27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 5 Morphology

江苏省自学考试《英语语言学概论》（27037）正确判断题题库及中文翻译nguage is primarily speech ,and not the written form.语言主要是口语形式而不是书面形式。

2.The relationship between the sounds and their meanings is arbitrary .声音和他们的意义之间的关系是任意的。

3.Linguistic symbols are produced by human speech organs .语言符号是通过人类语言器官形成的。

4.English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics .英语语言学是一种描述性语言学。

ngue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable .语言比言语更加抽象，因此是不能直接观察的。

（2009年10月考题）6.General linguistics deals with the whole human language .普遍语言学研究的是所有的人类语言。

7.All the English words are not symbolic .不是所有的英语单词都是有符号的。

8.Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language .描述性语言学研究的是一种具体的语言。

9.The spelling of words is not a reliable means of describing the English sounds .单词的拼写不是描述英语语音的一种可靠方式。

10.In terms of tension of the muscles at pharynx ,vowels are grouped into tense vowels andlax vowels .根据咽喉肌肉的松弛状态，元音可以分成紧元音和松元音。

Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax：definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。

Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a lang uage can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。

It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rul es governing the production of sentences.它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。

句法研究语言的句子结构。

Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。

Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences.句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。

6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural language. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。

what is linguistics?1.1 定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。

b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。

e. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules.The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.f. The study of meaning. semantics 语义学 (in abstraction)g. the study of meaning is conducted in context of use. pragmatics 语用学h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics.社会语言学i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里语言学j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied linguistics1.3 语言学研究中的一些基本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics.1.3.1 规定性和描述性 prescriptive vs. descriptiveif a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析——描述性的descriptiveif it aims at to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour to tell people what they should say and what they should not say如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则——规定性的prescriptive现代语言学通常是描述性的，与“语法”的语言研究是大相径庭的1.3.2 共时性和历时性 synchronic vs. diachronicthe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更受人青睐。

