Integrating syllable boundary information into speech recognition

《英语语言学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语言能力.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语言的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重音），length （音程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）juncture（音渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类比造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes themessage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundAntonymy 反义Gradable antonymy 渐次对立关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components25. Sense relations between sentences1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不一致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction 自相矛盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by morethan one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。

Integrating Time Alignment and Self-Organizing Mapsfor Classifying CurvesElvira Romano and Germana ScepiDipartimento di Matematica e Statistica – Università “Federico II” di NapoliVia Cintia, Monte S. Angelo – 80126 NapoliKeywords: Classification, functional data, time series, dissimilarity.1.IntroductionClustering time series has become in recent years a topic of great interest in a wide range of fields. The several approaches differ mainly in their notion of similarity (for a review see Focardi, 2001). Most researches use the Euclidean distance or some variation of it because of its easy implementation, even if it is very sensitive to temporal axis alignment.Furthermore, there are many applications where it is demonstrated that the Euclidean distances between raw data fail to capture the notion of similarity. The principal reason why Euclidean distance may fail to produce an intuitively correct measure of similarity between two sequences is that it is very sensitive to small distortions in the time axis as, for example, in the case of two sequences having approximately the same overall shape but not aligned in time axis.A method that allows this elastic shifting of the X-axis is desired in order to detect similar shapes with different phases. For this purpose, the Dynamical Time Warping (DTW) distance has been recently introduced (Berndt, Clifford, 1994), technique that was already known in the speech processing community (Sakoe, Chiba, 1978; Rabiner, Juang, 1993).Nevertheless the DTW algorithm can produce incorrect results in presence of salient features or noise in the data and the algorithm’s time complexity causes a problem in a way that “…performance on very large databases may be a limitation”.Morlini et al. (2005) proposes a modification of this algorithm that considers a smoothed version of the data and demonstrate that their approach allows to obtain points which are less noisy and dependent on the overall shape of the series. The clustering algorithms proposed in this approach are hierarchical clustering and K-means algorithms.The current paper proposes a new approach based on the implementation of the DTW distance in a Self Organizing Map algorithm (Kohonen, 2001) with the aim of classifying a set of curves. To show the results of this approach, we illustrate an application of our method on simulated data; while in the extended paper version we will propose an application on topographic real data.2.A new approach for classifying curvesSuppose we have several time series. Let us consider, for example Q and C, two time series of length n and m respectively:Q = q 1,q 2,…,q i ,…,q nC = c 1,c 2,…,c j ,…,c mThe first step of our approach consists in smoothing each series by a piecewise linear or cubic spline. Therefore our starting data are a set of curves, in the example:Q ’ = ''''12,,...,,...,i n q q q q C ’ =''''12 ,,...,,...,j m c c c cTo align the two obtained sequences using DTW, we construct an n-by-m matrix where the (i th ,j th ) element of the matrix contains the Euclidean distance between thetwo points and .Each matrix element (i,j ) corresponds to the alignment between thepoints.''i j (,)d q c 'i q 'j c A warping path, W , is a contiguous set of matrix elements that defines a mapping between Q ’ and C ’. The k -th element of W is defined as w k = (i,j )k , so we have:12,,...,,..., max(,)-1k K W w w w w m n K m n =≤≤+The warping path is typically subjected to several constraints-Boundary conditions: w 1 = (1,1) and w K = (m ,n ). Simply stated, this requires the warping path to start and finish in diagonally opposite corner cells of the matrix.- Continuity: Given w k = (a ,b ) then w k-1 = (a’,b’), where a–a' ≤1 and b-b' ≤1. This restricts the allowable steps in the warping path to adjacent cells (including diagonally adjacent cells).- Monotonicity: Given w k = (a ,b ) then w k-1 = (a',b'), where a–a' ≥0 and b-b'≥ 0. This forces the points in W to be monotonically spaced in time.We are interested only in the path that minimizes the warping cost:DTWC(',')min Q C = (1)Therefore in our approach, the data are the smoothed values of sequences and the dissimilarity between two elements is the Dynamic Time Warping Cost (DTWC). The clustering method is based on an adaptation of the Kohonen’s SOM algorithm for dissimilarity data (Golli et al, 2004).The SOM algorithm consists of neurons organized on a regular low dimensional map. More formally, the map is described by a graph (N ,Γ). N is a set of interconnectedneurons having a discrete topology defined by Γ. For each pair of neurons on the map, the distance is defined as the shortest path between them on the graph. This distance