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Management Studies, Jan.-Feb. 2019, Vol. 7, No. 1, 33-41doi: 10.17265/2328-2185/2019.01.003Collaborative Consumption as a Source of Market DisruptionPetteri Repo, Päivi TimonenUniversity of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandThe concept of collaborative consumption has been developed in consumer studies to define new consumptionopportunities which are facilitated by information systems. Accordingly, novel services such as the ridesharingservice Uber, for transport, and the hospitality-brokering service Airbnb, for accommodation, successfully employcollaboration in consumption and provide consumers with novel types of access to services. Yet while theidentification of this new characteristic of consumption is of great merit, less attention has been paid in consumerstudies to how it challenges existing market arrangements. It is against this background that this article examinescollaborative consumption as a source of market disruption. The article applies the concept to the empirical case ofa pilot scheme in collaborative public transport (Kutsuplus), which essentially consisted of a taxi-like bus service inHelsinki, Finland. It argues that collaborative consumption may tend to contribute premium rather than standardquality in public services, which is apt to disrupt both public and private service markets. The analysis furtheraffirms that the concept of collaborative consumption is well suited to the assessment of novel services and theirdisruptive characteristics.Keywords: collaborative consumption, consumer studies, market disruption, public and private services, transportIntroductionNovel consumption arrangements are emerging in the digital world, and the concept of collaborative consumption provides a rationale for their successes (Belk, 2014; Barnes & Mattson, 2016; see also Bason, 2010). Rapidly growing markets in shared transport provide an example of how collaborative consumption may change the dynamics of service offerings and disrupt existing market arrangements in collective transport (Giesler, Veresiu, & Siebert, 2015; Bardhi & Eckhardt, 2012). Collaborative consumption then transforms markets through consumer use of digital resources and the pooling of activities (Labrecque, vor dem Esche, Mathwick, Novak, & Hofacker, 2013).This article addresses the possible benefits and challenges of applying the concept of collaborative consumption in the realm of potentially disruptive services. It first examines how collaborative consumption may contribute to new service offerings and combines this with insights into disruption from innovation studies. The outcomes from an empirical case study of the medium-scale deployment of a novel, collaborative kind of public transport in Finland, Kutsuplus, are used to examine how the concept of collaborative consumption helpsPetteri Repo, Ph.D. (Econ.), adjunct professor (Docent), researcher director, Centre for Consumer Society Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.Päivi Timonen, Ph.D. (Econ.), adjunct professor (Docent), researcher director, Centre for Consumer Society Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Petteri Repo, University of Helsinki, Unioninkatu 40 C,FI-00014, Finland.COLLABORATIVE CONSUMPTION AS A SOURCE OF MARKET DISRUPTION34to assess the reception of novel services that challenge existing market arrangements. The final section of this article discusses how the concept of collaborative consumption can be further applied to review the disruptive features of novel services.Collaborative Consumption as a Source of Disruptive Innovation for Public Services Scholars recognize that involving consumers in innovation creates opportunities for ideological, economic, and institutional change in service offerings (Bason, 2010; Christensen, Grossman, & Hwang, 2008; Parker & Gallagher, 2007; Timonen & Repo, 2014; Fledderus, Brandsen, & Honingh, 2015). This is particularly interesting in the realm of public service systems that do not inherently seek change, as they are established parts of stable socio-technological regimes (see Geels, 2004; Geels & Kemp, 2012). In such cases, novel interlinkages between the technologies of supply, user preferences and relevant policies are then required in order to facilitate consumer involvement. A shift from the traditional economy of owning toward an online economy that encompasses elements of collaboration and sharing indeed provides opportunities for new service offerings. The most prominent examples of such sharing services function in the private sector, with Uber providing transport and Airbnb accommodation, with both relying on the efficient sharing of resources.Consumer studies have, however, recognized that there is more to collaborative consumption than simply sharing existing resources. Belk (2014) goes as far as to declare that access to services rather than ownership of goods constitutes the identity of a consumer. In this context, he defines collaborative consumption as the coordination of the acquisition and distribution of a resource for a fee or other compensation (Belk, 2014, p. 1597). In their study on car sharing, Bardhi and Eckhardt (2012) demonstrate that this collaborative, access-based consumption comprises six dimensions: (1) temporality, (2) anonymity, (3) market mediation, (4) consumer involvement, (5) type of accessed object, and (6) political consumerism. In this article, collaborative consumption is approached from the perspective of developing a novel kind of transport service that is collaboratively constructed and is provided for a fee. The present article incorporates the six dimensions identified by Bardhi and Eckhardt (2012) into the analysis and employs them in the public transport case study.Public service offerings are particularly interesting from the perspective of collaborative consumption, as they concern the collective rather than individual use and funding of services. While the digitalization of services has accentuated the opportunities for new service offerings, innovation in the public sector has typically sought productivity and efficiency gains over transformation or disruption (Bason, 2010). Hence, introducing collaborative elements such as citizen involvement and market mediation may lead to disruptive service features (Christensen, Baumann, Ruggles, & Sadtler, 2006), which in turn prompt changes not only in the consumption but also in the production of the public-sector services in question.In principle, public services are accessible to all consumers, although there may be restrictions, and policies may support positive discrimination, i.e., provide selected citizens with special service offerings. Variety in supply and service differentiation, nevertheless, poses challenges for the public sector, which has difficulties in meeting highly individualized demand (Bason, 2010). The supply of public services is, furthermore, founded on the idea that democratic decision making determines citizen access and the rationale of access to services, for instance through fixed schedules and limited availability. Further challenges are posed by common premises for the public supply of services, such as a not-for-profit ethos and inclusiveness. Accordingly, the public sector has been a conservative innovator, and the specifics of public sector innovation have become internationally recognized only after the turn of the millennium (Windrum, 2008).COLLABORATIVE CONSUMPTION AS A SOURCE OF MARKET DISRUPTION 35For public services, collaborative consumption possesses particular disruptive potential, and as consumers increasingly use similar criteria to evaluate public services and private services (see Wensley & Moore, 2011; Fledderus et al., 2015), customers are becoming an integral part of the provision of services (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004; Bardhi & Eckhardt, 2012; Hyysalo, Repo, Timonen, Hakkarainen, & Heiskanen, 2016), and consumerism challenges how public service offerings are decided on and regulated (Denhardt & Denhardt, 2015; Baldwin, Cave, & Lodge, 2012). The transformation of public service offerings is also facilitated by