Chapter Five Morphology1. Define the following terms.1) Morpheme, allomorph and morph2) free morpheme vs bound morpheme3) affix 4) acronymy5) abbreviation vs clipping 6) IC analysis7) stem,base and root 8) inflection9) compounding 10) conversion11）inflectional morpheme 12) morphology13）backformation 14) blending15) inflectional affix vs derivational affix2. Multiple Choices1) The word “hospitalize” is an example of ______.A. compoundB. derivationC. inflectionD. blending2) ____refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which wordsare formed.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Phonology3) _____ doesn’t belong to the most productive means of word-formation.A. AffixationB. CompoundingC. ConversionD. Blending4) Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words5) Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called ________morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational6) There are ________ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six7) In English -ise and -tion are called ________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes8) Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and________.A. affixationB. etymologyC. inflectionD. root9) The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and _______.A.derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation10) ________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words bysubtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the word.A. AffixationB. Back-formationC. InsertionD. Addition11) The word TB is formed in the way of ________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending12) Ther e are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the wo rd “learned”is known as a(n) ________.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form13) The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by ________.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformafionD. Acronymy14) The stem of disagreements is ________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement15) All of the following are meaningful except _________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphA. phonemesB. MorphsC. morphemesD. allomorphsA. phoneticsB. syntaxC. phonologyD. morphologycombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affixational19) modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech ofthe original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixesa new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word21) Compound words consist of ________ morphemes.A. boundB. freeC. both bound and free22) Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are _________.A. grammatical wordsB. lexical wordsC. neither grammatical nor lexical words23) “Radar” is a / an __________.A. acronymB. blendingC. coinageD. clipping24) The words “take” and “table” are called __________ because they can occur unattached.A. form wordsB. bound morphemesC. free morphemesD. inflectional morphemes25) A __________ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectionalaffix can be added.A. stemB. rootC. allomorphD. lexeme26) __________ is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has aheavily modified headword.A. BlendingB. AcronymyC. AbbreviationD. Invention27) The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on _________.A. BorrowingB. word-formationC. conversionD. the number of the people speaking English28) ________ is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displayingsuch contrasts as masculine / feminine, animate/inanimate, etc.A. CaseB. GenderC. NumberD. Category29) The relation between words “rose” and“flower” is that of __________.A. synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy30) T he adjective word “uniform” has __________ morphemes.A. oneB. threeC. twoD. zero31) Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or________ to stems.A. affixesB. suffixesC. inflectional affixesD. derivational affixes32) Prefixes do not generally change the _________of the stem but only modify itsmeaning.A. word-classB. meaningC. formD. structure33) The primary function of suffixes is to ________.A. change the word-class of rootsB change the meaning of stemsC change the grammatical function of stems]D change the structure of roots34) Conversion is a method __________.A. of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speechB. of converting words of one meaning into different meaningC. of deriving words through grammatical meansD. of changing words in morphological structure3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.1) Combining two parts of two already existing words is called _______ inword-formation.2) Take is the ______ of taking, taken and took.3) Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ________ and ________.4) An ________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as aword.5) Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with ________.6) Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and__________.7) All words may be said to contain a root ________.8) ________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process ofshortening.9) __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of itsinflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use ofwords interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.10) Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the ______ level.11) A word formed by derivation is called a ____________, and a word formed bycompounding is called a __________.12) The poor is an example of ______ conversion.13) __________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.14) The affix “-es” conveys a __________ meaning.15) morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.16) affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas number, degree, and case.17) The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called p .18) The combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words incalled .19) Semantically, the meaning of a c__________ is often idiomatic, not always being thesum total of the meanings of its components.20) __________ morphology studies word-formation.21) __________ can never stand by itself although if bears clear,definite meaning.22) __________ are added fo the end of stems.4. Make a judgment on the following statements decide whether they are true or not.1)Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words areformed.2)Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.3)The structure of words is not governed by rules.4) A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.5)Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.6)Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.7)There is only one type of affixes in the English language.8)Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.9)Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.10)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.11)Morphemes