imposes a neighbourhood relation between neurons.The Dissimilarity SOM algorithm (DSOM) is an adaptation of the Kohonen’s SOM algorithm for dissimilarity data. It is a batch iterative algorithm in which the whole data set (Ω) is initially presented on the map. We denote with z l (l=1,…,N) the generic element of Ω and z l is the representation of this element in representative space D on which dissimilarity (denoted d ) is defined.Each neuron x is represented by a set of M elements of Ω , m 1,…,m g ,…,m M , called prototypes, where m g is a vector of z l element.In DSOM the prototypes associated to neurons as well as the neighbourhood function are evolving with the iterations. It starts by an initialization phase, in which the value of M is randomly chosen.The algorithm alternates affectation phases and representation phases until convergence. In the first phase each initial observation is assigned to the winning prototype according to the following assignment function:()(arg min ,T l g M)l g f z d z ∈=m (2)where the adequacy function is:()()()2,,s r T T l g l s g r r M z m d z m K d ϑ∈∈=∑∑,z z (3)with (),T g r K ϑ is the neighbourhood kernel around the neuron r and ,l s z z are the representations of the elements in the space D .At the generic h -th iteration we assign an observation to the winning prototype with the (2) and define the cluster associated to this prototype at the iteration h . The main drawback of the DSOM algorithm is the cost induced by the representation phase. A fast version of the DSOM algorithm that allows a an important reduction of its theoretical cost has been proposed by Conan-Guez et al. (2005).In our approach we aim to classify a set of curves by using the described clustering algorithm and the DTWC. Therefore in our algorithm the smoothed time series are classified by substituting the distance d in (3) with the DTWC (1).This approach allows us to have an easy visualization of data and it is computationally more efficient of the classical clustering algorithms, it deals with time series drawn from large data sets. The visualization of time series is very important for the detection of their own characteristics and gives us some information for representing each class.3. Experimental ResultsFor a first evaluation of our approach, we propose a simulation study on a small data set of 130 time series. We have generated 130 time series (Fig.1) of length 100 and in particular i) 60 time series with increasing trend, ii) 30 time series with a seasonal component only and iii) 40 time series with decreasing trend .Fig.1 The simulated time seriesWithout warping, the k-means algorithm is not often able to distinguish class i) from class ii), with a general misclassification of 53%.We wrote a Matlab program for generating the time series, smoothing each series with a cubic spline and implementing the DTW algorithm. Finally, we clustered the series on the basis of the DTWC with the DSOM algorithm.We have repeated the simulation study 150 times with different values of the smoothing parameter λ ranging from 0.05 to 0.20.The results show that (Fig.2) only the 10% of time series are misclassified (for λ=0.1) and there are very few cases of confusion between class i) and class ii).Fig.2 The classification results with the smoothed time series4. ConclusionsIn this short version of the paper, we have introduced a new approach for clustering smoothed time series, based on the joint use of the Dynamic Time Warping distance and the Dissimilarity SOM algorithm.This algorithm seems particularly promising in data mining problems and it can be applied on not aligned time points with a good visualisation of results.The forthcoming paper includes a more detailed analysis of our approach and, in particular, an application on a large set of real data, which is needed to investigate the robustness of the proposed approach in presence of irregular sampled data. A comparison, on the same data, with the algorithm proposed by Morlini et al. (2005) will be performed.In the further researches we aim to define a non parametric model for characterizing each obtained cluster. In other words, we will search for each cluster of smoothed time series a non parametric function synthesizing its elements.Main ReferencesBerndt, D., Clifford, J. (1994). Using dynamic time warping to find patterns in time series AAI -94 Workshop on Knowledge Discovery in Databases,229–248.Conan-Guez B., Rossi F., Golli A.E. (2005). A Fast Algorithm for the Self-Organizing Map on Dissimilarity Data,WSOM’05 Proceedings.Focardi S.M. (2001). Clustering delle serie storiche economiche: applicazioni e questioni computazionali, Technical Report, Supercalcolo in Economia e in Finanza Milano. Golli A.E., Conan-Guez B, Rossi F. (2004). Self-organizing maps and symbolic data CLUEB, Journal of Symbolic Data Analysis, 2, n.1, ISSN 1723–5081.Kohonen T. (2001). Self-Organizing Maps, Springer Series in Information Sciences, Springer.Molini I. (2005). On the Dynamic Time Warping for Computing the Dissimilarity Between Curves, Vichi et al. eds., New Developments in Classification and Data Analysis, Proceedings of the Meeting of the Classification and Data Analysis Group, Università di Bologna, Settembre 2003.Rabiner, L., Juang, B. (1993). Fundamentals of speech recognition, Englewood Cliffs, N.J, Prentice Hall.Sakoe, H., Chiba, S. (1978). Dynamic programming algorithm optimization for spoken word recognition. IEEE Trans. Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing., Volume 26, pp 143-165.。