the emergence of disruptive technologies in information networks, smart technologies and automatization, which are also prompting institutional changes (Christensen et al., 2008; Repo, Timonen, & Zilliacus, 2009). Such disruption both throws into relief and complements the ideas of organizations which rely on routines (Vala, Pereira, & Caetano, 2017) or need to listen closely to their stakeholders (Alapo, 2018) and which might thus be overly conservative in situations where the respective field is experiencing radical change (Fliegstein, 2013; Repo, Hyvonen, Pantzar, & Timonen, 2006).Consumption-related disruptive technologies promise both more efficiently provided public service offerings and the emergence of new competences that can be used in their provision. These disruptive technologies and institutional developments facilitate the transformation of public service offerings in the direction of increasing automation, self-service and peer-to-peer supply, all of which develop the activities of consumers in the direction of collaborative consumption. Such development is disruptive in that it blurs the roles of producers and consumers; thus it has been described with terms such as prosumers (Toffler, 1980) and lead users (Hippel, 2005). Terms such as co-creation (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004) and co-production (Bovaird, 2007), in turn, define activities that embrace consumers in production and development processes, both reflecting features attributed to collaborative consumption.Being disruptive, collaborative consumption accordingly possesses the potential for developing public service offerings—not only through its increased use in the production of these services but also through their redefinition. Collaborative consumption therefore provides an opportunity to adapt offerings to consumer practices, thus ensuring better responsiveness to current and evolving demand (Schatzki, 2010; Shove, Pantzar, & Watson, 2012). It also complements attempts to extend political modes of consumerism beyond private markets (see Micheletti, 2003; Graziano & Forno, 2012), as the collaborative disruptive technologies in question have often been first adopted in private consumer markets. In particular, new information systems in mobility, health, interaction, and customership in general are currently challenging public service offerings.When analyzing mobility as a public service, account must therefore be taken of both consumer benefits and the process through which expectations for public services have been determined (Alford, 2016). At the same time, disruptive innovations are apt to face resistance from established players on the market, as highlighted in the Kutsuplus case presented in the upcoming section of this article.Case of Collaborative Consumption in Public Transport The Kutsuplus service pilot for public transport in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area in Finland is used as a case study for investigating the disruptive features of collaborative consumption in the field of public transport. Helsinki Region Transport (HRT) acted as the service developer of the concept (see Goodman, Korsunova, & Halme, 2017), which from the onset was likely considerable disruption in public bus and private taxi markets in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area as well as within the operator itself. Passenger use of the Kutsuplus pilot constituted collaborative consumption due to the specific temporality of service creation and provision,COLLABORATIVE CONSUMPTION AS A SOURCE OF MARKET DISRUPTION36anonymity between users, mediation taking place in the public online market, consumer determination of schedules and routes and political consumerism of a public service (Bardhi & Echardt, 2012). Furthermore, it involved coordination or acquisition of a service for a fee (Belk, 2014).The Kutsuplus pilot has received international attention, in particular in the domain of transport. Weckström, Mladenović, Ullah, Nelson, Givoni, and Bussman (2018), for instance, review Kutsuplus in a survey-based user study in an attempt to draw lessons for the further development of flexible micro-transit. In turn, Jokinen, Sihvola, and Mladenovic (2017) adopt similar development perspectives when assessing the service features of Kutsuplus and accompanying policy processes. The Kutsuplus pilot has indeed been seen to represent an experiment with or an attempt to develop new kinds of transitional frameworks and policies in transportation, urban settings and sustainability (Mäkinen, Kivimaa, & Helminen, 2015; Cohen & Muñoz, 2016; see Lane, 2017 on implementation gaps and game theory). Moreover, Kutsuplus can be seen to constitute a concrete case of Mobility as a Service (MaaS), which, for its part, attempts to match customer needs to an evolving service supply (Hensher, 2017).While this earlier research considers stakeholders in the field, it nevertheless neither focuses on the collaborative-consumption character of the Kutsuplus transport concept nor explicitly considers how this disrupts existing market arrangements. In the following sections, the Kutsuplus pilot is presented and evaluated against the notion of collaborative consumption. The case description is based on public documents relating to the Kutsuplus pilot, media sources, and studies commissioned and published by Helsinki Region Transport.The Kutsuplus Pilot ServiceA key feature of the Kutsuplus public transport pilot was that the schedules and routes of the 15 Kutsuplus buses were dynamically determined as passengers placed and paid for their orders using a system separate from the regular bus card system. Accordingly, Kutsuplus had no predefined schedules or routes, and its buses arrived to collect passengers at any bus stop in the pilot area within an average of nine minutes after placing the order. In essence, the Kutsuplus concept was positioned between taxi and bus services.“Kutsu” translates as “call”, “invite”, and “summon” in the Finnish language, and it thus highlights the consumers’ active role in triggering the service. The service concept was developed in a university research project that began in 2007. The testing phase of the concept proceeded in October 2012, and the service was opened for public use in a pilot in April 2013. The Kutsuplus concept quickly attracted considerable attention, and it was awarded a prize for being the year’s best act to benefit customers in Finland in 2014 (CXPA Finland 2014). Furthermore, the growth in rides was rapid, even though Kutsuplus remained a niche in the public transport system.Ticket revenues cover only part of the operation costs of public transport in Finland. Accordingly, Kutsuplus was initially heavily supported to the sum of 40€ per ride, corresponding to an over 80 percent subsidy. Nevertheless, this halved to 20€ and was expected to reach 15€ by the end of the pilot (HSL, 2015b; Laita, 2014). Thus, it was calculated to reach a lower level of subsidy than that of other public transport (HSL, 2014c; Laita, 2014). In comparison, at the time, the rate of public subsidies for Helsinki Region Transport was 49 percent, which matched public support for bus transport in other large urban areas in Finland (49%) but was higher than the subsidy provided for taxi traffic (41%, consisting mainly of reimbursements for travel expenses) (Finnish Transport Agency 2017). Consumer satisfaction indicators for Kutsuplus reached high levels, with anCOLLABORATIVE CONSUMPTION AS A SOURCE OF MARKET DISRUPTION 37overall rating of 4.6 out of 5 (HSL, 2014c). Rides grew by 59 percent during the second year of operation to9,200 per month, and targets for ticket revenues were expected to be met.The Kutsuplus pilot service was, nevertheless, terminated in December 2015, in spite of high levels of consumer satisfaction, the growing popularity and full functionality of the service both in terms of bus trafficand its accompanying online ordering and purchasing system, and the prospects of it matching or exceeding the economic viability of regular bus traffic in the near future. Revised plans focused on the transfer of the Kutsuplus system to taxi-like market players, who