语言学名词解释.英文

语言学名词解释语言学是研究语言的一门学科，涉及语言的结构、功能、变化和发展等方面的研究。

下面是一些常见的语言学名词及其解释。

1. 语音学（Phonetics）：研究语言中各种语音的产生、传播和感知等方面的学科。

2. 语音语言学（Phonology）：研究语音在特定语言中的音位（音素）和音位组合规则的学科。

3. 语法学（Grammar）：研究语言的句法结构、词法结构和语义结构等方面的学科。

4. 句法学（Syntax）：研究语言中句子的结构和组织方式的学科。

5. 语义学（Semantics）：研究语言中词汇和句子的意义、概念和关系的学科。

6. 词汇学（Lexicology）：研究语言中词汇的组成、形态、构词规则等方面的学科。

7. 词义学（Semantics）：研究词汇中词义的构成、关系和词义的变化等方面的学科。

8. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言在具体语境中的使用方式以及语言的上下文相关性等方面的学科。

9. 文法学（Stylistics）：研究语言使用中的文体、修辞手法、语言风格等方面的学科。

10. 母语（Mother tongue）：一个人从小学会并用于日常交际的语言。

11. 第二语言（Second language）：在学习者的母语之外学习的语言。

12. 语言接触（Language contact）：不同语言之间在社会、文化接触中产生的相互影响和借用的现象。

13. 语言变异（Language variation）：指同一个语言在不同社会、地理和使用者间发生的音、词、句法等方面的变化。

14. 语言变化（Language change）：指语言在漫长的时间内逐渐变化和发展的过程。

15. 语言规范（Language standardization）：制定和规范一个语言的正确用法、标准词汇和语法规则的过程。

16. 语言习得（Language acquisition）：指儿童在自然环境中学习母语的过程。

名词解释nguage: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Design features of language(语言的区别性特征) :i.Arbitrariness:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning=language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word(e.g.pen) and the object it refers to .ii.Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level. By duality we mean that language system has two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meanings.指拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分。

指语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。

举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discoursesiii.Productivity： Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality .语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）iv.Displacement：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.v.Cultural transmission: language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.3.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it is based on thesystematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4.Psycholinguistics: It is the study of how language is acquired, understood and produced.ngue:F. de Saussure. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.语言指语言系统的整体，这个整体相对是比较稳定的。

一、名词解释1.Diachronic历时的It refers to say of the study of developing of language and languages over time.研究语言随时间发展变化的方法。

2.Arbitrariness任意性Saussure first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表达的意义之间没有天然或逻辑的联系。

It is refers to absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.任意性是指语言符号和这些符号所指的实体间不存在任何物质的联系。

3.Parole言语It refers to the concrete utterances of a speaker.指语言在实际使用中的实现。

4.Creativity创造性By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences including the sentences that were never heard before.创造性是指语言具有能产型，因为语言有双重性和递归性,也就是说话者能够结合各个语言单位形成无尽的句子，其中很多句子是以前没有的或者没有听说过的。

Define the following terms:1。

Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2。

Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .4. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics。