安徽大学本科教学课程教案
课程名称：英语语言学
代码：zh45006
开课单位：外语学院
授课教师：朱跃
职称/学位：教授/硕士
开课时间： 2008至2009学年第1学期
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第10 次课程教学方案。

Chapter 1: Introduction1.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The word “language” implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The word “study” does not mean “learn” but “investigation” or “examine”.“Scientific” refers to the way in which the language is studied.Based on systematic investigation of language data, the study is conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In studying language, the linguist first has to study language facts, then he formulates some hypotheses about language structure which have to be re-checked against the observed facts so as to prove their validity.The process of linguistic study:1)Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;2)Based on these generalization, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts;3)Hypotheses are tested by further observations;4) A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.1.1The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics –the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, methods applicable in any linguistic study.Phonetics – the study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication,Phonology – the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology – the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Syntax – the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.Semantics – the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context of use.Socio-linguistics – the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics – the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics – Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability. This study is called applied linguistics. In a narrow sense, it refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Anthropological / neurological / mathematical / computational linguistics1.2Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2.1Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern); if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive (traditional). (Question: how is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?)1.2.2Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.2.3Speech and writingAs two major media of communication, modern linguistics regards spoken form as primary, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.(Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of a language as primary?)1.2.4Langue and parole (语言和言语)The distinction was made by famous Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Both are French words.1)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity, and parole refers to realization of langue in actual use.2)Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow whileparole is their concrete use.3)Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events.4)Langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently; while parole varies from personto person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and linguists are supposed to abstract langue from parole.1.2.5Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)Similar to 1.3.4, American Noam Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky thinks that linguists should study competence but not performance.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker‟s competence, but not his performance. As one difference, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2.What is language2.1DefinitionsNowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Language is a system, as elements of language are combined according to rules;2)Arbitrary, as no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between sign and what itstands for.3)V ocal, as primary medium is sound for all languages.“Human”indicates the difference from the communication systems of other living creatures. “Communication”means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.2.2Design featuresRefer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.1)ArbitrarinessNo logical connection between meanings and sounds, symbols, words. Not entirely arbitrary, there are some words in every language that imitate natural sounds. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary. But this makes up only a small percentage.This nature is a sign of sophistication, which only human beings are capable of and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity3)DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds ad the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofunits of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionWe are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectal complementation.Chapter 2: Phonology1.The phonic medium of languageOf two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of informationconveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, andwriting is learned and taught later in school.This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages. Three branches: (the most important conclusion is that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.)1)Articulatory phoneticsHow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Longest established, highly developed.2)Auditory phoneticsHow the sounds are perceived by the hearer.3)Acoustic phoneticsStudies speech sounds by looking at the sound waves (recorder named spectrographs). It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through air from one person to another.2.2 Organs of speechThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities, where the air stream coming from the lungs may be modified by complete or partial interference. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉)before it reaches any of the cavities. They are:Pharyngeal cavity – the throatAir stream: lung →windpipe →glottis (vocal cord)Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants. Otherwise “voiceless”Oral cavity – the mouthThe greatest source of modification of the air stream. Tongue is the most flexible organ.Nasal cavity – the noseThe velum can be drawn back to close the passage of the air stream so that all air exiting from the lungs can only pass through the oral cavity. Produced are oral sounds. Otherwise, nasalized sounds such as three nasal consonants. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed.2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds – broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being at the end of 19th century. Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.The IPA provides a set of symbols called diacritics, which can be added to letter-symbols to make finer distinction than the letter-symbols alone. The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription, normally in dictionaries and textbooks. The other with diacritics is narrow transcription, used by phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2.4Classification of English speech soundsTwo broad categories –vowels and consonants, the basic difference is that in pronunciation of vowels, no air stream meets obstruction, while consonant, the air stream is obstructed somehow. (the basic difference between a vowel and consonant)2.4.1Classification of English consonantsTwo ways: manner of articulation(how obstruction is created): stops, fricatives (when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point), affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; and place of articulation (where): bilabial (the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction), labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal sounds. Each classification brought about certain phonetic features of consonants.2.4.2Classification of English vowelsV owels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth (front / central / back vowels), the openness of the mouth (close / semi-close / semi-open / open), the shape of the lips (rounded / unrounded), and the length of the vowels (with or without colon, the long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels). Monophthongs (individual vowels) and diphthongs. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.3.Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics (音系学和语音学)Phonetics is concerned with the description of all the speech sounds in language (the study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication), while phonology (the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication) is concerned with the study of the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, the conclusion about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning: some do, some don‟t. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones, which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. A different definition would be that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds, which in particular language do not stand in contrast with one another. Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimalelements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are language-specific, that what distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in another language, e.g. aspiration. (鼻音, refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds)Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonology is to find out these rules.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. Those two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution, which means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in different phonetic environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. The sound combinations (pill, bill, etc.) constitute a minimal set, in which they are identical in form except for initial consonant.3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, which is language-specific.3.4.2 Assimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caused by articulatory or physiological processes.3.4.3. Deletion rulesIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.3.5 Suprasegmental features – stress, tone, intonationRefers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.3.5.1 StressWord stress and sentence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a sentence.3.5.2 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. English is not a tone but intonation language. Chinese is a typical tone language.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four: the falling tone (indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement), the rising tone (question of what is said), the fall-rise tone (indicates an implied message), and the rise-fall tone, in which the first three are most frequently used.Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.Chapter 3: Morphology1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation.2.Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of languageThe meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemesMorphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.2.2.2 Bound morphemesMorphemes, which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.RootsWith clear definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.AffixesInflectional affixesManifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.Derivational affixesDerivation, derivative (the word formed). The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. Prefixes: usually modify the meaning of stem but do not change the part of speech(词类)of original word, except “be-” and “en(m)-”Suffixes: modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech: noun-forming, adjective-forming, adverb-forming, verb-forming.2.2.3 Morphological rulesWe must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.poundingRefers to combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compounds1)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen inbetween, or as two separate words.2)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part ofspeech of the second element.3)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.4)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.Chapter 4: Syntax1.Syntax as a system rulesAs a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances 言语that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.2.Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentenceA sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentenceConsists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.2.2.2 The coordinate sentenceContains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other.2.2.3 The complex sentenceContains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). 1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause; 2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called asubordinator(引导词), such as that, if, before; 3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence)2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentenceSentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP).2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3.Syntactic categoriesApart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3.1 Lexical categoriesCommonly known as parts of speech (词类). Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.3.2 Phrasal categoriesFour: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.4.Grammatical relationsThe structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)binational rules5.1 Phrase structural rulesThe combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.S →NP VP “()”means optionalNP →(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S)VP →V (NP) (PP) (S)AP →A (PP) (S)PP →P NP5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rulesCan generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length. “creative”5.3 X-bar theorya. X”b. X‟‟→ Spec X’X‟→ X complSpec X‟(specifier)X Complement(head)Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.6.Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).6.1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.6.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)6.3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)generateD-structure (deep structure)Movement RulestransformS-structure (Surface structure)A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.6.4 More α-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary.7.1 General principles of Universal GrammarOne general principle, or condition, is the Case Condition, which requires that a noun phrase has a Case and Case is assigned by V (verb) or P (preposition) to the object position, or by AUX (auxiliary) to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. When a noun phrase moves, it can move only to the position where it can be assigned Case, in order to satisfy condition of Case requirement.Another condition is the Adjacent Condition on Case assignment. This condition states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. It explains why no otherphrases category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. While strictly served in English well-formed sentences, it is not the case in some other languages.7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, e.g. a plus [+] or [-], which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, i.e. the Directionality parameter, which can account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese.Chapter 5: Semantics1.What is semantics?A study of meaning in language. Linguists cannot agree among themselves as to what meaning is. Philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the real word they refer to and in evaluating the conditions of truth and falsehood of such expressions. Psychologists focus their interest on understanding the human mind through language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theoryIt is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to his theory, the linguistic form of symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. The limitation: 1) applicable to nouns only; 2) within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist or abstract notions.2.2 The conceptualist viewIn the interpretation of meaning, a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind (no direct links). This theory avoids many of the problems the naming theory has met, but it also raises a completely new problem of its own: what is precisely the link between the symbol and the concept?Thought/Reference (refers to concept) :by Ogden and Richards。