were to begin operations in 2017-2018; however, this never occurred.Evaluation of the Kutsuplus PilotThe evaluation of the Kutsuplus pilot follows the overall criteria for collaborative consumption as set by Belk (2014) and analytically captured in Bardhi and Eckhardt’s dimensions of access (2012). Accordingly, the following factors are examined: (1) the concept of the Kutsuplus service (temporality, anonymity, mediation, consumer involvement, functional type of service, coordination, acquisition, functional type of service), (2) willingness to pay (fee), and (3) the scale of use of the service as it relates to access. In addition, consumer satisfaction is also considered, as it relates to the motivation to use the service (Belk, 2014; Bardhi & Eckhardt, 2012). Finally, the disruptive potential of innovation in public service offerings is assessed, as this relates to the dimension of political consumerism (Bardhi & Eckhardt, 2012) and is connected to the discontinuation of service development and operation. The results of this evaluation are summarized in Table 1.Table 1 demonstrates that users of the Kutsuplus service were willing to pay a premium for the service, as 66.5 percent of Kutsuplus passengers were willing to pay 4.00-5.99€ and 13.9 percent to pay 6.00-7.99€, whilethe price of a regular single ticket was 3.00€, and HRT offered discounted prices for multiple tickets and season tickets.The Kutsuplus service experienced rapid growth (59% during the last pilot year). Nevertheless, access tothe service remained limited, as it required active enrolment on the service through its own payment system, which implied separate customership. Activeness was also expected from the users in the online ordering of rides. In comparison, regular bus traffic provided a much larger magnitude of scheduled and routed rides (15 million vs. 9,200 monthly; HSL, 2014a) and relied on regular payment systems, including cash.High scores for consumer satisfaction were nonetheless achieved, with an overall score of 4.6/5 and a ride specific score of 4.84/5, which both exceeded the overall score of 4.24/5 for regular buses (HSL, 2014b; 2014c). The speed and fluidity of transport was also highly valued, at 4.66/5. By contrast, users were less satisfied withthe network of stops (4.15/5), although they were able use any bus stop in the area of operation. This further indicates that Kutsuplus was considered a premium service which should have provided an even better reachfor passengers, perhaps door to door, and routing based on addresses rather than stops.Collaborative consumption in the form of Kutsuplus contributed both to internal and external disruption of activities and markets. Internally, it challenged the HRT strategy built on predesigned trunk lines with high capacity and feeder traffic (HSL, 2016). The financial viability of Kutsuplus was also questioned. Accordingly,five of the seven cities backing the Kutsuplus pilot opted for termination while two remained neutral (HSL, 2015a). Termination of the Kutsuplus pilot was in line with a strategy focused on a large-scale, non-premium,and non-exclusive public service.COLLABORATIVE CONSUMPTION AS A SOURCE OF MARKET DISRUPTION38 Table 1 Features of the Kutsuplus Service and Assessment of Access and DisruptionFeature of service and its useOutcomes Relation to access and disruption ConceptConsumers integral part of the dynamic formation of routes and schedules of buses Access for some: Those actively using the service Willingness to pay (for 5 kilometerride, N = 245)6-7.99€: 13.9% 4-5.99€: 66.5% less than 4€: 20.8% Access for some: Acceptance for premium price (regular price for one-way ticket was 3.00€ in 2015) Scale of useGrowth 59% in last year, to 9,200 monthly rides Access for some: Small share of the 15 million monthly HSL bus rides Consumer satisfaction, N = 250Access contributes to premium quality: High level of consumer satisfaction (average overall score for regular transport system 4.24) Overall grade of this ride 4.84/5Kutsuplus serves with an appropriate network of stops4.15/5 Transport is quick and fluent 4.66/5 Overall grade of the Kutsuplusservice4.6/5 Disruption of innovationDisruption: Challenges strategy which focuses on large-scale non-premium and non-exclusive public service Internal: Challenges strategy - HRT strategy focuses on trunk lines and feeder traffic - Financial viability questioned - 5 of 7 participating cities responded critically tothe idea of continuing the pilot, 2 were neutralExternal: Disrupts markets - Challenges established market for taxi services- Challenges public purchases of supported-rideservices for citizens (in particular concerning taxis)Disruption: Challenges established markets, in particular the market for taxis and the accompanying public purchases Sources: HSL (2014a; 2014b; 2014c; 2015a; 2015b; 2016).Being positioned between taxis and buses, the Kutsuplus service also disrupted the established market for taxi services. The taxi sector expressed discontent with a public competitor and was concerned that public purchases would be shifted from taxi rides to bus rides.In sum, evaluating the Kutsuplus case through the concepts of collaborative consumption and disruption sheds light on why an arguably popular and innovative public service was discontinued. Even the rather positive outlook for Kutsuplus, which provided a service in a novel way, was insufficient to secure its longevity. The conceptual dimensions of access also provide an explanation for why satisfaction and growing popularity amongst collaborating consumers was apt to lead to a premium rather than standard service. This caused internal and external disruption in related markets, which eventually contributed to the termination of the pilot and to attempts to transfer the service to market actors (HSL, 2015b).Discussion and ConclusionsCollaborative consumption and access to online services have been identified as offering increasing opportunities for consumers (Belk, 2014; Bardhi & Eckhardt, 2012; Barnes & Mattson, 2016). Car sharing services provide frequently quoted examples of how collaborative consumption has shifted from a physical to a partly online world. Indeed, the combination of online and physical offerings also appears to provide novel service opportunities through collaborative consumption for the public sector.COLLABORATIVE CONSUMPTION AS A SOURCE OF MARKET DISRUPTION 39This article has examined how the concept of collaborative consumption can be applied to an innovative case of public transport. The digitalization of services and constraints in public spending provide the impetus to develop such public service innovations. Similarly, collaborative consumption may itself encourage the public sector to be more innovative in the development of its offerings (see Bason, 2010; Fledderus et al., 2015) or at least seek areas in which such innovativeness would be welcomed (Bovaird, 2007). Nonetheless, innovativeness may also cause disruption (Christensen et al., 2006), as the Kutsuplus case study shows. Kutsuplus was novel in that it allowed for collaborative consumption to contribute to the dynamic evolution of public bus routes and schedules.Applying the concept of collaborative consumption can also help explain the possible disruptive features of redesigned public services. In the case of Kutsuplus, consideration of the dimensions of access helps to contrast hopeful outlooks and experiences against prevalent market arrangements. The case suggests that if collaborative consumption leads to public services of premium rather than standard quality and challenges the dominant logic of the provision of public services, the disruptive potential of service innovations means they may be challenging to realize. Indeed, the evaluation of the Kutsuplus pilot ends by indicating the possibility of utilizing the concept of collaborative consumption not only as a force for change but also as a concept for analyzing the limits of variety and differentiation in public service innovations. It would then appear a good idea to consider the political aspects of consumerism and the disruptive nature of innovations when introducing collaborative