There are three major characteristics that a good teacher needs

英语词汇学作业答案1、American women were ________ the right to vote until 1920 after many years of hard struggle.1.A. ignored2.B. neglected3.C. denied4.D. refused2、The antonym of soft is in “a ________ voice”and in “a ________ cushion”.1.A. rough, hard2.B. rough, rough3.C. hard, rough4.D. hard, hard3、The figure of speech employed in “My father is a sanitary engineer”is _________.1.A. hyperbole2.B. euphemism3.C. litotes4.D. metonymy4、Mrs. Smith is afraid that she and her husband don’t see _________ on New Year Resolutions.1.A. face to face2.B. eye to eye3.C. back to back4.D. heart to heart5、Among the synonymous group, old man, daddy, dad, father and male parent, _______ would most probably used by a lawyer in the court.1.A. dad2.B. old man3.C. father4.D. male parent6、Our teacher is now not with us. Aha! When the ________ is away, the ________ will play.1.A. tiger, monkeys2.B. cat, mice3.C. hawk, birds4.D. old, young7、I could give an opinion ________, but I would rather think about it.1.A. off the sleeve2.B. off the cuffs3.C. off the cuff4.D. off the sleeves8、Choked traffic has been a(n) ________ to urban transportation system.1.A. archenemy2.B. primary enemy3.C. main enemy4.D. major enemy9、Which one of the following abbreviations means “and so on”? ________.1.A. i.e.2.B. e.g.3.C. etc.4.D. viz.10、“ex-”in ex-husband reads ________ and means _______.1.A. /iks/, “out”2.B. /iks/, “former”3.C. /eks/, “out”4.D. /eks/, “former”11、Our work calls for mutual support. We shouldn’t ________ each other's efforts.1.A. activate2.B. interact3.C. counteract4.D. active12、I am not sure whether I should fly to London or take the train. I’m really caught between two________.1.A. choices2.B. options3.C. alternatives4.D. stools13、Hey! Don’t sit there and count your ________. You need to work really hard.1.A. chicken2.B. chickens3.C. duck4.D. ducks14、The figure of speech employed in “The past isa bucket of ashes”is _________.1.A. metaphor2.B. euphemism3.C. irony4.D. litotes15、When the crowd saw the prize-fighter stretched out on the canvas, shouts and cheers ________ from it.1.A. broke up2.B. b roke forth3.C. broke through4.D. break upon16、persona non grata means ________.1.A. someone who is not acceptable or welcome2.B. someone who is slim3.C. someone who does not take the leading role4.D. someone who has graduated with no degree17、The figure of speech employed in “I haven’t seen you for ages”is ________.1.A. metaphor2.B. hyperbole3.C. irony4.D. metonymy18、Communication is the process of ________ a message from a source to an audience via a channel.1.A. transmitting2.B. submitting3.C. transforming4.D. switching19、Johnson had already ________ in an intimate book.1.A. thrown out the beans2.B. thrown out his beans3.C. spilled the beans4.D. spilled his beans20、Free medical treatment in this country covers sickness of mind as well as ________ sicknesses.1.A. normal2.B. ordinary3.C. average4.D. regular21、For an English word, the shift of stress mayindicate a change of part of speech; export is a perfect exampleT22、dies, died, dying, dead, etc. are different word forms of the same lexeme DIE.F23、The figurative use of words is an important cause for words to develop new meaningsT24、An idiom is semantically integrated, thus an idiom cannot be understood even if you know all its componentsF25、In the sentence, “More hands are needed on the farm”, metonymy is employedT26、air-conditioner is a word derived from adding -er to air-conditionF27、house is the superordinate of wall, roof, floor, etc.F28、According to cognitive semantics, our mind can be explored via the study of linguistic meanings T29、Word equivalents are a necessary part for lexicology and all phrases fall within the range of lexicologyT30、Compared with horse, gee-gee is stylistically more formal.F31、In standard AmE, the letter r is pronounced wherever it appears as in bar, board, park, etcT32、The most important role for derivation is word class transformation.T33、Lexical semantics is not only a subset of lexicology, but also a subset of semantics.T34、“sense”, as a term in semantics, denotes the relationship between words within language.T36、Celtic is a branch of the Indo-European Language Family.F37、de-urbanization is a word composed of 5 morphemes, all of which are bound onesF38、Human languages have originated from human’s natural cries for pain, anger and joy, etcF39、The word nice has gone through a semantic change called “generalizationF40、Answering the question “Will you marry me?”with “Yes, I will”, the speaker is using substitutionF35、Absolute synonyms are not easy to found in any language41、Define the following term and give examples when needed.lexemeLexeme is an abstract unit of meaning with all its grammatical inflectional endings wiped out. Most ofthe words listed in the dictionary are lexemes42、Define the following term and give examples when needed.grammarGrammar is a set of rules or regularities applied to form complex expressions via simpler ones. 43、Define the following term and give examples when needed.polysemyPolysemy refers to semantic phenomenon where a single word or phrase has several meanings. 