Agreement: 主语和谓语在人称、数上的一致，关系代词与先行词的一致。

Ambiguity: 尽量不去使用可能引起歧义的词语或句子。

Brief: 文章"简为贵"，要抓住要点，简明扼要。

Coherence: 文理通顺，前后连贯。

Development: 主题的发挥应当充分、合理、正确。

Division: 词汇、句子、段落要分配使用得当，划分要清楚，避免使用重复字句和种子片段。

Figures: 正确合理使用各类修辞格式。

Inflated diction: 不使用做作的语言。

Key: 用适当的关键词突出主题，每段都应有主题句。

Logical: 内容要符合逻辑。

Message: 信息要新鲜、确实、可信。

Omit: 合理删除多余的不必要部分。

Proposition: 主张、观点、论述要清楚肯切、合情入理。

Punctuation: 正确适时使用标点符号。

Relevant: 文章一定要要题。

Sentence pattern: 句型要尽量多样化。

Strait: 开门见山，直来直去。

Style: 文体恰切，适合内容要求。

Tense: 动词时态要正确、一致、变化合理。

Theme: 选题得当，主题突出。

对比观点题型（1）要求论述两个对立的观点并给出自己的看法。

1．有一些人认为……2．另一些人认为……3．我的看法……The topic of ①________（主题）is becoming more and more popular recently. There are two sides of opinions of it. Some people say A is their favorite. They hold their view for the reason of ②________（支持A的理由一）What is more, ③________（理由二）. Moreover, ④________（理由三）.While others think that B is a better choice in the following three reasons. Firstly,________（支持B的理由一）. Secondly （besides）,⑥____________（理由二）. Thirdly （finally）,⑦____________（理由三）.From my point of view, I think ⑧________（我的观点）. The reason is that ⑨____________（原因）. As a matter of fact, there are some other reasons to explain my choice. For me, the former is surely a wise choice .（2）给出一个观点，要求考生反对这一观点Some people believe that ①________（观点一）. For example, they think ②________（举例说明）．And it will bring them ③________（为他们带来的好处）.In my opinion, I never think this reason can be the point. For one thing,④____（我不同意该看法的理由一）. For another thing, ⑤____（反对的理由之二）．Form all what I have said,I agree to the thought that ⑥____（我对文章所讨论主题的看法）．阐述主题题型要求从一句话或一个主题出发，按照提纲的要求进行论述．1．阐述名言或主题所蕴涵的意义．2．分析并举例使其更充实．The good old proverb ________（名言或谚语）reminds us that ________（释义）. Indeed, we can learn many things form it.First of all,________（理由一）. For example, ____________（举例说明）. Secondly,________（理由二）. Another case is that ________（举例说明）. Furthermore , ____________（理由三）．In my opinion, ________（我的观点）. In short, whatever you do, please remember the say____A. If you understand it and apply it to your study or work, you”ll necessarily benefit a lot from it.解决方法题型要求考生列举出解决问题的多种途径1．问题现状2．怎样解决（解决方案的优缺点）In recent days, we have to face I problem——A, which is becoming more and more serious. First, ________（说明Ａ的现状）．Second, ________（举例进一步说明现状）Confronted with A, we should take a series of effective measures to cope with the situation. For one thing, ________（解决方法一）. For another ________（解决方法二）. Finally, ________（解决方法三）.Personally, I believe that ________（我的解决方法）. Consequently, I’m confident that a bright future is awaiting us because ________（带来的好处）. 说明利弊题型这种题型往往要求先说明一下现状，再对比事物本身的利弊，有时也会单从一个角度（利或弊）出发，最后往往要求考生表明自己的态度（或对事物前景提出预测）1．说明事物现状2．事物本身的优缺点（或一方面）3．你对现状（或前景）的看法Nowadays many people prefer A because it has a significant role in our daily life. Generally, its advantages can be seen as follows. First ________（A的优点之一）. Besides ____________（A的优点之二）.But every coin has two sides. The negative aspects are also apparent. One of the important disadvantages is that ________（A的第一个缺点）．To make matters worse,____________（A的第二个缺点）．Through the above analysis, I believe that the positive aspects overweigh the negative ones. Therefore, I would like to ________（我的看法）．（From the comparison between these positive and negative effects of A, we should take it reasonably and do it according to the circumstances we are in. Only by this way, ________（对前景的预测）．议论文的框架（1）不同观点列举型（选择型）There is a widespread concern over the issue that __作文题目_____. But it is well known that the opinion concerning this hot topic varies from person to person. A majority of people think that _ 观点一________. In their views there are 2 factors contributing to this attitude as follows: in the first place, ___原因一_______.Furthermore, in the second place, ___原因二_____. So it goeswithout saying that ___观点一_____.People,however,differ in their opinions on this matter.Some people hold the idea that ___观点二_______. In their point of view, on the one hand，___原因一_______. On the other hand, ____原因二_____. Therefore, there is no doubt that ___观点二______.As far as I am concerned, I firmly support the view that __观点一或二______.It is not only because ________, but also because _________. The more _______, the more ________.（2）利弊型的议论文Nowadays, there is a widespread concern over （the issue that）___作文题目______. In fact, there are both advantages and disadvantages in __题目议题_____. Generally speaking, it is widely believed there are several positive aspects as follows. Firstly, ___优点一______. And secondly ___优点二_____.Just As a popular saying goes, "every coin has two sides", __讨论议题______ is no exception, and in another word, it still has negative aspects. To begin with, ___缺点一______. In addition, ____ 缺点二______.To sum up, we should try to bring the advantages of __讨论议题____ into full play, and reduce the disadvantages to the minimum at the same time. In that case, we will definitely make a better use of the ____讨论议题___.（3）答题性议论文Currently, there is a widespread concern over （the issue that）__作文题目_______ .It is really an important concern to every one of us. As a result, we must spare no efforts to take some measures to solve this problem.As we know that there are many steps which can be taken to undo this problem. First of all, __途径一______. In addition, another way contributing to success of the solving problem is ___途径二_____.Above all, to solve the problem of ___作文题目______, we should find a number of various ways. But as far as I am concerned, I would prefer to solve the problem in this way, that is to say, ____方法_____.（4）谚语警句性议论文It is well know to us that the proverb: " ___谚语_______" has a profound significance and value not only in our job but also in our study. It means ____谚语的含义_______. The saying can be illustrated through a series of examples as follows. （also theoretically ）A case in point is ___例子一______. Therefore, it is goes without saying that it is of great of importance to practice the proverb ____谚语_____.With the rapid development of science and technology in China, an increasing number of people come to realize that it is also of practical use to stick to the saying: ____谚语_____. The more we are aware of the significance of this famous saying, the more benefits we will get in our daily study and job.。