consumption to public services.While the case of Kutsuplus can be considered a success story from the perspective of collaborative consumption and the adoption of novel services, the service was nevertheless terminated due to the market disruption it caused. The story did not, however, end there, as Ajelo, the company developing and operating the information system for the transport service, was acquired by the American startup Split, which further developed and piloted the system in Washington D.C. Later, the German automaker Volkswagen backed the startup MOIA in its acquisition of the company, which launched its “shuttle by demand” service in Hanover, Germany in 2018, indicating how potentially disruptive services may need to travel across industries to find their niches. In the Helsinki region, MaaS Global has launched its Whim service, which combines public and taxi rides and, in particular, connects the newly opened stops of the metropolitan subway with people’s homes.In the case of the Kutsuplus pilot, the risk for disruption was explicit, as the pilot did not conform to the strategy of Helsinki Region Transport (see Jokinen et al., 2017) and was challenged by other market players. Enthusiasm over collaborative consumption may at first overshadow public concerns and lead to unforeseen issues when deploying new services that rely on collaborative consumption. Against this background, the article highlights the applicability of the concept of access not only for identifying collaborative services but also for developing such services in the domain of public offerings.ReferencesAlapo, R. (2018). Influences of contextual, cultural factors and stakeholders on system design and management analysis in organizations. Management Studies, 6(2), 108-112.Alford, J. (2016). Co-production, interdependence and publicness: Extending public service-logic. Public Management Review, 18(5), 673-691.Barnes, S. J., & Mattsson, J. (2016). Understanding current and future issues in collaborative consumption: A four-stage Delphi study. Technological Forecasting and Social Change,104, 200-211.Bason, C. (2010). Leading public sector innovation. Co-creating for a better society. 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2012年冲动型消费英文文献

2012年冲动型消费英文文献

644Advances in Consumer ResearchVolume 35, © 2008The Effect of Self-Construal on Impulsive ConsumptionYinlong Zhang, University of Texas at San Antonio, USAL. J. Shrum, University of Texas at San Antonio, USAEXTENDED ABSTRACTImpulsive behaviors, and impulsive consumption in particu-lar, are generally considered negative constructs that are associatedwith a variety of other negative traits (e.g., lower intelligence,immaturity, poor value system) and outcomes (e.g., financial prob-lems, lower self esteem and post-purchase satisfaction; Rook 1987;Rook and Fisher 1995). Yet, impulsive consumption is also verycommon, with some estimates attributing impulse buying to overfour billion dollars of annual sales in the U.S. (Kacen and Lee 2002).Impulsive consumption has been linked to a variety of psycho-logical “markers ” (e.g., lack of reflectiveness, spontaneity, lack ofpersistence) and general correlates (e.g., thrill-seeking, need forstimulation, low self esteem; Gerbing, Ahadi, and Patton 1987;O ’Guinn and Faber 1989; Weun, Jones, and Beatty 1998). Morerecently, research has explored the relation between culture orien-tation and impulsive consumption. Kacen and Lee (2002) providedcorrelational evidence of an interrelation between individualism –collectivism (and independent –interdependent self-construal), traitbuying impulsiveness, and impulse buying behavior. They rea-soned that consumers from individualistic societies may exhibitmore impulsive consumption than those from collectivistic societ-ies, not because of less impulse, but because collectivistic memberssuppress the impulse more than do individualistic members. Con-sistent with this hypothesis, they found that measures of traitimpulse buying were more predictive of actual impulse buyingbehavior for individualistic than for collectivistic societies.Although the results are correlational, and thus vulnerable toalternative explanations, they are also interesting and provocative,and have a number of implications. For one, they suggest that to theextent that the self is malleable (Mandel 2003; Markus and Kunda1986) and subject to situational changes (Trafimow, Triandis, andGoto 1991), then such situational changes in self-construal (inde-pendent vs. interdependent) should have corresponding influenceson impulsiveness. This possibility has the potential to reconcileconflicting findings on the relation between conformity (a valuethat correlates with self-construal) and certain impulsive behaviors(cf. O ’Guinn and Faber 1989; Rose, Bearden, and Teel 1992). Asecond implication is that, given cultural differences in self-construal(the chronically accessible self-construals of individuals fromindividualistic cultures tend to be independent, whereas the chroni-cally accessible self-construals of individuals from collectivisticcultures tend to be interdependent), cultures should differ on theextent to which they engage in particular impulsive consumptionbehaviors.Four studies are presented that test these possibilities. In twoof the studies we manipulated self-construal to determine its effecton state impulsiveness and attitudes toward engaging in a behavioroften linked to impulsive consumption (beer drinking). The focuson the particular behavior of beer drinking allowed us to then testour hypotheses of the link between self-construal and impulsiveconsumption at the societal level, using secondary data linkingcultural orientation and beer consumption. From the two experi-ments, we show that manipulations of self-construal influenceintention to engage in an impulsive behavior in predictable ways,and this influence is meditated by state impulsiveness. From the twosecondary data sources we show that cultural-level (country) mea-sures of self-construal influence beer consumption (Study 3) andsubcultural-level (U.S. states) measures of self-construal correlatewith problem beer consumption, such as teen drinking and adult binge drinking (Study 4). The convergence between individual level and cultural level of self-construal on beer consumption indicates the robustness of our theoretical framework.Study 1In Study 1, undergraduate business students were primed with either an independent or interdependent self-construal, after which,as ostensibly part of a second study, their attitudes toward drinking beer at that moment and their state level of impulsivity was measured. As expected, those primed with an independent self-construal had more positive beer-drinking attitudes than did those primed with an interdependent self-construal, and this relation was mediated by state impulsivity.Study 2In this study, we tested the extent to which the presence of peers influenced the self-construal —impulsiveness relation. Pub-lic versus private conditions has been shown to moderate the relation in a number of contexts, and the presence of peers has been shown to increase the urge to purchase under certain conditions. We expected that peer presence would increase the tendency toward impulsive consumption behavior for those with an independent self-construal (because it shows apparent condoning of the behav-ior). However, because those with an interdependent self-construal consider peer approval as a part of any behavioral judgment, we did not expect that peer presence would affect impulsive consumption tendencies for them.Undergraduate business students were primed with either an independent or interdependent self-construal, and then as ostensi-bly part of a second study, their attitudes toward beer consumption at that moment and their state level of impulsiveness were mea-sured. However, prior to providing their beer-drinking attitudes,half of the participants were told to imagine that they were going out with close friends to celebrate a friend ’s new job (peer presence)and half received no such instructions (no peer presence). As expected, independents expressed more positive beer-drinking attitudes than interdependents. However, this