44、Define the following term and give examples when needed.generalizationGeneralization refers to the extension of the word range, or the widening of the semantic scope. 45、Define the following term and give examples when needed.context of situationContext of situation refers to the immediate environment of the text.46、Define the following term and give examples when needed.function wordA function word is a word that contributes to the major structure of a sentence. It belongs to the close-class elements of the vocabulary of a given language in the sense that their numbers is small and fixed.47、Define the following term and give examples when needed.clippingClippings are forms abbreviated from larger words but share a common function with words they areclipped from.48、Define the following term and give examples when needed.affixAn affix is the morpheme added to a root and contributes to the meaning of a word as a whole.Forexample,"dis-" in "dishonest" is an affix.49、Answer the following question with appropriate illustration.What are the characteristics of native element in English vocabulary?The following are the 7 general characteristics of native (Aglo-Saxon) elements:1. All-national character. Native element is shared by all the native speakers, regardless of whether he is a king under the crown, a fisherman on the sea or a vagrant on the street.2. Monosyllabicity. Most of the native element in Modem English has only one syllable. e.g. sun, cow, go, run, etc.3. Productivity. Most of the native elements are monosyllabic or root words and are semantically basic. Thus, they are productive in the sense that clusters of words are derived or compounded from them. For example, the word hand, has brought such derivatives and compounds as handy, handle, handkerchief, handiwork, handicraft, handful, handbook, handbarrow, handcuff, etc.4. Collocational extensiveness. The native element has a wide range of collocation. Many native words enter quite a number of expressions, idioms, phrases and proverbial sayings. For example, the word heel is found in the following units: Achilles’ heel (a vulnerable point), heel over head or head over heels (upside down), cool one’s he els (be kept waiting), show a clean pair of heels, take to one’s heels (run away), turn on one’s heels (turn sharply round), etc.5. Semantic polysemy. The native words are highly polysemic because they have gonethrough semantic changes due to their frequent use in daily life. For example, the verb tell conveys the following meanings: make known, express, explain, utter, confide in order, distinguish, count, reveal, scold, etc.6. High-frequency value. The native element forms the bulk of the most frequent elements used in any style of speech. Every writer uses considerably more native words than borrowed ones. Corpus investigations show that about 90 percent of the words in Shakespeare’s works and 94 percent of words in King James Bible are native words.7. Stylistic neutrality. Most native words are stylistically neutral and are equally fit to be used in a lecture, a poem, or when speaking to a child. This can be observed by a simple comparison, for example begin (neutral) vs. commence (formal).50、Answer the following question with appropriate illustration.What is the context and its role in shaping word meaning?Word meaning is sensitive to context, speakers and hearers usually rely heavily on context in constructing and interpreting word meaning. Contextual information can exert two major effects. More specifically, it influences the interpretation of a word, on the one hand, and speeds up lexical access, on the other. In most cases, the contextual aspect plays a crucial role in recognizing the specific meaning of a word.1. Context has the crucial role to resolve ambiguity.e.g. Please give me a hamburger, a cup of cola, and some chips.[a small piece of wood, the potato chip, or electronic circuit]I saw a tattoo of dragon on the back of that naked young guy,The big John has been accustomed to the constant tattoos,Hearing the sound of tattoo, soldiers returned to the quarter as quickly as possible.[tattoo1 a signal sounded on a drum or bugle to summon soldiers or sailors to their quarters at night;tattoo2 a display of military exercises offered as evening entertainment;tattoo3 a design that is drawn on someone’s skin using needles to make little holes and filling them with colored dye.]2. Context gives rise to the joking effect of puns.e.g. A: Why can’t a bicycle stand on its own?B: Because it is two-tired.[a thick piece of rubber of vehicles, to having used a lot of energy and wanting a rest]3. Context is beneficial to the understanding of deixis.There are three major kinds of deixis, that is, person deixis (I, you, we), spatial deixis (here, there), and temporal deixis (now, yesterday).e.g. I didn’t see her yesterday. It only with the contextual information can the reader know whom the personal deixis her refers to. And the same is the case with the deixises in the following example:Only contextual information can provides clues to the understanding of I, her and yesterday.51、Translate the following into Chinese and pay special attention to the bold typed part.His behavior means that you should stay a bit longer他的行为表明，你得再呆一段时间。