考研试题选编Exercises 1I Discussion questions.1. Would you say that language is arbitrary? What would language be like if it was not arbitrary?2. “Language is human-specific.” How would you interpret this statement?3. What are the differences between human language and animal communication systems in terms of displacement and cultural transmission?4. What are the basic functions of language and what are their aims? Can the sentence form always be a reliable guide to its use of a function?5. How is language defined? Do you agree with this definition?6. Why is it that language is still a mystery? What are the ideas and stories concerning the origin of language?II Complete the following passage with proper words or expressions.There are five major design features of human language.(1) is a system built on(2) relationships . It is structured into two(3) with each having complex structural arrangements. Language is creative or (4) . It is not (5) an immediate present context. Language is(6) transmitted.These features show that language is human-(7) .Only human beings are capable of possessing this(8) system. They also indicate that human language is(9) animal communication systems or other(10) of communication like(11) .Now with these features in the mind we can say that language is a system of(12) (13) symbols used for(14) (15) .This definition is well-made, for it captures all important aspects of(16) .Exercises 2I. Discussion questions.1. Why is it that a linguist is expected to have wide experience ofdifferent types of languages?2.What are the main branches of modern linguistics? And what are theinterdisciplinary studies of language?3.Which one do you prefer, descriptive linguistics or prescriptivelinguistics? Why?4.What is the difference between diachronic and synchronic linguistics?5.What are the features of American structuralism?6. How has the TG grammar developed?II Complete the following passage with proper words or expressions.It is not difficult to sense the complexity of language structure, but it is not so easy to say how many levels should be set up in order to explain the way this(1) is organized. Some simple models of language recognize only two basic levels: the set of physical(2) (sounds, letters, sings, words) contained in a language ,and the range of abstract meanings conveyed by these forms. More commonly, the notion of forms is sub-divided, to distinguish different kinds of abstractness. In speech, for example, the physical facts of pronunciation, as defined by the processes of articulation, acoustic transmission and audition, are considered to be the subject matter of(3) .The way different languages organize sounds to convey differences of meaning is the province of(4) . And the study of the way meaningful units are brought into sequence to convey wider and more varied patterns of meaning is the province of (5) .The term(6) is then used for the study of the patterns of meaning themselves.Four-level models of language (phonetics/phonology/grammar/semantics) are among the most widely used, but further divisions within and between these levels are often made. For example, within the level of grammar, it is common to recognize a distinction between(7) , the study of word structure and (8) , the study of word sequence within sentences. Within(9) , the study of vowels ,consonants , and syllables (segmental phonology) is usuallydistinguished from the study of prosody and other tones of voice(suprasegmental phonology).Within semantics ,the study of vocabulary (or lexicon) is sometimes taken separately from the study of larger patterns of meaning (under such headings as text or discourse). All of these are regularly referred to as(10) “” of structure. Exercises 3I. Discussion questions.1. What is phonetics? And what is articulatory phonetics?2. What are the places and manners of articulation?3. In what ways do vowels differ from each other?4.What is the difference between narrow transcription and broadtranscription?II. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions.1. voiceless alveolar plosive2. voiceless dental fricative3. voiced bilabial plosive4. voiced velar plosive5. tense front mid vowel6. lax high back vowel7. high front tense unrounded vowel8. high back tense vowelExercises 4I. Discussion questions.1. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?2. What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?3. Why do we say that /t/ and /d/ are different phonemes?4. What does complementary distribution mean?5. What is the importance of stress in English? Is “a ΄toy factory” different from “a toy ΄factory”? An d what is the difference?II. Account for sound changes in the following sentence and formulate rules for these changes.Betty laughed as she sat in the red plane.[΄bedi: ΄læftəЗ∫i΄sæt in ðə΄red΄plein]Exercises 5I. Discussion questions.1. What is the concern of morphology?2. What is the difference between free morphemes and bound morphemes?3. What is the difference between derivational morphemes andinflectional morphemes?4. Is it true that the meaning of a compound is always predictable fromthe parts it contains? Illustrate with examples.II. Complete the following passage with proper words or expressions.(1) words, as we have already noted, differ from (2) in that they are made up of free forms only: home-land, home-stead, and home-work. These are primary compounds: each consists of two simple (3) forms. Both components are substantives, the first determining and qualifying the second. This type of compound occurs in all lndo-European languages. In (4) it is certainly prolific: airman, beehive, bookcase, daybreak, flowerpot, landmark, lifeline, network, notebook, pathway, rainbow, seashore, snowflake, thunderbolt, vineyard, waterfall, and countless others. You will observe that the precise (5) between the two component substantives may vary considerably. An (6) is a man who flies in an aircraft, but a beehive is a hive in which bees are housed, and so on. The signification of a particular compound is arbitrary, determined by custom and use. Having once become settled in its use by the speech community, a newly-formed (7) henceforth functions as one morphological unit and it then acquires lexical status. Because in English the determinant (air) always (8) the determinatum (man), we may create reversible compounds in our language like boathouse “shed at the water‟s edge for storing (9)” and houseboat “boat adequately equipped for living in”; bookcase “case containing shelves for books” and case-book “book in which legal or medical cases are recorded”. In usingsuch compounds the speaker runs no risk of ambiguity because it is characteristic of the inherited structure of English that the (10) comes first.Exercises 6I. Discussion questions.1. What are syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations?2. What is the IC analysis? Can you describe the sentence “The tall menand women left “in terms of the analysis? What are the problems there?3. For each of the following sentences state as precisely as you can in what ways it is ambiguous:(1) She drew the boy with the chalk.