effect was qualified by an interaction with peer presence: The effect of self-construal was observed only for independents. In addition, mediation and mediated moderation analyses confirmed the mediating role of state impulsiveness.Study 3In Study 3, we sought to provide ecological validity for our findings by linking cultural level self-construal with impulsive consumption tendencies. Country-level data on per capita beer consumption was linked with scores on the Hofstede Cultural Dimensions of individualism/collectivism. The scores on the other cultural dimensions (power distance, masculinity, uncertainty avoid-ance) along with per capita income, life satisfaction, and religious orientation, were used as statistical controls. As expected, level of individualism was positively correlated with country-level beer consumption, even after controlling for the other possible influ-ences.Study 4Study 4 sought to extend the findings of Study 3 by looking at the relation between sub-cultural self-construal levels (individual-ism/collectivism) and problem alcohol consumption (teen alcoholAdvances in Consumer Research (Volume 35) / 645drinking, heavy teen drinking, and adult binge drinking. We linked data on individualism scores from U.S. states with those states per capita beer consumption. We also included data on other possible influences. As expected, state level of individualism was positively correlated with each of the problem alcohol consumption measures. ReferencesAaker, Jennifer L. and Angela Y. Lee (2001), “’I’ Seek Plea-sures and ‘We’ Avoid Pains: The Role of Self-regulatoryGoals in Information Processing and Persuasion,”Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 33-49.Acton, G. S. (2003), “Measurement of Impulsiveness in a Hierarchical Model of Personality Traits: Implications forSubstance Use,”Substance Use and Misuse, 38, 67-83. Agrawal, N. and D. Maheswaran. (2005), “The Effects of Self-construal and Commitment on Persuasion,”Journal ofConsumer Research, 31, 841-849.Briley, D. A. and J. L. Aaker (2006), “Bridging the Culture Chasm: Ensuring that Consumers are Healthy, Wealthy and Wise,”Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 25 (1), 53-66.Briley, Donnel A., Michael W. Morris, and Itamar Simonson (2000), “Reasons as Carriers of Culture: Dynamic VersusDispositional Models of Cultural Influence on DecisionMaking,”Journal of Consumer Research, 27 (2), 157-178. Chen, H., S. Ng, and A. Rao (2005), “Cultural Differences in Consumer Impatience,”Journal of Marketing Research,XLII, 291-301.Diener, E., and E. M. Suh (2003), “National Differences in Subjective Well-being,” In Daniel Kahneman, Ed Diener,and Norbert Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology, New York: Russell Sage.Gardner, Wendi L., Gabriel, S., & Lee, Angela Y. (1999), “’I’Value Freedom, but ‘We’ Value Relationships: Self-construal Priming Mirrors Cultural Differences in Judg-ment,”Psychological Science, 10, 321-326.Hamilton, R. W. and G. J. Biehal (2005), “Achieving Your Goals or Protecting Their Future? The Effect of Self-view on Goals and Choices,”Journal of Consumer Research, 32,277-283.Hofstede, Geert (2005), “Creating Cultural Competence,” / hofstede_dimensions.php. Kacen, Jackie and Julie A. Lee(2002), “The Influence of Culture on Consumer Impulsive Buying Behavior,”Journal ofConsumer Psychology, 12, 163-176.Lee, Angela.Y., Jennifer L. Aaker, and Wendi Gardner (2000),“The Pleasures and Pains of Distinct Self-construals: TheRole of Interdependence in Regulatory Focus,”Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 78, 1122-1134.Luo, Xueming (2005), “How Does Shopping With Others Influence Impulsive Purchasing?”Journal of ConsumerPsychology, 15, 288-294.Mandel, Naomi (2003), “Shifting Selves and Decision Making: The Effects of Self-construal Priming on Consumer Risk-taking,”Journal of Consumer Research, 30, 30-40. Markus, Hazel R. and S. Kitayama (1991), “Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion and Motivation,”Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.O’Guinn, Thomas C. and Ronald Faber (1989), “Compulsive Buying: A Phenomenological Exploration,”Journal ofConsumer Research, 16, 147-157.Oyserman, Daphne, H. M. Coon, and M. Kemmelmeier (2002),“Rethinking Individualism and Collectivism: Evaluation of Theoretical Assumptions and Meta-analyses,”Psychological Bulletin, 128, 3-72.Rook, Dennis W. and Robert J. Fisher (1995), “Normative Influences on Impulsive Buying Behavior,”Journal ofConsumer Research, 22, 305-313.Torelli, C. J. (2006), “Individuality or Conformity? The Effect of Independent and Interdependent Self-Concepts on PublicJudgments,”Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16, 240-248. Trafimow, David, Harry C. Triandis, and Sharon G. Goto (1991), “Some Tests of the Distinction Between the Private Self and the Collective Self,”Journal of Personality andSocial Psychology, 60, 649-655.Vandello, J., and Dov Cohen (1999), “Patterns of Individualism and Collectivism Across the United States,”Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 77, 279-292.Weber, E., A. Blais, and N. Betz (2002), “A Domain-Specific Risk-Attitude Scale: Measuring Risk Perceptions and RiskBehaviors,”Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 15,263-290.Weun, S, M. A. Jones, and S. E. Beatty (1998), “The Develop-ment and Validation of the Impulse Buying Tendency Scale,”Psychological Report, 82, 1123–1133.Williams, Patti, and Jennifer L. Aaker (2002), “Can Mixed Emotions Peacefully Coexist?”Journal of ConsumerResearch, 28, 636-649.Zhang, Yinlong, Lawrence Feick, and Lydia Price (2006), “The Impact of Self-construal on Aesthetic Preference betweenAngular Versus Rounded Shapes,”Personality and SocialPsychology Bulletin, 36, 794-805.。

低碳生活 英语作文

低碳生活 英语作文

Living a lowcarbon lifestyle is becoming increasingly important in our modern society,as it helps to reduce the negative impact of human activities on the environment. Here are some key points to consider when writing an essay on this topic:1.Definition of LowCarbon Living:Start by defining what a lowcarbon lifestyle entails. It involves making choices in daily life that reduce carbon emissions,such as using energyefficient appliances,reducing waste,and opting for public transportation.2.Importance of LowCarbon Living:Explain why living a lowcarbon lifestyle is crucial. This could include reducing greenhouse gas emissions,combating climate change,and preserving natural resources for future generations.3.Individual Actions:Discuss the small changes individuals can make to contribute to a lowcarbon lifestyle.This might include:Using public transportation,cycling,or walking instead of driving.Reducing energy consumption by turning off lights and electronics when not in use. Choosing to eat locally sourced,organic food to reduce the carbon footprint of food production and transportation.4.Technological Advancements:Mention how technology plays a role in promoting a lowcarbon lifestyle.This could involve the use of renewable energy sources like solar and wind power,as well as advancements in electric vehicles.ernment Policies and Initiatives:Discuss the role of governments in encouraging lowcarbon living.This can include implementing policies that promote renewable energy, providing incentives for energyefficient products,and investing in public transportation systems.munity and Corporate Responsibility:Highlight the part that communities and corporations play in supporting a lowcarbon lifestyle.This could involve community initiatives to plant trees,companies adopting sustainable practices,and corporate social responsibility programs that focus on environmental sustainability.7.Challenges and Solutions:Address the challenges faced in adopting a lowcarbon lifestyle,such as the high cost of renewable energy technologies or the lack of public transportation in some areas.Offer solutions to these challenges,like government subsidies for renewable energy or investment in infrastructure.8.Personal Experience:If relevant,include personal anecdotes or experiences that illustrate the benefits of living a lowcarbon lifestyle.This can make the essay moreengaging and relatable.9.Conclusion:Conclude by summarizing the main points and emphasizing the collective impact of individual actions on reducing carbon emissions and promoting a sustainable future.10.Call to Action:End with a call to action,encouraging readers to consider their own habits and make changes towards a more sustainable lifestyle.Remember to use clear and concise language,provide evidence or examples to support your points,and maintain a logical flow throughout the essay.。