are regarded as abstract constructs in the system.12)We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because themeaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.13)All roots are free and all affixes are bound.14)Chinese language is heavily inflectional.15) A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning, which means that a morpheme has a lexicalmeaning.16)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.17)Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.18)Base refers to the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.19)In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixeS change theword-class of the base.20)Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.21)Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a Word.22)The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.23)In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number ofmorphemes.24)Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.25)Inflection is a parficnlar way of word-formations.5. Tell the root, stem and base of the following words.1) desirable; 2) undesirable3) undesirables; 4) desired6. Short Answer questions1) What does morphology study?2) What is a morpheme? Dissect the following words into morphemes:description underdeveloped photosyntheticanatomy radiation geographyphilharmonic defrosted refreshmentdemobilized conducting suppressioncircumspect dialogue deformedcombination3) Describe with examples various types of morpheme used in English.4) What are the main inflectional affixes in English? What grammatical meaning do theyconvey?5) Try to find out the meaning of the following roots in English and give two or threewords that contain each of them:hydro chron demo duragr kilo nym pedrupt gress poly syn6) State the morphological rules that govern the use of the given derivational affixes.Example: -er The suffix -er is added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agentthat carries out the action, e.g., write – writer-ant -ment sub- -enen- -ee -ful -some-wise un-7) What are the main features of the English compounds?8) Explain the formation and meaning of the following compounds:Example: nightcap Nightcap is a noun formed by combining two nouns, mean- inga drink one takes before going to bed.Cat’s paw tablecloth green-eyed green hornupdate jet lag bootleg built-incockpit good-for-nothingKey to Chapter Five1. Define the following terms.1) Morpheme, allomorph and morphMorpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expressions and content, unit cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning. It is not like the sound patterns or syllables, which can be further divided into segments. Words may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme.A!lomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme. Morphemes are more abstract than their allomorphs.Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2) free morpheme vs bound morphemeMorphemes can be classified into two types in terms of their capacity of occurring alone.Those which may occur alone, or which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as bee, tree, sing, and dance. In contrast, those which may appear with at least one other morpheme and cannot stand by themselves are called bound morphemes, such as “-s” in dogs, “-al” in national, “dis-” in disclose, and so on.3) affixAffixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words. For example, the morpheme ful in careful and less in careless are two affixes. And the first part in each of the words irregular, disappear and enrich (i.e. ir, dis and en) is an affix. Afixes are a type of bound morphemes. They are limited in number in a language, and can be further classified in terms of either of the twocriteria: position and function. Along the dimension of their position with reference to the root or stem of the word, affixes are generally classified into three types: prefixes, suffixes and infixes. Those which are added to the beginning of roots (i.e. occur before roots) are called prefixes, e.g. dis- in dislike and re- in rebuild. The affixes which follow roots (i.e. appear after roots) are called suffixes, e.g. -ness in carelessness and -ful in careful. The affixes which interrupt roots (i.e. appear within roots) are called infixes.4) acronymyAcronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of several words together. Words created in this way are of two sorts: acronyms and initialisms. Acronyms are those which are pronounced as a single word rather than as a sequence of letters. Initials are those which are pronounced as a series of letters (i.e. pronounced letter by letter).5) abbreviation vs clippingAbbreviation, which sometimes is used in the sense of acronymy. For example, the words like USA, NA TO, AIDS, etc. are the results of the word formation of abbreviation. And sometimes, abbreviation equals to clipping. For instance, the words like Prof. (from Professor), telly (from television), etc. are considered as examples of abbreviation as well.Clipping refers to the process of word-formation in which a word (usually a noun) is shortened by deleting one or more syllables without any change in the meaning or in the part of speech. However, clipping usually results in a stylistic change: from formal to informal style.6) IC analysisImmediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis for short) is a method used to analyze the hierarchical order of morphemes. By IC Analysis, we mean that we divide the morphemes of a word (or the words of a sentence) into two groups, and then divide each of them into sub-groups, and so on, until we reach the irreducible constituents, i.e. the morphemes in the case of the analysis of a word, or the words in the case of the analysis of a sentence, which is to be discussed in the next chapter.7) stem,base and rootA root is the basic part of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morphemes “nation” as its root when “inter-”,”-al” and “-ism” are taken away.Different from the term root, both of the terms base and stem are used to talk about such a form to which an affix will be attached. If we are going to attach an derivational affix, we will call the form a base. But if we are going to attach an inflectional affix, we call the form a stem.However, we have to see that the term base is a more general term. It can be a form that is a root and it can be a form that contains some affix already. Just take agree and disagree for example. Either of them can be a base if we are going to attach a derivational affix -ment to it. Similarly, the term stem is also more covering. It can be a form that is a root or it can be a form that contains some affix already. For example, either open or reopen can be a stem if we are going to attach an inflectional morpheme -ed to it. In fact, a stem can be any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can