阅读理解there are three kinds of goalsGoals are essential to success in life. Whether personal or professional, they serve as a focal point for our actions and provide a measure of direction and motivation. There are three kinds of goals that we can identify, each with its own unique characteristics and impact on our lives.The first type of goal is the aspirational goal. These are lofty ideals that we strive to achieve, often based on our own personal values and beliefs. Aspirational goals are usually long-term in nature, and they require a commitment of time, energy, and resources to realize. They provide a sense of purpose and direction, encouraging us to push beyond our limitations and achieve something greater than ourselves.The second type of goal is the practical goal. These are objectives that are based on the realities of our current situation and the needs of our environment. They are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Practical goals are designed to beattainable within a given timeframe and are tailored to meet the challenges of the present. They are rooted in reality and serve as a catalyst for progress and improvement.The third type of goal is the emergency goal. These are goals that arise unexpectedly due to unforeseen circumstances or events outside of our control. They may be urgent or require immediate action, but they do not necessarily have to be SMART or aligned with our long-term objectives. Emergency goals require flexibility and adaptability, as they may require us to shift our focus temporarily or take short-term actions that are not always optimal.Each of these three types of goals has its unique role to play in our lives and success. Achieving ouraspirational goals provides fulfillment and satisfaction, while achieving our practical goals serves to improve our current situation and prepare us for future challenges. And while emergency goals may be challenging to manage, theycan provide opportunities for growth and learning in unexpected ways.总结起来，三种目标各有其特点，对成功的影响也各不相同。

NTC thermistors for inrush current limiting SummaryNTC thermistors for inrush current limiting, as all NTCs, are made of polycrystalline mixed oxide ceramics. They suppress high inrush current surges, which occur when, for example, low impedance smoothing capacitors are charged.Why inrush current limiting?In many items of electrical equipment, switched mode power supplies, motors, transformers or amplifiers etc., high inrush currents occur, when the devices are turned on. These can damage individual components or entire assemblies or blow fuses in error. Such high currents are caused by extremely low impedance of smoothing capacitors or coils which produce nearly short circuits at the moment of switching on. However, if NTC thermistors are used as inrush current limiters, this problem can be solved without elaborate circuitry at low cost.What is a NTC thermistor ?Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors are resistors whose resistance falls as temperature rises (Fig.1). NTC thermistors are made from different metal oxides, which are combined into a powdery mass and mixed with a plastic binding agent. In the production of inrush current limiters, the mass is pressed into discs under high pressure. Polycrystalline NTC thermistor bodies are formed by subsequent sintering of these blanks at temperatures between 1000 and 1400°C. Asilver paste is baked onto them as metallization on both sides. The discs are then leaded and sealed in varnish.Fig.1R/T characteristics(parameter :B value) APPLICATIONS:•Switched Mode Power Supplies • Motors• Transformers• Amplifiers• Monitors• Colour Televisions ADVANTAGES:•Minimise line-current distortion and radio noise•Protect switches, rectifier diodes and smoothing capacitors againstpremature failures•Prevent fuse from blowing in errorHow does the protection work ?In cold state, i.e. at room temperature, the high initial resistance of the inrush current limiter effectively absorbs the power of peak inrush currents (Fig.3). As a result of the current load and subsequent warming, the resistance of the inrush current limiter then drops by a factor > 30 - 50 to a resistance that is a few percent of thatat room temperature. Thus, in continuous operation, the power consumption of the inrush current limiters is negligible – an outstanding advantage of NTC thermistors over fixed resistors.NTC may be used in switched mode power supplies on the AC or DC side in the circuit (Fig.2).Fig.2 Possible locations of NTC for inrush current limitingResuming operation after cooling downAfter a load has been switched off, the NTC thermistor must be allowed to cool