高三英语经济贸易术语索引

高三英语经济贸易术语索引

高三英语经济贸易术语索引一、引言经济贸易是国际交流和合作的重要组成部分，在全球化的背景下，了解和掌握相关的术语不仅是学习英语的必备技能，也能够更好地理解和参与到国际经济贸易中。

本索引将为读者提供一个方便快捷的查询工具，涵盖了高三英语经济贸易课程中常用的术语和概念。

二、术语索引1. Balance of Trade（贸易收支平衡）- A country's exports minus its imports2. Barter（以物换物）- Exchange of goods or services without using money3. Capital（资本）- Money or assets used for investment or production4. Competition（竞争）- Rivalry between sellers or producers of a product or service5. Consumer Price Index（消费者物价指数）- A measure of the average change over time in the prices paid by urban consumers for a market basket of consumer goods and services6. Demand（需求）- The quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to buy at a given price7. Exchange Rate（汇率）- The value of one currency in relation to another8. Foreign Direct Investment（外商直接投资）- Investment made by a company or individual in one country in a business based in another country9. GDP (Gross Domestic Product)（国内生产总值）- The total value of all goods and services produced within a country in a given period10. Inflation（通货膨胀）- The rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising and, consequently, the purchasing power of currency is falling11. Imports（进口）- Goods or services bought from another country12. Market Economy（市场经济）- An economic system based on supply and demand with little or no government control13. Monopoly（垄断）- A market structure in which a single seller dominates a particular industry or market14. Outsourcing（外包）- A business practice in which a company hires another company or individual to perform tasks, handle operations, or provide services that were previously performed in-house15. Protectionism（保护主义）- The policy of protecting domestic industries from foreign competition by imposing tariffs, quotas, or other barriers on imports16. Recession（经济衰退）- A period of temporary economic decline during which trade and industrial activity are reduced17. Supply and Demand（供求关系）- The relationship between the quantity of a good or service that producers are willing to provide and the quantity that consumers are willing to buy18. Tariff（关税）- A tax or duty imposed on imported or exported goods19. Trade Agreement（贸易协议）- A legally binding agreement between two or more countries that sets out the terms and conditions for their trade relationship20. WTO (World Trade Organization)（世界贸易组织）- An international organization that oversees and regulates international trade between nations三、总结本索引列举了高三英语经济贸易课程中常用的术语和概念，希望能为您提供一个方便快捷的查询工具。

国际市场营销英语课后判断题

国际市场营销英语课后判断题

二、判断题Chapter one1. A marketing exchange cannot take place unless each party in the exchange has something that the other party values. T2.The owners of the Plane Rubber and Tire Company are pleased with their low unit costs and high production volumes. Salespeople are unnecessary because buyers are always waiting for new tires to come off the assembly line. Plane currently has a production orientation. T3.The president of Hoppity Flea Collars docs not find it necessary to conduct much marketing research because the telephone selling campaign has been such a successful marketing strategy. Hoppity has a marketing orientation. F4.Having a sales orientation is the same as having a market orientation since both have the ultimate goal of satisfying customer needs. F5.You are about to start manufacturing and selling ferret food. You have met with your board of directors and you all discussed the benefits and sacrifices regarding the purchase of your food. Knowing the ratio of benefits to sacrifices allows you to specify how much customer value you will achieve. F6.The marketing mix variables are product. place, promotion, and price. T7.Conceptually, international marketing differs from domestic marketing only by virtue of the fact that the marketer must operate in more than one nation. TChapter three1. Soft currencies can readily be exchanged for other currencies. while hard currencies are not so easily exchanged.F2. Foreign licensing grants foreign marketers the right to use a domestic company's trademark, patent, or process ina specified geographic area. T3. A multinational corporation is a firm that has entered the international marketplace by exporting its products to aforeign market. F4. Though the first multinational corporations were US based, today it is as likely for a multinational to be Japanese,German, or British as to be American. T5. If it is believed that tastes are sufficiently homogeneous in different parts of the world to allow a standardmarketing strategy everywhere, then a global marketing strategy is appropriate. T6. Use of a straight extension marketing strategy usually results in economies of scale in production and marketing.T7. In a countertrade, goods and services from one country are exchanged for goods and services from anotherinstead of for cash. T8. Some marketing exchanges are still characterized by transaction-based marketing, such as residential realestate sales. T9. Traditionally, manufacturers have focused their energies on making products and then promoting those productsto customers in hopes of selling enough of those products to cover costs and earn a profit. T10. Often, the desirability of partnering in the business market is based upon the fact that each firm brings to thepartnership something that the other needs but cannot provide. TChapter four1. US firms operating in the international marketplace are clearly affected by a legal environment including US laws,international laws, and laws of the host country. T2. Government regulations that tax or otherwise set limits on the number of goods and services by foreignproducers are known as trade barriers. F3. A free trade area extends a customs union by seeking to reconcile all government regulations affecting trade.F4. Trade officials are in full agreement as to the direction the WTO should follow in pursuing its major policyinitiatives. F5. Foreign licensing can build revenues without the capital outlay required for establishment of manufacturingfacilities in a foreign country. T6. The trend toward increased foreign ownership of assets in the United States will probably decline because of theincreased hostility toward and government regulation of foreign- owned businesses operating in the United States. F7. Income left over after an individual pays taxes and purchases the basic necessities of food, clothing and shelter iscalled disposable income. F8. A comprehensive spending pattern shows the percentages of annual family expenditures allotted to generalclasses of goods and services. T9. Import tariffs are the means by which a government controls the in-flow of foreign goods across its borders.T10. Although WTO is a global institutional proponent of free trade, it is not without critics. TChapter five1. Culture is learned behavior passed on from generation to generation, but it is not difficult for the inexperienced oruntrained outsider to fathom. F2. Equality, disadvantaged members of society, safety and health, education and general welfare, pollution aresocial responsibility issues related to community relations. F3. All marketing employees are responsible for setting the ethical tone for the entire marketing organization. F4. Green marketing refers to the development, pricing, promotion and distribution of products that do not harm theenvironment. T5. Water pollution, air pollution, land pollution, safety and health are social responsibility issues related to theenvironment, or green marketing. F6. The vital, critical skill of the global marketer is perception, or the ability to see what is so in a culture. T7. Gestures, carriage, proximity of speakers, eye contact, and smiling all play key roles in a culture's use oflanguage. T8. Every country and culture