beadded. It may be the same as, and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word friends, friend is both the root and the stem, but in the word friendships, friendship is its stem, while friend is its root. Some words like compounds have more than one root,e.g., mailman, girlfriend, etc.8) inflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.9) compoundingCompounding refers to a process of word-formation, in which two or more free morphemes are combined to form a new word, such as forget-me-not, waterbed, sleepwalk, etc. Words formed in this way are called compound words or compounds. Like derivation, compounding is also a very productive way to produce new words. There are three types of compounds: 1) hyphenated compounds; 2) solid compounds; and 3) open compounds.10) conversionConversion is a term used in the study of word formation to refer to the derivational process whereby an item comes to belong to a new word class without the addition of an affix. The conversion process is particularly productive in modern English, with new uses occurring frequently. Conversion is also known as functional shift or zero-derivation.11）inflectional morphemeInflectional morphemes are also called inflectional affix. They manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes, e.g. -(e)s (indicating plurality of nouns or third person singular, present tense), -lng ( indicating progressive aspect), -(e)d, (indicating past tense for all three, persons), -est (indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbS).12) morphologyMorphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of inflections (also called inflectional morphology), and of word-formation (often referred to as lexical or derivational morphology).13）backformationBackformation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Take televise for example, the word television predated the occurrence of the word- televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language. Instead of taking out part of a word as a root, backformation allows us to take a word of a given category and form a new homophonous word of a different category.14) blendingBlending is a relatively complex form:of word compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. For example: transfer + resister→transistor, smoke + fog smog, boat + hotel --- boatel.15) inflectional affix vs derivational affixIf we classify affixes with reference to their function, we have the following two types: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.In all languages, there are many derivational affixes, but only a small number of inflectional affixes. Inflectional affixes serve to indicate grammatical relations, such as number, gender, tense, aspect, case and degree. For example, -s in books, -e in fiancée, -ed in (he) studied, -ing in (he is) working, -’s in Gloria’s, and -er in faster are all inflectional affixes.Inflectional affixes have different grammatical functions. However, when they are conjoined with other morphemes, they never produce new words. Nor do they cause any change in grammatical class. And, usually, no two inflectional affixes can coexist in the same word at the same time with the exception of the combination of plural number marker and possessive case marker (e.g. students’ reading room, teachers’ job). In contrast, derivational affixes can create new words. Derivational affixes often, but not always, change the grammatical classes of words.2. Multiple choice1) – 5): BADAA 6) – 10): CBCBB 11) – 15): CCADB16) – 20): CDBAC 21) – 25): BBACA 26) – 30): BBBDC31) – 34): DACA3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words1) blending 2) lexeme 3) affix, bound, root4) initialism, acronym 5) vocabulary 6) solid, hypenated, open7) morpheme 8) Backformation 9) Conversion10) morphemic 11) derivative, compound12) partial 13)moepheme 14) grammatical15) Free 16) Inflectional 17) prefixes18) derivation 19) compound 20) Derivational21) root 22) Suffixes4. Make a judgment on the following statements decide whether they are true or not.1) – 5): TTFTF 6) – 10): FFTFT 11) – 15): TFFFT16) – 20): FTFTT 21) – 25): FTFFF5. Tell the root, stem and base of the following words.1) Desirable: desire is the root or base; but there is no stem for it.2) Undesirable: desire is the root; desirable is the base; there is no stem for it.3) Undesirables: desire is the root; undes/rab/e is the stem or base.4) Desired: desire is the root, stem or base.6. Short Answer questions.1) The internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.2) The smallest unit of meaning.de-scrip-tion under-develop-ed photo-synthe-ticana-tomy radia-tion geo-graph-yphil-harmon-ic de-frost-ed re-fresh-mentde-mobil-iz-ed con-duct-ing sup-press-ioncircum-spect dia-logue de-form-edcom-bina-tion3) Free morphemes: mate, sun, fame, likeBound morphemes: roots and affixesRoots: ter-, fin-, spect- , -cide, -wiseAffixes: inflectional and dcrivationalDerivational: prefix and suffixInflectional affixes: -ing, -ed, -(e)sPrefixes: un-, dis-, de-, en-Suffixes: -ly, -less, -tion, -ize4.4) (e)s: plural number(c)s: third-person singular present tense(e)d: past tense-ing: progressive aspect-er: comparative degree-est: superlative degree-s: possessive case5) hydro (water), e.g., hydraulic, dehydratechro (time), e.g., chronological, chronicledemo (people), e.g., democracy, demographydur (lasting), e.g., during, durableagr (farming), e.g., agriculture, agrariankilo (one thousand), e.g., kilometer, kilogramnym (name), e.g., pseudonym, antonymped (foot), e.g., centipede, impederupt (breaking), e.g., rupture, abruptgress (movement), e.g., progress, digresspoly (various), e.g., polygon, polyglotsyn (identical), e. g., synchronic, synonym6) -ant: suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent, e.g., assistant-ment: suffix added to a verb to form its corresponding noun, e.g., developmentsub-: prefix added to an adjective to form another adjective to indicate a lesser degree,e.g., substandard-cn: suffix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of the quality denoted by the adjective, e.g., darkenen-: prefix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of the quality denoted by the adjective, e.g., enrich-ee: suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the recipient of the action denoted by the verb, e. g.,employee-ful: suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noun, e.g., plentiful-some: suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noun, e.g., quarrelsome-wise: suffix added to a noun to form an adverb meaning “with regard to the area indicating by the noun”, e.g., carecrwiseun-: prefix added to an adjective to indicate the absence of the quality indicated by the adjective, e.g., unemployed7) Orthographically a compound can be written as one word,two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components.Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.。