(2) She hates Peter‟s painting.(3) Mary talked with students there.II. Draw tree diagrams to show the deep structure and the surface structure for each of the following sentences.1.What can the man eat?2.Why should Jane always cry?3.How did the student report the incident?III. Provide a derivation for the sentence “David loves Mary” within the minimalist framework.Exercises 7I. Discussion questions.1. Why is it that meaning is difficult to study?2. What is the semiotic triangle?3. How many kinds of meaning are there according to Leech?4. What are linguistic contexts?5. How do we usually discriminate synonyms?6. What is polysemy? And what is hyponymy?7. What is entailment? And what is presupposition?II. Analyze the following words in terms of componential analysis. father,mother,son,daughter,bakerilliterategetIII. Circle the two-place predicate in the following.forget, put, between, dog, learn, belowIV. Identify the presuppositions that lie behind each of the following utterances.1.Mary stopped drinking coffee.2.David regretted having told her the secret.3.Susan’s dog isn’t barking.Exercises 8I. Discussion questions.1. What is the difference between semantics and pragmatics?2. What is an illocutionary act? Illustrate.3. What is a conversational implicative?4. What is negative politeness? And positive politeness? Illustrate.II. Explain the following in terms of the CP or the PP.1.The lady is made of iron.2.A. What do you think of his lecture?B. Well, he looks smart in his suit.III. Read the following passage and fill in the blanks.The term implicature was proposed by the philosopher H.P.Grice.He suggests that when people converse with one another they acknowledge a kind of tacit agreement to cooperate conversationally towards mutual ends. This(1) he calls the COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE. When one abides by the(2) principle one agrees to act according to various rules, or rather(3) , as Grice calls them.One must tell the truth, and make remarks which are relevant tothe(4) , for example. Grice has suggested four conversational(5) .(i) The maxim of quantity.Give the required amount of(6) not too much or too little.(ii) The maxim of (7) .Do not say that for which you lack evidence or which you believe to be false.(iii) The maxim of relationMake your contributions relevant to the purpose in hand.(iv) The maxim of mannerAvoid obscurity, ambiguity and unnecessary prolixity, and be orderly. The important point about these(8) maxims is that unlike rules (e.g. grammatical rules) they are often violated. In this sense they are rhetorical principles. Sometimes the(9) may be clandestine, as when someone tells a lie and is not detected by the hearer; but more important, the maxims are also broken(10) , so that it is obvious to all of the participants in the(11) . When this happens the listener perceives the difference between what the speaker says and what he(12) by what he says, the particular meaning deduced for the latter being the implicature.Exercises 9I. Discussion questions.1. How is language and society related?2. How does language act upon society?3. How does society act upon language?4. What is a regional dialect?5. What are the major features of the English language used by womennative speakers?6. What is an idiolect? And a standard dialect?7. What is a lingua franca? And a pidgin?8. What is bilingualism? And diglossia?II. Below are some words used in British English for which different words are usually used in American English. See if you can find the American equivalents.(1) sweets (8) torch (15) label(2) pram (9) cellar (16) fireman(3) lorry (10)trousers (17) paraffin(4) maize (11) pail (18) time table(5) tin (12) biscuit (19) gym shoes(6) flat (13) underground (20)spirits(7) pavement (14) lift (21)waistcoatIII. Read the following passage and fill in the blanks.(1) there are differences between the sexes is hardly a matter of dispute. On the average, females have more fat and less muscle than(2) , are not as strong, and weigh less. They also mature more rapidly and(3)longer. The(4) voice usually has different characteristics from the malevoice and often females and males exhibit different ranges of verbal skills. However, we also know that many of the(5) may result from different socialization practices. For example, women may live longer than men because of the different (6) they play in society and the different jobs they tend to fill. Differences in(7) quality may be accentuated by beliefs about what men and women should sound like when they talk, and any differences in verbal skills may be explained in great part through differences in upbringing. (It has often been noted that there is far more reading failure in schools among boys than girls, but it does not follow from this fact that (8) are inherently less well equipped to learn to read, for their poor performance in comparison to girls may be socio-cultural in origin rather than genetic.)Numerous observers have described women‟s speech as being(9) from that of men. I should also observe that there is a bias here: men‟s speech usually provides the norm against which women‟s(10) is judged. We could just as well ask how men‟s speech differs from(11) of women, but investigators have not usually goneabout the task of looking at differences in that way. Any view too that (12) speech is trivial, gossip-laden, corrupt, illogical, idle, euphemistic, or deficient is highly suspect; nor is it necessarily more precise, cultivated, or stylish- or even less profane than(13) speech. Such judgments lack solid evidentiary support.Exercises 10I. Discussion questions.1. What is brain lateralization? And linguistic lateralization?2. What is Broca‟s area? And Wernicke‟s area?3. What is the critical period hypothesis?4. How is acquisition different from learning?5. What is negative transfer? And positive transfer?6. What is interlanguage? And fossilization?II. Read the following passage and fill in the blanks.Four major findings emerge from these studies on infants‟ responsiveness to affective vocal expressions. First, at the age of five months, when(1) are not yet showing consistent selective responsiveness to positive and negative facial expressions, infants do respond differentially to(2) and negative vocal expressions, suggesting that the(3) is more powerful than the face as a social signal in early infancy. Second, infants(4) with appropriate affect to positive and negative(5) expressions, smiling more to Approvals than to Prohibitions. Third, infants are more responsive to affective vocalizations in ID [infant-directed] speech than in AD [adult-directed] speech, suggesting that the exaggerated prosodic characteristics of(6) vocalizations to infants increase their salience as vocal signals. And finally, young infants are responsive to affective(7) spoken with infant-directed prosody even in(8) that they have never heard before, providing evidence