down to room temperature if its capacity for inrush current limiting is to be fully used. This can take 30 seconds to two minutes depending on the disc size. In the case of switched mode power supplies, these cooling times are often only minor consideration, because electrolytic capacitors in the circuit usually take longer to discharge fully. Therefore the NTC thermistor will be cool enough to resume operation in case of short term turning on again.Selection of inrush current limiter NTCThere are three major criteria for selecting the best inrush current limiter for an application:•rated resistance (R25)•maximum permissible continuous current under rated operating conditions(I max , DC or rms values for AC)•maximum capacitance C T to be switchedRated resistance is a measure of the damping of inrush current. Under rated operating conditions after stabilisation, the maximum continuous current must under no circumstances be exceeded. Otherwise the component can be both, thermally and electrically overloaded, and thus destroyed.The test method shown in Fig.4 is used to gain an indication of pulse strength. Here a capacitor C T discharges across a series resistor R S and a NTC thermistor. The charge voltage V C is chosen so that the voltage V NTC applied to the thermistor at the beginning of discharge is 345V, corresponding to (230V + ©V) x 2.The capacitance C T indicates the energy absorption capacity and thus the pulse strength of the NTC thermistorFig.3Typical current characteristic in load after turning onThe maximum capacitance to be switched presents a criterion for comparing the level and duration of the current pulse at the moment of switching on at which the inrush current limiter can be loaded without sustaining damage.Stating the capacitance C T helps to scale an NTC thermistor for optimum cost and geometry (space requirement) but different values for C T can only be compared if equivalent test methods are used to determine them. (s.Fig.4)A particular rated resistance R 25 can be implemented in discs of different sizes. This means that for the same value of R 25, different figures can be obtained for continuous load and pulse strength. So, by referring to test patterns, the user can decide which inrush current limiter is best suited to theapplication. As a rule of thumb, the larger the diameter of the NTC thermistor, the higher the current in continuous operation. This also applies to energy absorption capability and pulse strength at the moment of switching on.Load deratingThe max. continuous current rating (100% = I/I max ) is specified for EPCOS inrush current limiters at 0°C ~65°C.(The only exception is the S237 series, which is specified with 100% current rating at 0°C~25°C) Therefore derating is only necessary at temperatures above 65°C (S237 above 25°C). In many applications the temperature in the casing of the device is below 65°C.Inrush current Without NTCInrush current With NTCxy(example)type R 25I max S235/5,0/M 5,04,2S235/6,0/M 6,04,0S235/8,0/M8,03,5x Reduction rate of inrush current determines the R 25-value.y The operating current determines the I max -value.S23725650-25170T AI/I max S153...S4641NTC resistance at the continuous currentThe effective resistance in the usual current change can be approximated as follows:R NTC = k x I n[Ω]0.3 x I max < I ^ I max R NTCresistance value to be determined at current Ik,n fit parameter, see individual data sheet of inrush current limiter Icontinuous current flowing through the NTCThe continuous current I in the application should be between 30% and 100% of the specified max.continuous current I max .The calculated values only serve as an estimate for operation in still air at an ambient temperature of 25°C. With the equation above sufficiently accurate results are obtained for the limited current range stated above.Precautionsc For inrush current limiting the NTC must be connected in series with the load circuit. Severalinrush current limiters can also be connected in series for higher damping. Inrush current limiters must not be connected in parallel.If connected in parallel, the NTC thermistor with the smallest rated resistance consumes almost the entire current in the circuit, and the resulting overload could destroy the component.c In general inrush current limiters require time to get back to cold state, in which they can provideadequate inrush current limiting due to their high resistance. The cooling down time depends on ambient conditions.c It should be considered that the surrounding area of an NTC may become quite hot.Features of EPCOS inrush current limiters Quality:Extensive quality assurance systems guarantees a consistent high standard of quality. Siemens Matsushita Components manufactures NTC thermistors at the plant for ceramic components in Deutschlandsberg,Austria, which complies to requirements of QS 9000. Production is monitored by statistical process control methods. The electrical and mechanical parameters of the NTC thermistors are checked at the end of each step inproduction as part of a comprehensive quality assurance procedure. Special methods of aging are also applied to ensure high stability of electrical characteristics.Reliability:Reliability data for inrush current limiters are proved in accordance with IEC 68-2-2, 68-2-3and 68-2-14. Tests are conducted under cyclic and continuous (1000 h) maximum loads The currents during turn-on are much higher than the rated currents during continuous operation. The pulse strength of an NTC is also evaluated. To test the effects of these current surges EPCOS uses the standard procedure.