5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.6。

Language： Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.7。

Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics。

8. Morphology： The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology。

9. Semantics： The study of meaning in language is called semantics.10。

语言学名词语言学名词是用来描述和研究语言现象和语言结构的专门术语。

下面是一些常见的语言学名词及其解释：1. 语音学（Phonetics）：研究语音产生、传播和接收的学科，包括音素的分类、语音能力和语音现象等。

2. 语音：语言中的基本声音单位，通过调节声带、口腔和喉咙等发音器官产生。

语音可以被分类为辅音和元音。

3. 辅音（Consonant）：通过喉咙、口腔和鼻腔等部位的阻碍或摩擦，产生的声音单位。

4. 元音（Vowel）：发音器官不受阻碍或摩擦，使空气顺畅通过口腔而产生的声音单位。

5. 语音形式学（Phonology）：研究语音符号在特定语言中的组合和分布规律的学科。

6. 语音规则（Phonological rules）：用来描述声音变化和音系结构的一套规则。

7. 语法学（Grammar）：研究语言结构和组织的学科，包括句法、语义和语用等方面。

8. 句法（Syntax）：研究句子结构和成分之间的关系，以及句子的形式和结构组织。

9. 语义（Semantics）：研究词、短语和句子的意义和含义的学科。

10. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言在特定语用背景下的使用和理解方式。

11. 词汇学（Lexicology）：研究词汇的起源、结构、使用和意义等方面。

12. 词（Word）：语言中的基本意义单位，具有独立的意义和语法功能。

13. 词法（Morphology）：研究词的内部结构、形态变化和构词法的学科。

14. 语素（Morpheme）：语言中的最小意义单位，可以独立存在或者是其他词的构成组成部分。

15. 词义（Word meaning）：词语所表达的概念或事物的内涵。

16. 语篇（Discourse）：由句子和词组组成的扩展语言单位，表达完整的意义。

17. 修辞学（Rhetoric）：研究语言如何用于说服和交流的学科。

18. 语族（Language family）：具有共同源头和结构相似的一组语言。

1.Semantics: the study of meaning2.Synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning.3.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning4.Homonymy: the phenomenon thea words having different meanings have same form, i.e.,different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both5.Hyponymy: the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word6.Antonymy: words that are opposite in meaning7.Pragmatics: it is the study of how speakers of a language ues sentences to effect successful communication8.Speech act theory: it is a philosopher explanation of the nature of linguistic communicatin. It is aim to answer the question “what do we do when suing lanfuage?”9.Constatives: either state or discribe, and were thus verifiable10. Performatives: did not state a face or describe a state, and were not verifiable11.Locutionary act: It is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.12.Illocutionary act: It is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.13.Perlocutionary act: It is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something14.cooperative principle: in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to coopreate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk15.historical linguistics:it is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.16.blending: a way of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words17.semantic broadening:the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning18.protolanguage: the original form of a language family which has ceased to existnguage family: a group of historically relate laguages that have developed from a common ancestral language20.socilinguistics: the subdiscipling of linguistics thet studies language variation and language ues in social contexts21.speech community: a group of people who form a community andshare at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms22.lingua franca: a variety of language that serves as a sommon speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects23.pidign:a marginal contact language with a limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures, used by native speakers of other languages as a means of business communication24.diglossia: a sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieries of languag co-exist in a speech community, each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation25.euphemism:a word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect, or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression26.psycholinguistics: the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language production, comprehension and acquisition27.cerebral cortex: the outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory oragns and where human cognitive abilities reside28.brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain29.linguistic lateralization: hemispheric specialization or dominance forlanguage30.the critieal period: an early period of one’s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for language functions31.caretaker speech: simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, etc.when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native languagenguage transfer:the effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language33.interlanguage:the aproximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language34.acculturation: a process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language communnity。

语言学名词解释英语Language is a complex system of communication used by humans to convey meaning. It consists of various components and structures that allow individuals to understand and generate language. In the field of linguistics, there are several important terms and concepts used to analyze and describe language. Here are explanations of some key linguistic terms in English:1. Phonetics: Phonetics is the study of the sounds of speech. It examines the physical properties of sounds, such as their production, transmission, and perception. Phonetics helps to understand the different speech sounds used in language.2. Phonology: Phonology refers to the organization and patterns of speech sounds in a particular language. It studies the sound system of a language, including the rules and constraints for combining and manipulating sounds.3. Morphology: Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. It examines how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful units of language. Morphology helps to analyze word formation processes and understand how words are related to each other.4. Syntax: Syntax is the study of the structure and arrangement of words to form meaningful sentences. It investigates the rules for combining words into phrases and sentences. Syntax helps to analyze sentence structure and understand how different grammatical structures are formed.5. Semantics: Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It analyzes how words, phrases, and sentences convey meanings and how different meanings are related. Semantics helps to understand how context, reference, and inference affect the interpretation of language.6. Pragmatics: Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context and how meaning is influenced by social and cultural factors. It examines the principles of conversation, politeness, and the interpretation of implicatures and presuppositions. Pragmatics helps to understand the social and cultural aspects of language use.7. Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of how language varies and changes in different social groups and communities. It investigates the relationship between language and society, including language variation, language attitudes, and language in multilingual settings.8. Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of how language is processed and represented in the mind. It investigates the cognitive processes involved in language production, comprehension, and acquisition. Psycholinguistics helps to understand how we learn and use language.9. Historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the study of how languages change over time. It examines the historical development of languages, language families, and language relationships. Historical linguistics helps to trace the evolution of languages and reconstruct their ancestral forms.10. Applied linguistics: Applied linguistics is the practical application of linguistic theories and principles to real-world problems. It includes areas such as language teaching, language planning, language assessment, and discourse analysis. Applied linguistics helps to address language-related issues in various contexts.These linguistic terms and concepts form the basis of studying and understanding language. Linguists use them to analyze language structure, usage, and evolution, and to gain insights into the intricacies of human communication.。

