. Chinese government sent some young people abroad to study same as what we did over 100 years ago, but most of these students chose to stay overseas. They enjoyed their western lives there instead. Chinese had been worshipping Confucius for over 2000 years, and he emphasized the right relation of someone with others. Respect. He devoted his whole life to Chinese traditional education. He tried to rebuild our self-confidence and trust in our own people. For hundreds of years our people hoped their next generation could live better if they worked hard and saved enough to let their children go to school. They understand they cannot choose their parents but they should be able to change themselves. But I am sorry to say today our government is trying to make money from these poor parents now. Schools are no longer free. I want to state here: Our people may have poor food and live in poor places but they should be granted the right to be educated because they are born with this right. I heard some poor parents couldn’t afford the school expenses; they took poison to kill themselves in some rural areas last year. Actually we have never had true revolutions in China. All these revolutions were just nightmares, one revolution makes rich poor and another makes poor rich. Nobody can win and everybody becomes victim. Our history just repeats these hurting and being hurts on and on. The post revolution impact remains for so long in our minds that we don’t trust each other anymore. Now think of someone living with all he doesn’t trust. Let’s pray for our Chinese. Once China was a great country boasting 5000 years long history. But today she needs to feed 20% of the whole world people with only 7% of arable land of the world. I dream Chinese stand up again. I dream Chinese be free thinkers and I dream China become a great country again. Most of our people cannot understand human rights and freedom yet, because they need to service first. China is my home country. I am proud of my culture and proud to be a Chinese. I love my people in deed. And I am deeply rooted culturally and spiritually in China. I wish you become our messengers to tell the world that You are neither our foreign devils, nor our foreign guests, but our foreign friends. Chinese want to know you, you come to know us, and the world needs to be understood. God wants men and women, old and young, black and white, weak and strong, poor and rich to be together in har mony in peace in God’s world. God bless China and his loved.。
论文写作参考题目翻译研究方向选题1.The Great Translator Yan Fu (伟大的翻译家严复)2.Gu Hongming: A Pioneer of Translating the Chinese Classics into English (汉英翻译的先驱——辜鸿铭)3.On the Principles of Equivalence in Literary Translation (论文学翻译中的等值原则)4. A Brief Comment on E. A. Nida’s Concept of Translation (浅谈奈达的翻译观)5.Cultural Gaps and Untranslatability （文化差异与不可译性）6.Translating and the Background Information （翻译与背景知识）7. A Preliminary Study of Explanatory Translating (解释性翻译初探)8.Translating the English Articles into Chinese (英语冠词汉译)9.Translating the English Plural Nouns into Chinese (英语复数名词汉译)10.Translating the Lengthy English Sentences into Chinese （英语长句汉译）11.On Translating English Book Titles into Chinese （谈英语书名汉译）12.A Brief Comment on the Several Chinese Versions of Jane Eyre (简评《简●爱》的几种汉译本)13.Views on the Chinese Version of Jude the Obscure: An Outstanding Example of ArtisticRecreation （艺术再创造的范例——《无名的裘德》汉译本）14.Views on the Chinese Version of Emma(关于汉译本《爱玛》的几点看法)15.Translating the Style of Literary Works ——A Preliminary Study of Wu Ningkun’s Versionof The Great Gatsby (文学作品的风格翻译——巫宁坤译《了不起的盖茨比》初探) 16.A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Merchant of Venice (《威尼斯商人两种汉译本比较》)17.A Reading of Fang Zhong’s Translation of The Canterbury Tales （读方重译《坎特伯雷故事集》）18.On the English Versions of Some of Du Fu’s Poems （评杜甫诗歌英译）19.Translating the Titles of Chinese Classic Poetry （中国古典诗歌标题英译）mon Errors in Translation: An Analysis （常见翻译错误分析）21.English Idioms and The Translation （英语习语的翻译）22.How to Deal with Ellipsis in Translating （翻译中如何处理省略用法）23.The Importance of Comprehension in Translating （理解对于翻译的重要性）24.The Importance of Knowledge in Translating （知识对于翻译的重要性）翻译研究参考书目选录陈富康《中国译学理论史稿》，上海外语教育出版社，1997。