for the functional equivalence of such ID vocalizations across cultures. These findings indicate that the melodies of mothers‟ speech are compellingauditory stimuli, which are particularly effective in eliciting emotion in preverbal(9) .The finding that American infants differentiate maternal vocalizations in some but not all languages suggests that cultural(10) in the nature and extent of emotional expressiveness may also have an early influence on infants‟ responsiveness to(11) signals. A process of early cultural “calibration” might account for these(12)differences. According to this explanation, infants in all cultures are initially(13) to the same(14) cues, that they find smooth, wide-ranging pitch contours of moderate loudness to be more pleasing, while they find low, narrow pitch contours that are short, staccato, and loud to be more aversive. However, cultural differences in display rules governing emotional expression may determine the levels and range of emotional intensity to which the (15) is routinely exposed and which the infant comes to expect in social interaction with adults.Exercises 11I. Discussion questions.1. What family does English belong to? Can you say anything moreabout this family?2. When did Old English begin and how did it start?3. What are the features of Middle English?4.What is the Great Vowel Shift?II. Read the passage and fill in the blanks.“Indo-European” is the name scholars have given to the(1) of languages that first spread throughout Europe and many parts of southern Asia, and which are now found, as a result of colonialism, in every part of the(2) . The parent(3) generally known as “Proto-Indo-European”, is thought to have been spoken before 3000 BC, and to have split up into different(4)during the subsequent millennium. The differences were well established between 2000 and 1000 BC, when the Greek, Anatolian, and Indo-Iranian languages are first attested.Archaeological evidence shows the existence of a semi-nomadic population living in the steppe region of southern Russia around 4000 BC, who began to spread into the Danube area of Europe and beyond from around 3500 BC. The people are(5) as the Kurgans, because of their burial practices (kurgan being the Russian for “burial mound”). Kurgan culture seems to have arrived in the Adriatic region before 2000 BC, and this coincides well with the kind of time-scale needed to produce large amounts of linguistic change. The ancestors of the(6) are not known, though there are several similarities between Proto-Indo-European and the Uralic family of(7) ,spoken further east, and these may well have had a common(8) several thousand years before.By comparing the similar vocabulary of the extant(9) languages, it is possible to draw some conclusions about the geographical origins and life-style of the people. For instance, many(10) words (such as “mother”, “husband”, “brother”) can be reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European. These include several words for “inlaws”, which seem to have been used solely with reference to the bride. Evidence of this kind suggests that it was the(11)who was given a position within the husband‟s family, rather than the other way round, and that the society must therefore have been patriarchal in character.The reconstructed (12) has words for horses, dogs, sheep, pigs, and other animals; there is a word for some kind of vehicle, and this (13) definitely had wheels; there are many words for parts of the body; there are several words relating to farming, and a few words (14) to tools and weapons; many abstract notions are attested, relating to such fields as law, religious belief and social status; numerals went to at least 100. Words relating to fauna and flora are of particular interest; for they can provide (15) as to the place of origin of the people. There are no words for …palm tree‟ or …vine‟, for example, which suggests, independently(16) any archaeological evidence, that the migrations did not begin in the Mediterranean area. But other clues often seem contradictory. The word for …beech tree‟ is widely attested, and, as this tree does not(17) in Asia, it has been suggested that theIndo-Europeans must have(18) in north-central Europe. On the other hand, there is little evidence of a common word for …oak‟, which is also a European tree, and if this word was not known to the (19) , the view is supported that their migration must have begun in Asia after all. Indo-European philology raises many fascinating (20) of this kind.Exercises 12I. Discussion questions.1. What is stylistics?2. How is the word style often used? Why does Buffoon say that thestyle is the man?3. What is sound symbolism?4. How is sight manipulated in poetry?5. How is formality differentiated according to Martin Joos? Do youthink it can always work?II. Read the following article written by H.G. Widdowson. What do you think of this kind of stylistic analysis of a poem? Can you appreciate his way of stylistic interpretation?Stopping by Woods on a Snowy EveningWhose woods these are I think I know.His house is in the village though;He will not see me stopping hereTo watch his woods fill up with snow.My little horse must think it queerTo stop without a farmhouse nearBetween the woods and frozen lakeThe darkest evening of the year.He gives his harness bells a shakeTo ask if there is some mistake.The only other sound‟s the sweepOf easy wind and downy flake.The woods are lovely, dark, and deep.But I have promises to keep,And miles to go before I sleep.And miles to go before I sleep.Perhaps the first thing that one notices, if one is looking at the language of the poem without troubling about what it is attempting to convey, is the preponderance of pronominal forms in the first verse. I occurs twice in the first line, and his occurs twice as well: once in line 2 and once in line 4. In addition, we have he and me occurring in line 3. There may, of course, be nothing in the least significant about these elementary observations, but we may take them as a beginning and see where they lead us.Let us now speculate that the third person is associated with the notion of possession, basing our speculation on the slender evidence of the double occurrence of his. With this in mind, the next thing we might notice is that the idea of possession is given prominence at the very beginning of the poem, in that the phrase Whose woods is placed in thematic position. That is to say, it has been moved from its normal place in the word-order of the sentence and put in initial position where it acquires the status of the theme of the sentence. This observation might lead us to surmise that the theme of the poem as a whole has something to do with possession as well as something to do with woods.We may now turn to consider the two occurrences of his. Its first occurrence is in the phrase his house, and its second in the phrase his woods. We notice that in each of their two appearances in the first verse, the wood, are represented as being