(Fig.4)Fig.4Test circuit for evaluating the pulse strengthFEATURES:• QS9000 certified• UL Approval (E69802)• High reliability (IEC 68-2-2, 68-2-3, 68-2-14proved)• Wide products range • R-tolerance ±10% possible• High energy absorption capability at themoment of turning on• Lower power loss during the normal operation • Different lead configurations availableV C : Chargevoltage in VC T : Testcapacitance in µF R S : Seriesresistance =1 V NTC : Voltage onNTC in V T S : Thyristorswitch S: Switch forcharging test capacitorWide range of EPCOS NTC for inrush current limitingA wide range of EPCOS NTC for inrush current limiting in different styles and with different resistance permits optimum matching to the most varied applications. This wide range of EPCOS NTC for inrush current limiting extends from the S153, the smallest model with a diameter of 8.5mm for a maximum continuous power rating of 1.4W, up to the S464 with a diameter of 26mm for a maximum continuous power rating of 6.7W. Resistance range covers from 1 to 80 Ω. Maximum permissible continuous current extends from I rms of 1.3A (S153) up to that of 20A (S464).TypeR 25[Ω]I max [A]B-Value [K]P max [W]/th [mW/K]Head diameter [mm]S 153 4.7-33 1.3 - 32800-3000 1.488.5S 2355-10 3 - 4.22800-2900 1.899.5S 236 2.5 - 80 1.6 - 5.52600-3300 2.11011.5S 237 1 - 60 2.0 - 9.02600-4000 3.61715S 238 2.5 - 22.0 4.0 - 8.42800-3265 3.92016S 364 1 - 107.5 – 162800-3300 5.12121S 4641 - 108 – 202800-33006.72626Table 1: Main parameters of EPCOS NTC for inrush current limitingR 25 : NTC resistance at 25°CI max : maximum permissible continuous current (DC or rms values for AC)P max : maximum power rating at 25°C /th :Dissipation factorDiagram 1:Selection criteria for the inrush current limiter :resistance at 25°C and rated current1,010,0100,00,05,010,015,020,025,0S153S235S236S237S238S364S464I max [A]R 25 [»]。

The traditional Subject-Predicate distinction may over-lap with that between the Theme-Rheme,but they are not always the same.Look at the following examples:a) Jane stands on the table.Subject PredicateTheme Rhemeb)On the table stands Jane.Predicate SubjectTheme RhemeAnother verson of the same analysis is carried out in terms of Communicative Dynasmism ,CD for short,proposed by Firbas.By CD, Firbas means the extent to which the senence element contributes to the development of the communication.Firbas defined FSP as the distribution of various degrees of CD.In his view,the initial elements of a sequence carry the lowest degree of CD and with each step forward,the degree of CD becomes incremental till the element that carries the highest.传统语法中主语----谓语的区别可能和主位----述位重叠，但他们并不总是一致的。

看下面的例子：a) 简站在桌子上。

主语谓语主位述位b)桌子上站着简。

英语1.What are the characteristwhat are the characteristics(profile)of a successful teacher?There are three major characteristics that a good teacher needs:(1)good interpersonal relations;(2)be able to relate to students'needs;(3)professionalism.A good teacher will promote good relationships among the students by encouraging collaboration and sharing.S/he will have good rapport with the students which means knowing their names,being attentive and responsive to all students and setting boundaries for appropriate behaviors.A good teacher is enthusiastic about his/her job and goes about it in a dynamic,confident manner.S/he must also be able to work well with other teachers,supervisors and administrators.The teacher will need to adapt the teaching to the learning style of the student.What is the role of the teacher in the classroom?Teachers play vital roles in the lives of the students in their classrooms.Teachers are best known for the role ofeducating the students that are placed in their care.Beyond that,teachers serve many other roles in the classroom.Teachers set the tone of their classrooms,build a warm environment,mentor and nurture students,become role models,and listen and look for signs of trouble.What is the profile of a successful student?I’d say there are certain characteristics that typically define the best students.They’re usually serious and meticulous,organized and plan ahead.They also have a balanced,diverse,and vibrant lifestyle:they study hard,but they also exercise,get fresh air,socialize with friends,converse with parents,and do what they love.And they get up early,eat three meals a day,and sleep well.In class,they listen carefully,and they ask questions.This is all obviously good stuff,but I’d say the three most important characteristics