1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.QR It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.20. phoneme : An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isola tion, they’re collectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.。

Chapter 1: Introduction1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.11.performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13.design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to no logical connection between meaning andsound.15. productivity: Users can understand and produce sentences t hat they have neverheard before.16. duality: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound,which is meaningless, and the higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to the contexts removed from theimmediate situation of the speaker no matter how far away from the topic ofconversation in time or space.18. cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It is taught and learnedfrom one generation to the next, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with allsounds in t he world’s languages.3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. ha speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.the4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one personto another.6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or soundssequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to showsounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists ofletters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech s ound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one.19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Chapter 3: Morphology1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes themeaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changesthe part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usuallychanges the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combinedwit others. E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to forma new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine howmorphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as asingle words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for pasttense.Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to formsentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similarfunctions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are calledphrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which thephrase is built.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulatesthe arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of thesame type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon isknown as coordination.15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence i ntroduced by the complementizer is called acomplement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complementclause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded iscalled matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of headsis called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbetween the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife,father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences w here the truth of one isinferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massagealready knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take somemore tea.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract andde-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particularutterance in a particular context.5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle,which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking.7. constatives: Constatives are statements t hat either state or describe, and are thusverifiable.8. performatives: Pe rformatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexiconand phonology.ntention and performed in10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s isaying something.11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequenceor the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all bewilling to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible tocarry on the talk.18. conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaningduring conversation.Chapter 7: Language Change8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developedfrom a common ancestral language.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation andlanguage use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at leastone speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speakeror a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular socialclass.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements,7. idiolect : A person’sregarding regional, social, gender and age variations.8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualconstitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believedthat three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor ofdiscourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question:who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship theystand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concernedwith how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language ofpeople, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on aregular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group ofspeakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having adifferent role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of languageco-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communicationamong groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialectswithin the same sentence or discourse.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normalhuman child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language.3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly.6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech: Childre n’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc.12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but followthe same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language ina country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part ofthe way a person speaks or writes a language.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: s ome words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of thattarget language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant formsand self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she canlearn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in secondor the learner to understand input language whichlanguage learning, it’s necessary fpresent linguisticcontains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’scompetence. E ventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturallywithout being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their firstlanguage. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that aresent linguistic competence.slightly beyond the learner’s pre24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not includingintelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language forinstrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc.27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because ofthe wish to identify with the target culture.28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for externalpurposes.29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language forenjoyment or pleasure from learning.Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. Itincludes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning,how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brainaffects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with theprocesses of language acqisition, comprehension and production.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebrallesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words isreversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and ch 14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether thestring of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently usedwords than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is calledfrequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, r esponse time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect.。

nguage: language can be defined as a system of arbitory vocal symbols used for communication.2.Duality: By Duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principle of organization.3.Displacement: Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present ( in time and space) at the moment of communication.4.Vowel: a vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.petence and performance: A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.6.Phoneme: The word phoneme simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.7.Lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word.8.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structually dependent on the word it added to.9.Inflection: inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding infectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case; the adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems ( to which they are attached).10.Positional relation: positional relation or word order refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.11.Endocentric: endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e. a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.12.Concep t: There is something behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes. And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material worldand can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called Concept.13.Categorization: categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.14.Image schemas: Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.15.Performatives: Sentences like the following do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of sentences is, or is a part of, the doing of an action.。