possessed. Furthermore, since house and woods are both associated with his in the parallel phrases in which they occur, we might look into the possibility of their being represented as having some kind of semantic equivalence. Since his only occurs in the two phrases his house and his woods, there does seem to be an implication that houses and woods are conceived of as being the samekind of thing, and that the woods are possessed in the same way as the house is possessed.Let us explore this possibility further. The lexical item house may be distinguished from the lexical item wood in that its semantic specification in the code of the language would include the feature/+ artifact/, whereas the specification for wood would not. The two items are not therefore semantically equivalent in the language code. If they are to be taken as semantically equivalent in the context of this poem, either house must lose its feature/+ artifact or wood must acquire it. At this point, we might turn our attention to the rather striking verb fill up in line 4.Fill up would be specified in the code as being associated with artifacts rather than with natural objects. That is to say, we would normally think of glasses, bottles, petrol tanks as filling up, rather than woods. The oddity of the phrase: To watch his woods fill up with snow arises because wood does not have the features/+ artifact/ and / + receptacle/ as items like bottle and petrol tank do. It acquires these features in this context. Thus, of the two possibilities mentioned above, the evidence would seem to suggest that the woods are being represented as artifacts, and possessed in the same way as houses are possessed. Possession bestows right of ownership. We are perhaps now in a position to suggest why it is that the first thing which is expressed in the poem is a sense of trespass. The first verse expresses the poet‟s feeling that he has no right to stop because somebody else has already acquired total rights over the woods by virtue of possession. They have thereby become part of the human would of rights and obligations which the poet as a member of society is bound by, so that even to stop and look at the woods is to infringe some social law of private ownership.We may now turn to the second and third verse. Here, we notice, the woods are no longer represented as pieces of real estate: his woods and artifacts and items of rightful property become aspects of nature. But the theme of possession as being associated with human values and institutions is continued. The possessive, this time related to the first person, recurs in my little horse. The horse is shown to be very much a part of the world of human values. Not only is he possessed but he alsopossesses: his harness bells. Furthermore, whereas the item horse has in the code the feature /-human/, in the context of the poem it acquires the feature of humanness. The horse is represented as reacting like a human being; he does not understand why he should be made to stop where there is no human habitation, and where, therefore, there can be no justification for stopping in terms of any normal social requirement.The sound of the harness bells, which might be said to suggest the world of human affairs, is contrasted with the sound of the wind in verse 3. Whereas the sound of the bells is caused by a sense of human values, that of the wind represents a freedom from the constraints which such values impose; the wind is easy in the sense that term has in the expression “free and easy”. Furthermore, the fact that the two phrases easy wind and downy flake occur in combination and are structurally and rhythmically alike suggests that the adjectives are intended to be understood as referring to the same kind of quality. That is to say, the implication seems to be that it is of the nature of wind to be easy in the same way as it is of the nature of snowflakes to be downy: these are intrinsic properties in each case. We might say, then, that in the second and third verses, the woods, the wind and the falling snow are seen as symbolizing a natural freedom from constraint, a world apart from that which is circumscribed by a human system of rights and obligations.At the beginning of the last verse, the word woods appears again as the theme of the sentence in which it occurs. This time, however, it is both theme and subject in a simple attributive sentence. The effect of this is to provide the woods with an independent reality, having values which are not attached to them by virtue of being possessed, but which are intrinsic properties: just as the wind is naturally easy, so the woods are naturally lovely, dark, and deep. These qualities are contrasted with human values as the theme of possession is restated. Whereas, however, possession in the first verse is associated with rights, in the last verse it is associated with obligations. The use of the verb have is interesting here. As a lexical verb, have carries the meaning of possession, but as modal auxiliary (in expressions like I have to go, for example) it carries the meaning ofobligation. In the expression I have promises to keep, these two senses of have are compounded. This might be shown as follows:I have promisesI have promises to keep.I have to keep promisesOne might say that what is being suggested here is that the first person in the poem has promises in the same sense as the third person has woods, but the possession of promises does not bestow rights, it imposes obligations.Finally, we might notice that the connection between the first and second lines is elliptical and is open to two interpretations. The lines, are, I think, generally understood to mean something like the following:The woods are lovely, dark and deep but (I cannot stay to enjoy them any longer because) I have promises to keep.If, however, one takes it that the woods, together with the wind and the snow, represent a kind of elemental freedom from the kind of constraint which controls human lives, then one might think of these lines as having something like the following meaning:The woods are lovely, dark and deep (and represent as such a reality of elemental freedom) but (my reality must be that of social constraints and this is represented by he fact that) I have promises to keep.Only in sleep is there freedom from responsibility.From Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature。

英语词汇学复习的内容：一、考试题形式分为：Ⅰ.选择题(20分)：完全是考书中的理论与例子的结合,即知识点等。

1-9cahptersⅡ.填空（30分）：考定义概念。

1-10chaptersⅢ.（20分）习语英译汉：教材中汉语部分idioms: 习语的特点Ⅳ.(10分) 论述题：第三章为主Ⅴ. 树形图（依据上下义关系作图）(20分)：第二、六章二、教材内容简介三、复习内容Introduction 部分Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics. Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学e.g. wife 纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化是Narrowing or specialization第一章词的概述；1.识记：词的定义2.声音与意义3.声音与拼写4.词汇5.词汇的分类What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。

1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和-mentmisfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。