has a history that will greatly affect both the market and the marketer. T9. Being enthusiastic about a product and having a personal attachment to it are two similar things. F10. Although the hospitality and tourism industries are slightly affected by religious holidays, marketers withproducts related to those industries need to be highly sensitive to this issue. FChapter six1.Early marketing research was fairly sophisticated because statistical techniques were sufficiently refined toproduce high levels of accuracy in research findings. F2.In the event that a new competitor were to enter a market in which you were involved. one question marketingresearch might help answer for you would be “ What must w e do to differentiate our company from our competitor?”T3. A hypothesis is a statement about the relationship among variables that carries clear implications for testing therelationship. It sets the stage for more in-depth research by clarifying what researchers need to test. T4.Trade associations represent an excellent source of private data for particular industries. T5.Sampling is the process of selecting survey respondents or other research participants. Trmation related to global markets is not readily available to American firms seeking to enter foreign markets.The Department of Commerce has only recently begun to collect data to assist firms in this area. F7.Telephone interviews are a suitable method of collecting primary marketing research data all over the worldbecause the telephone is now the universal appliance found in every home. F8.An MIS is a planned, computer-based system designed to provide managers with a continual flow of informationrelevant to specific decision areas. T9.An MIS gathers data only from inside the organization and processes it to product relevant marketing information.Fputers have automated the buying process at large retailers, opening new channels for gathering marketinginformation. TChapter seven1. The target market for a product is the specific segment of consumers most likely to purchase a particular product.T2. The division of the total market into smaller, relatively homogeneous groups is called market selectivity. F3. The number and size of the market segments chosen by a firm must not exceed its marketing capabilities.T4. Marketers must identity segments sufficiently small enough to capture in their entirely and effectively promote toas an exclusive source of some needed product. F5. Marketers are often able to identify totally homogeneous markets segments；there are seldom majordifferences among the members of a target market group. F6. The information, analysis, and forecasts accumulated through the entire market segmentation decision processallow management to assess the potential for achieving company goals and to justify committing resources to develop one or more segments. T7. Using differentiated marketing, Culture's Edge can market a wide range of trips exploring ethnic, cultural, andlifestyle-based issues that together appeal to the majority of vacation travelers, yet sell them in such a way as to appeal to individual parts of that market. T8. Colorado River White Water Raft Tours may take your breath away, but they don't take American Express! Thisrepresents an attempt by Visa Card to position itself with to one of its competitors. T9. The firm's segmentation strategy may change as its product progresses through the stages of the life cycle.During the early stages, undifferentiated marketing might effectively support the firm's attempt to develop initial demand for the product. T10. Marketers can create a competitive positioning map from information solicited from competitors or from publicdatabases that track consumer attitudes, opinions, and interests. FChapter eight1. The principal disadvantage of licensing is that it can be a very limited form of participation. T2. Exporting is the most traditional and well-established form of operating internationally. T3. Licensing, joint ventures and importing are points and tools for global market entry and expansion. F4. Large-scale direct expansion may be less expensive and a major commitment of managerial time and energy isunnecessary. F5. Management contracting includes the sharing of risk and the ability to combine different value chain strengths.F6. One of the advantages of joint venture is better control of sales activities compared with other forms ofparticipation in foreign markets. F7. Licensing is an alternative entry and expansion strategy with considerable appeal. T8. Direct exporting lakes place through sales by foreign distributors, sales agents, and overseas subsidiaries. T9. As export merchants, they are essentially acting as domestic wholesalers operating in foreign markets throughtheir own sales agents or salesforce. T10. International trading companies tend to be large-scale manufacturers and merchants and they are involved inwholesale and retail distribution. TChapter nine1. The final step in the marketing control process is to compare actual performance and standards. F2. In a period of recovery, the best marketing strategy for Electrolux would he characterized by flexibility. F3. In the beer industry, a few large brewers supply the majority of the market. The brewing industry is an example ofthe competitive structure ： Monopolistic Competition. F4. Post Office Parcel Services firms would most likely have a monopoly for its competitive environment. F5. Essex Office Products has decided to use a particular competitive tool that it feels will have a major impact. Itsconsultant, Dr. Bell, contends that this particular approach is the one most easily copied by the firm's competitors.The tool in question is： market segmentation. F6. A small hardware store whose only competitor is a huge discount store would be least likely to use thecompetitive tool distribution. F7. Customer value analysis refers to analysis conducted to determine what benefits target customers value and howthey rate the relative value of various competitors’ offers. T8. Some basic competitive positioning strategies that companies can follow are：overall cost leadership,differentiation, and focus. T9. While trying to expand total market size, the leading firm must constantly protect its current business againstcompetitors’ attacks. T10. Competitor-centered company is a company whose moves are mainly based on competitors’actions andreactions; it spends most of its lime Cracking compelilors1 moves and market shares and trying to find strategies to counter them. TChapter ten1. Ford Motor Company’s marketing strategy in Europe reflects a company that saw Europe as distinctlyfragmented into narrow markets within their specific nation states. F2. The United States can be considered as a good example for regional economic integration. T3. Regional economic integration is the political and economic agreement among countries that give preference tomember countries to that agreement. T4. Global strategic partnerships will become less important in the Asia-Pacific regions. F5. The WTO allows a departure from its policy to grant the same favorable trade conditions to all WTO members inthe case of regional trade agreements ( RTAs ). T6. The goal of a free-trade area ( FTA ) is to abolish work permits among its members. F7. Collaborative agreements can be used to refer to linkages between companies to pursue a common goal. T8. Custom unions levy a common external tariff on goods being imported from nonmembers. T9. Changes in the political, economic, socio-cultural, and technological environments are leading to new strategiesin global competition. T10. Trade creation allows consumers access to more goods at lower prices and is considered a major benefit ofregional economic integration. TChapter eleven1. A company's research and development process is the only way for them to develop new products. F2. The step-by-step new product development process explained in the text has been used by so many companiesover so many years that it is almost failure-proof today. F3. The first full-scale working product from a concept is called a “prototype. “T4. When a product has been in the maturity stage of the product life cycle for