Lesson 1 Brief Introduction of Translation Standard in China and Abroad 1 Translation history in China中国历史上有三次规模的外来文化的传八：第一次是公元一世纪到九世纪印度佛教的传入，第二次是明中叶到清初西方自然科学的传入（开始主要是以西方传教士利玛窦等传入的西方文明），第三次是鸦片战争以后西方文化的全面传播，特别是五四运动时期马克思主义的传八。
这三次外来文化的传入中国，由于历史条件的不同、时代背景的差异以及传入的方式和性质的不同，而在中国发生了不同的作用。
1．1佛经翻译家（1）娄迦谶娄迦谶，简称支谶西域大月支国人。
生卒不详。
东汉桓帝末年（公元167年），从月支国东渡洛阳。
在灵帝光和、中平（公元178——189年）间，住洛阳翻译讲经。
他比安世高稍晚些。
支谶的操行淳厚深沉，性格开朗敏捷，出家后，在学佛过程中，严禀法度戒律，以精勤着于世。
他博闻强记，讽诵群经，志在宣扬佛法，不辞万里来到当时东西方文化交流中心——洛阳。
支谶在洛阳译经十分勤奋，前后共译经十四部、二十七卷。
这些佛经中，最主要的有二部，《般若道行经》和《般舟三昧经》，都是在灵帝光和二年（公元179年）一年中译出的。
原本都是由竺朔佛从西域传来。
这两部佛经由支谶口译，河南洛阳孟福（字元士）、张莲（字少安）笔受。
在汉献帝建安十三年（公元208年）于佛寺中校定。
支谶通晓汉语，在译经中，他主张朴实中肯，不加修饰。
但有些梵文不能用汉语对译时，他就用原音译起来。
所以，诵读时，佛徒们深感难懂真意；而佛学者研究这些佛经时，认为文字的表达和内容的真实性，都有问题，错误严重，当时，从译经的发展眼光来说，不无正确，但在当时能够将经译出，并得以传播和学习，其精神是难能可贵的了。
支娄迦谶所译佛经，与安世高所译佛经恰恰相反，几乎全是属于大乘佛经。
支谶是大乘佛经翻译、传播的先驱者。
Brief Introduction of the Chinese Translation HistoryChinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translating from specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition.The modern Standard Mandarin word fanyi翻譯"translate; translation" compounds fan "turn over; cross over; translate" and yi "translate; interpret". Some related synonyms are tongyi通譯"interpret; translate", chuanyi傳譯"interpret; translate", and zhuanyi轉譯"translate; retranslate".The Chinese classics contain various words meaning "interpreter; translator", for instance, sheren舌人(lit. "tongue person") and fanshe反舌(lit. "return tongue"). The Classic of Rites records four regional words: ji寄"send; entrust; rely on" for Dongyi東夷"Eastern Yi-barbarians", xiang象"be like; resemble; image" for Nanman南蠻"Southern Man-barbarians", didi狄鞮"Di-barbarian boots" for Xirong西戎"Western Rong-barbarians", and yi譯"translate; interpret" for Beidi北狄"Northern Di-barbarians".In those five regions, the languages of the people were not mutually intelligible, and their likings and desires were different. To make what was in their minds apprehended, and to communicate their likings and desires, (there were officers), — in the east, called transmitters; in the south, representationists; in the west, Tî-tîs; and in the north, interpreters. (王制"The Royal Regulations", tr. James Legge 1885 vol. 27, pp. 229-230)A Western Han work attributes a dialogue about translation to Confucius. Confucius advises a ruler who wishes to learn foreign languages not to bother. Confucius tells the ruler to focus on governance and let the translators handle translation.The earliest bit of translation theory may be the phrase "names should follow their bearers, while things should follow China." In other words, names should be transliterated, while things should be translated by meaning.In the late Qing Dynasty and the Republican Period, reformers such as Liang Qichao, Hu Shi and Zhou Zuoren began looking at translation practice and theory of the great translators in Chinese history.Zhi Qian (3rd c. AD)Zhi Qian (支謙)'s preface (序) is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (維衹), responded that the meaning of the Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in aneasy-to-understand manner: literary adornment is unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful" and Confucius's "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning".Zhi Qian's own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qian's.Dao An (314-385AD)Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本):1.Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SVO.2.Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.3.Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (頌文).4.Cutting the concluding summary section (義說).5.Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易):municating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.2.Translating the words of a saint.3.Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples.Kumarajiva (344-413AD)Kumarajiva’s translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating “heaven sees man, and man sees heaven” (天見人,人見天). Kumarajiva felt that “man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other” (人天交接,兩得相見) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼飯與人).Huiyuan (334-416AD)Huiyuan's theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (質樸). With elegant translation, "the language goes beyond the meaning" (文過其意) of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理勝其辭). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning" (文不害意). A good translator should “strive to preserve the original” (務存其本).Sengrui (371-438AD)Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to “rectify names” (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casual approach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences (名實).Sengyou (445-518AD)Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou’s approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva’s elegant translations.Xuanzang (600-664AD)Xuanzang’s theory is the Five Untranslatables (五種不翻), or five instances where one should transliterate:1.Secrets: Dharani 陀羅尼, Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.2.Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) 薄伽, which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky,esteemed.3.None in China: jambu tree 閻浮樹, which does not grow in China.4.Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established as Anouputi 阿耨菩提.5.To inspire respect and righteousness: Prajna 般若instead of “wisdom” (智慧).Daoxuan (596-667AD)Yan Fu (1898)Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信達雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity and clarity should he attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either.Liang Qichao (1920)Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance.Lin Yutang (1933)Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill this responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠實), smoothness (通順) and beauty.Lu Xun (1935)Lu Xun's most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth" (寧信而不順).Ai Siqi (1937)Ai Siqi described the relationships between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarity and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being.Zhou Zuoren (1944)Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance.Zhu Guangqian (1944)Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy.Fu Lei (1951)Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似).Qian Zhongshu (1964)Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformation in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the ol。
中国翻译简史Chapter1中国翻译简史Three peaks of translation in history1）the translation of Buddhist classics: the first peak支谦，鸠摩罗什，真谛，玄奘2）the translation of books on science and technology: the second peak徐光启（科学译祖），李之藻3）the translation of western classics: the third peak1，严复信faithfulness，意义不背原文达expressiveness，不拘泥于原文的形式，以最准确、最生动的译文把原文的意思表达出来雅elegance，译文本身的古雅《天演论》《法意》《原富》《名学》》《群己权界论》2，梁启超学术界的鸿儒用资产阶级思想方法研究中国历史3，林纾儆醒人心，反帝救国；开创中国翻译事业的先行者和奠基人《巴黎茶花女遗事》，《王子复仇记》Translation in contemporary China: from 1919 to 19494, 鲁迅对中国近代文学翻译史的重要贡献（一）开辟了近代中西文化交流史上具有重要意义和影响的第二潮流（二）我国近代翻译史上的重大变革翻译思想（一）“易解、丰姿”双重标准（二）“以直译为主，意译为辅”与“以信为主，以顺为辅”5，瞿秋白大众化原则，“绝对正确，绝对白话文”的思想翻译《国际歌》6，郭沫若重译家责任, 重视译者主体性；强调的翻译动机7，林语堂翻译是一门艺术；翻译的标准：忠实、通顺和美8，朱光潜西方美学翻译Translation in contemporary China: from 1949 to the present time9, 茅盾“神韵说”；创造性翻译论10，傅雷神似说强调原文精神和韵味的重现11，钱钟书化境论，强调译者流畅、地道的本族语12，王佐良以诗译诗；为读者着想, 译文要可靠、可读13，许渊冲美化之艺术﹑创优似竞赛；文学翻译是艺术；以诗译诗；贯彻再创作论春眠不觉晓，处处闻啼鸟。