are self-control/discipline,focus,and patience–the best students place long-term goals over instant gratification.These three characteristics don’t just define a successful student–they also define a successful person.what is the role of the student in the classroom?Students who are engaged and have an active role in the classroom will have greater success as they move into post-secondary education.Institutional policies and practices must be oriented toward developing a climate in which students'responsibility and active participation in their own"If you place the student in a central role within the classroom,you must set the stage for her by clearly outlining your expectations.Students who are engaged learners are responsible for their own learning.These students are identified as those who are self-regulated and who define their own learning goals,displaying the ability to evaluate their own achievements and challenges.Students should be encouraged to take an active role in the classroom so that they are engaging in learning at all of these levels,gaining the expertise on topics to discuss with others and teach others to maximize retention and understanding.。

More Readings in Views on LearnersLecture five: Individual differences in L2 acquisitionIn this section, we will see how differences among learners may lead to differences in their learning success.It is believed that learners with certain characteristics vary in their success in learning a foreign language.For example,many teachers are convinced that extroverted learners who interact without inhibition in their target language and find many opportunities to practice language skills will be the most successful learners. In addition to personality characteristics,other factors generally considered to be relevant to foreign language learning are intelligence, aptitude, strategies, motivation, attitudes, and ages. All of these characteristics can be classified into three categories: cognitive, affective, and biological factors. In this section we will briefly discuss these factors respectively.5.1 Cognitive FactorsCognitively, different learners show individual differences in types of learning, strategies of learning and styles of learning. Therefore, it is the task of the foreign language teaching theory to discuss the cognitive aspects of language learners, because an awareness of these factors will help the teachers to better understand some of the successful and unsuccessful cognitive learning patterns of the learners. Cognitive factors that affect FL learning include intelligence, aptitude, strategies and styles of learning.1) IntelligenceThe term ‘intelligence’ has traditionally used to refer to performance on certain kinds of tests. These tests are often associated with success in school, and a link between intelligence and second language learning has sometimes been reported. Over the years, many studies using a variety of intelligence (IQ) tests and different methods of assessing language learning have found that IQ scores were a good means of predicting how successful a learner would be. Some recent studies have shown that these measures of intelligence may be more strongly related to certain kinds of foreign language abilities than to others,namely,it may be related to reading, grammar and vocabulary,but it may be unrelated to speaking or writing. This suggests that while intelligence, especially as measured by verbal IQ tests, may be a strong factor in language analysis and rule learning, it may play a less important role in classrooms where the instruction focuses more on communication and interaction.2) AptitudeAptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a foreign language. It is evident that some individuals have an exceptional aptitude for language learning. Learning quickly is the distinguishing feature of aptitude. Researchers have developed various aptitude tests to predict whether individuals will be efficient learners of a foreign language in a classroom setting. The most widely used aptitude tests are the Modern Language Aptitude Test and Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery. Both testsare based on the view that aptitude is composed of different types of abilities: (i) the ability to identify and memorize new sounds; (ii) the ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences; (iii) the ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples; (iv) memory for new words. While earlier research revealed a substantial relationship between performance on the MLAT/PLAB and performance in foreign language learning, these studies wee conducted at a time when foreign language teaching was based on Grammar-translation or Audio-lingual Methods. With the adoption of a more communicative approach to teaching, many teachers and researchers came to see aptitude as irrelevant to the process of language acquisition.3) Learning StrategiesOne interesting theme in the studies of FL learning is the good language learner strategies. Strategy refers to the