a period of time, marketing managershave pretty well lost any control of the product to the competitive vagaries that characterize that stage. F 5. Brand equity is the added value a given brand name gives to a product beyond the functional benefits provided.F6. The marketing objective for a product in the introduction stage of the product life cycle (PLC ) is to promoteconsumer awareness and gain trial. T7. The goal of VCR manufacturers’advertisement is to maintain brand loyalty and market share; the productcategory is in the introduction stage of its product life cycle. F8. Products that are used directly in the production of a final product but are not easily identifiable are categorized ascomponent parts. T9. Machines and tools used in a production process but not as part of final products are classified as componentparts. F10. Routinely purchased items that do not become part of the final physical product and are treated like expenseitems rather than capital goods are classified as supplies and services. F11. A desirable feature for a brand name is it can be used as the general name for all products in the category.FChapter twelve1. Pricing and price competition is the number-one problem facing most marketing executives. T2. External environmental factors have the greatest effect on pricing decisions. F3. “ Forward buying” means that w holesalers stock up on far more merchandise than they can sell duringmanufacturers’ price promotions, and then resell to customers at higher prices after the promotion is over. T4. A firm’s total cost is made up of two components: direct costs and variable costs. F5. “Optional product pricing” is adding services to the base product to differentiate it from competitors and justifyhigher prices and margins. F6. The fact that prices are usually higher ( often substantially higher ) in foreign markets is called price escalation.T7. The Robinson-Patman Act seeks to prevent unfair price discrimination by ensuring that all members at a givenlevel in the channel of distribution are offered the same terms by the seller. TChapter thirteen1. A wholesaler is a marketing intermediary that takes title to the goods it sells and then distributes those goods toretailers, other distributors, and sometimes consumers. T2. A generalization that is usually true of marketing channel length is： The more standardized the product. theshorter the channel. F3. When Coca-Cola and Nestle formed a joint venture to market ready-to-drink coffee and tea worldwide, theyformed a horizontal marketing system. T4. The use of two or more marketing channels to reach the same target market is referred to as dual channeling.F5. Forcing a dealer to take the full line of products in order to get a strong brand is illegal. F6. Once a firm has defined its channel objectives, it should identify its channel alternatives, i. e. the types andnumber of intermediaries and the functions that each intermediary should perform. T7. Third party logistics basically means that firms outsource logistical tasks to independent providers who may adoptone or all of the functions required to get clients’products to market. T8. A direct-marketing channel consists of a manufacturer selling directly to the final customer. T9. Intensive is the type of distribution where there is the use of more than a few but less than all of the intermediarieswho are willing to carry a particular product. F10. When retailers develop private brands to compete with producers’ brands, the type of marketing channel conflictis vertical. TChapter fourteen1. A company's integrated marketing communications mix also goes by the name of promotional mix. T2. Contests, free samples, and coupons are examples of personal selling. F3. Non-personal communication channels carry messages without personal contact or feedback. T4. ACD Corporation sells technical products and its customers are concentrated in a small geographic area. Thecompany will use advertising the most. F5. Companies that use the affordable method base their promotion budget on a certain percentage of current orforecasted sales and / or a percentage of the sales price. F6. Mast larger companies combine push and pull strategies to move their products from the manufacturer to the finalconsumer. T7. When Gin Toy advertises a toy on Saturday-morning television and tells children to ask for the product at theirfavorite toy store, it is implementing a pull strategy in its promotion mix. T8. While the promotion mix is the company's primary communication process, the entire marketing mix must becoordinated for the greatest communication impact. T9. If a push policy is employed in promoting a product, the firm promotes only to the next institution down themarketing channel. T10. A television commercial demonstrating the versatility of the Mercedes sports utility vehicle would best beclassified as product advertising. T11. The main disadvantage with the percentage-of-sales method of setting advertising budgets is that it reversescause and effect. T12. An evaluation of media impact will help determine the media types to be used. T13. Marketers have found much success using standardized ads in their global advertising. FChapter sixteen1. The Matrix organizational structure uses teams whose members report to two or more managers. T2. Small and medium-sized firms most commonly use matrix organizational structure. F3. The process of creating an organization’s structure is called organizing. T4. A marketing control process provides feedback on how well a marketing strategy is working in the marketplace.T5. With regard to “marketing organization”, firms that focus their attention on developing a coordinated marketingmix for each brand are examples of matrix organizations. F6. The hard task of selecting an overall company strategy for long-run survival and growth is called marketingcontrol. F7. The marketing audit is a comprehensive, periodic examination of a company's environment, objectives,strategies, and activities to determine problem areas and opportunities. T8. A marketing audit is a control device used primarily by large corporations to study past performance. F9. Gabble’s Granola has set up a committee to formally study its current status and capabilities and its futureexpectations. Gabble's Granola is conducting a marketing audit. F10. A marketing audit should evaluate a company's whole marketing program on a regular basis. T11. A planning manager from corporate headquarters finds that his eastern region has no effective method ofallocating resources or evaluating goals and performance of the marketing organization. He suggests that the region should prepare a marketing audit. T12. A marketing audit should be conducted by the person who is most familiar with each of the firm's marketing plans.F13. A marketing audit should help determine if the company's marketing objectives are reasonable. TChapter seventeen1. E-marketing is a generic term used to describe all marketing channels facilitated by the Web. T2. One reason so many companies and government agencies are interested in the development of extensiveelectronic commerce is because of its potential to shift or eliminate costs. T3. Electronic commerce has become collaborative commerce. T4. China still takes the lead of the e-commerce both in technology and practices. F5. In the 1990s, the Chinese government enacted *'golden bridge”, "gold card" and "golden gate” projects topromote e-commerce. F6. Traditional marketing, from a communications standpoint, is primarily a one-way medium. TChapter eighteen1. Direct marketing involves one-way connections aimed at consumers. F2. Direct marketing is convenient, easy, and private. T3. Direct marketing is poor in building customer relationships. F4. Internet marketing has the advantage of reducing costs. T5. Direct marketing sales have grown at about 4% annually. F6. A customer mailing list and a customer database are the same. F7. Companies use their databases to identify prospects. T8. Telemarketing is the major direct marketing communication tool. T9. Direct mail marketing involves only selling catalogs to customers. F10. Three new forms of direct mail are fax, e-mail, and voice mail. T。