Chapter 1: Introduction1.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The word “language” implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The word “study” does not mean “learn” but “investigation” or “examine”.“Scientific” refers to the way in which the language is studied.Based on systematic investigation of language data, the study is conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In studying language, the linguist first has to study language facts, then he formulates some hypotheses about language structure which have to be re-checked against the observed facts so as to prove their validity.The process of linguistic study:1)Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;2)Based on these generalization, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts;3)Hypotheses are tested by further observations;4) A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.1.1The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics –the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, methods applicable in any linguistic study.Phonetics – the study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication,Phonology – the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology – the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Syntax – the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.Semantics – the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context of use.Socio-linguistics – the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics – the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics – Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability. This study is called applied linguistics. In a narrow sense, it refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Anthropological / neurological / mathematical / computational linguistics1.2Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2.1Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern); if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive (traditional). (Question: how is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?)1.2.2Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.2.3Speech and writingAs two major media of communication, modern linguistics regards spoken form as primary, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.(Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of a language as primary?)1.2.4Langue and parole (语言和言语)The distinction was made by famous Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Both are French words.1)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity, and parole refers to realization of langue in actual use.2)Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow whileparole is their concrete use.3)Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events.4)Langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently; while parole varies from personto person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and linguists are supposed to abstract langue from parole.1.2.5Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)Similar to 1.3.4, American Noam Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky thinks that linguists should study competence but not performance.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker‟s competence, but not his performance. As one difference, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2.What is language2.1DefinitionsNowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Language is a system, as elements of language are combined according to rules;2)Arbitrary, as no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between sign and what itstands for.3)V ocal, as primary medium is sound for all languages.“Human”indicates the difference from the communication systems of other living creatures. “Communication”means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.2.2Design featuresRefer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.1)ArbitrarinessNo logical connection between meanings and sounds, symbols, words. Not entirely arbitrary, there are some words in every language that imitate natural sounds. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary. But this makes up only a small percentage.This nature is a sign of sophistication, which only human beings are capable of and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity3)DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds ad the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofunits of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionWe are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectal complementation.Chapter 2: Phonology1.The phonic medium of languageOf two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of informationconveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, andwriting is learned and taught later in school.This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages. Three branches: (the most important conclusion is that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.)1)Articulatory phoneticsHow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Longest established, highly developed.2)Auditory phoneticsHow the sounds are perceived by the hearer.3)Acoustic phoneticsStudies speech sounds by looking at the sound waves (recorder named spectrographs). It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through air from one person to another.2.2 Organs of speechThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities, where the air stream coming from the lungs may be modified by complete or partial interference. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉)before it reaches any of the cavities. They are:Pharyngeal cavity – the throatAir stream: lung →windpipe →glottis (vocal cord)Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants. Otherwise “voiceless”Oral cavity – the mouthThe greatest source of modification of the air stream. Tongue is the most flexible organ.Nasal cavity – the noseThe velum can be drawn back to close the passage of the air stream so that all air exiting from the lungs can only pass through the oral cavity. Produced are oral sounds. Otherwise, nasalized sounds such as three nasal consonants. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed.2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds – broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being at the end of 19th century. Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.The IPA provides a set of symbols called diacritics, which can be added to letter-symbols to make finer distinction than the letter-symbols alone. The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription, normally in dictionaries and textbooks. The other with diacritics is narrow transcription, used by phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2.4Classification of English speech soundsTwo broad categories –vowels and consonants, the basic difference is that in pronunciation of vowels, no air stream meets obstruction, while consonant, the air stream is obstructed somehow. (the basic difference between a vowel and consonant)2.4.1Classification of English consonantsTwo ways: manner of articulation(how obstruction is created): stops, fricatives (when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point), affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; and place of articulation (where): bilabial (the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction), labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal sounds. Each classification brought about certain phonetic features of consonants.2.4.2Classification of English vowelsV owels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth (front / central / back vowels), the openness of the mouth (close / semi-close / semi-open / open), the shape of the lips (rounded / unrounded), and the length of the vowels (with or without colon, the long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels). Monophthongs (individual vowels) and diphthongs. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.3.Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics (音系学和语音学)Phonetics is concerned with the description of all the speech sounds in language (the study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication), while phonology (the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication) is concerned with the study of the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, the conclusion about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning: some do, some don‟t. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones, which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. A different definition would be that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds, which in particular language do not stand in contrast with one another. Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimalelements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are language-specific, that what distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in another language, e.g. aspiration. (鼻音, refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds)Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonology is to find out these rules.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. Those two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution, which means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in different phonetic environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. The sound combinations (pill, bill, etc.) constitute a minimal set, in which they are identical in form except for initial consonant.3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, which is language-specific.3.4.2 Assimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caused by articulatory or physiological processes.3.4.3. Deletion rulesIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.3.5 Suprasegmental features – stress, tone, intonationRefers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.3.5.1 StressWord stress and sentence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a sentence.3.5.2 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. English is not a tone but intonation language. Chinese is a typical tone language.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four: the falling tone (indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement), the rising tone (question of what is said), the fall-rise tone (indicates an implied message), and the rise-fall tone, in which the first three are most frequently used.Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.Chapter 3: Morphology1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation.2.Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of languageThe meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemesMorphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.2.2.2 Bound morphemesMorphemes, which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.RootsWith clear definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.AffixesInflectional affixesManifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.Derivational affixesDerivation, derivative (the word formed). The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. Prefixes: usually modify the meaning of stem but do not change the part of speech(词类)of original word, except “be-” and “en(m)-”Suffixes: modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech: noun-forming, adjective-forming, adverb-forming, verb-forming.2.2.3 Morphological rulesWe must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.poundingRefers to combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compounds1)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen inbetween, or as two separate words.2)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part ofspeech of the second element.3)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.4)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.Chapter 4: Syntax1.Syntax as a system rulesAs a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances 言语that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.2.Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentenceA sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentenceConsists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.2.2.2 The coordinate sentenceContains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other.2.2.3 The complex sentenceContains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). 1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause; 2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called asubordinator(引导词), such as that, if, before; 3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence)2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentenceSentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP).2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3.Syntactic categoriesApart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3.1 Lexical categoriesCommonly known as parts of speech (词类). Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.3.2 Phrasal categoriesFour: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.4.Grammatical relationsThe structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)binational rules5.1 Phrase structural rulesThe combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.S →NP VP “()”means optionalNP →(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S)VP →V (NP) (PP) (S)AP →A (PP) (S)PP →P NP5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rulesCan generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length. “creative”5.3 X-bar theorya. X”b. X‟‟→ Spec X’X‟→ X complSpec X‟(specifier)X Complement(head)Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.6.Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).6.1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.6.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)6.3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)generateD-structure (deep structure)Movement RulestransformS-structure (Surface structure)A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.6.4 More α-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary.7.1 General principles of Universal GrammarOne general principle, or condition, is the Case Condition, which requires that a noun phrase has a Case and Case is assigned by V (verb) or P (preposition) to the object position, or by AUX (auxiliary) to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. When a noun phrase moves, it can move only to the position where it can be assigned Case, in order to satisfy condition of Case requirement.Another condition is the Adjacent Condition on Case assignment. This condition states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. It explains why no otherphrases category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. While strictly served in English well-formed sentences, it is not the case in some other languages.7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, e.g. a plus [+] or [-], which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, i.e. the Directionality parameter, which can account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese.Chapter 5: Semantics1.What is semantics?A study of meaning in language. Linguists cannot agree among themselves as to what meaning is. Philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the real word they refer to and in evaluating the conditions of truth and falsehood of such expressions. Psychologists focus their interest on understanding the human mind through language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theoryIt is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to his theory, the linguistic form of symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. The limitation: 1) applicable to nouns only; 2) within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist or abstract notions.2.2 The conceptualist viewIn the interpretation of meaning, a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind (no direct links). This theory avoids many of the problems the naming theory has met, but it also raises a completely new problem of its own: what is precisely the link between the symbol and the concept?Thought/Reference (refers to concept) :by Ogden and Richards。

第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics,（神经语言学） mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctionsin linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use,it is said to be descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules to tellpeople what they should sayand what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differsfrom traditional grammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actually use,whether it i s “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point intime is a synchronic study; thedescription of a language as itchanges through time isa diachronic study. In modernlinguistics, synchronic study ismore important.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are thetwo major media ofcommunication.Modern linguistics regardsthe spoken form of languageas primary, but not the writtenform.Reasons:●1. Speech precedes writing;●2. There are still manylanguages that have only thespoken form;●3. In terms of function, thespoken language is used for awider range of purposes thanthe written, and carries alarger load of communicationthan the written.Langue and parole [pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. deSaussure made the distinctionbetween langue and paroleearly 20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the members ofa speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue in actualuse.Saussure made thedistinction in order to singleout one aspect of language forserious study. He believeswhat linguists should do is toabstract langue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual use oflanguage and make them thesubjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in the late1950’s.He defines competence asthe ideal user’s knowledge ofthe rules of his language,and performance the actualrealization of this knowledgein linguistic communication.He believes the task of thelinguists is to discover andspecify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.Sapir,Edward uses “ideas”“emotions” and “desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focus on thepurely structural properties oflanguages and to suggest thatthese properties can beinvestigated from amathematically precise pointof view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to thedefining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish itfrom any animal system ofcommunication.American linguist CharlesHockett specified twelvedesign features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there is nological connection betweenmeanings and sounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog and theanimal it refers to. The factthat different sounds are usedto refer to the same object indifferent languages and thatthe same sound may be usedto refer to different objects isanother good example.Although language isarbitrary by nature, it is notentirely arbitrary. Some words,such as the words created inthe imitation of sounds bysounds are motivated in acertain degree. The arbitrarynature of language makes itpossible for language to havean unlimited source ofexpressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive orcreative in that it makespossible the construction andinterpretation of an infinitelylarge number of sentences,including those that they havenever said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is asystem, which consists of twosets of structure, or two levels,one of sounds at the lowerlevel and the other ofmeanings at the higher level.At the lower or the basic level,there is the structure ofindividual and meaninglesssounds, which can be groupedinto meaningful units at thehigher level. This duality ofstructure or double articulationof language enables its usersto talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language canbe used to talk about whathappened in the past, what ishappening now, or what willhappen in the future.Language can also be used totalk about our real wordexperiences or theexperiences in our imaginaryworld. In other words,language can be used to referto contexts removed from theimmediate situations of thespeaker.5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born with theability to acquire language, thedetails of any language arenot genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taughtand learned anew.**********************************Chapter 2Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium oflanguage语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。

定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds.语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。

-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanin gs in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。

---Phonology is is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。

它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。

---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sou nd system of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。

Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。

定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a streamof speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。