specific way that one employs to solve a given problem.In the field of FL teaching,there are three major types of strategy: communicative strategy, learning strategy and social strategy. Learning strategy refers to the ‘way of input’ of the learner, i.e. how to process, store and retrieve what they learn in the brain. It is the conscious or unconscious process that language learners use in learning a language. Some linguists like Naiman et al (1978) had tried to see what those good language learners had in common. They found six broad strategies shared by good language learners as follows:(i) Find a suitable learning style. Good language learners become aware of thetypes of FL learning. They always find ways of adapting or modifying the teaching situation to suit themselves.(ii) Involve oneself in the language learning process. Good language learners are very active practitioners of the target language both inside and outside the classroom. They take the initiative and devise situations and language learning techniques for themselves.(iii) Develop an awareness of language both as system and as communication.Good language learners see language not only as a complex system of rules but also as something to be used.They combine grammatical and pragmatic competence. Besides learning phonetics, vocabulary and grammar, they also seek out an many opportunities as possible to take part in conversations in the target language.(iv)Pay constant attention to expanding language knowledge. Good language learners are always trying to learn more about the target language and improve it.(v) Develop the target language as a separate system. Good language learners do not relate everything to their first language but make the target language a separate system. They always try to think in it. One common strategy they adopt is to engage in silent monologues to practice the target language by giving commentaries to themselves about the passing scene or the coming event.(vi) Take into account the demands that FL learning imposes. Good language learners are aware that FL learning can be very demanding. They are always ready to meet with any challenges posed by the learning. They are not afraid ofmaking foolish mistakes in the classroom or elsewhere.How can teachers make use of learning strategies? The chief moral is that the students often know best. It is the learners’ involvement, the learners’ strategies, and the learners’ ability to go their own ways that count, regardless of what the teacher is trying to do. The students must be encouraged to develop independence inside and outside the classroom and to take on responsibility for their own learning. Moreover, teachers should provide methods to enable students to discover the learning strategies that suit them best or provide a wealth of activities to heighten their awareness of strategies and their ability to use them.Strategy-training assumes that conscious attention to learning strategies is beneficial. Teachers should organize trainings that help the students to be aware of strategies.4) Learning StylesThe term ‘learning style’ has been used to describe an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills. Some people cannot learn something until they have seen it. They are called ‘visual’learners. Other people, who may be called ‘aural’ learners, seem to need only to hear something once or twice before they know it. For others, who are referred to as ‘kinesthetic’ learners, there is a need to add a physical action to the learning process. In contrast to these perceptually based learning styles,considerable research has focused on a cognitive learning style distinction between field independent and field dependent learners. This refers to whether an individual tends to separate details from the general background or to see things more holistically. Another category of learning styles is based on the individual’s temperament or personality.Task 13: What are the learning strategies you adopt frequently? What strategies will you teach your students in learning English?5.2 Affective FactorsStudents’ emotional status and other affective factors filter what they learn. In language learning, it is quite evident that strong positive or negative emotions are involved in the success or failure of the target language. The affective factors create the first filter for the language input and have a decisive impact on the learner in the language learning. Affect refers to emotion or feeling. It includes such factors as empathy, extroversion, anxiety, attitude and motivation. In this section we only makea brief discussion on attitude and motivation.1) Learning AttitudeIn FL learning research,most research on attitudes(with regard to language learning) has tended to concentrate on attitudes towards target languages and their speakers. Attitudes are closely related to the achievement and success of foreign language learning.Different attitudes can result in different ually, positive attitudes toward self, the teacher, the learning tasks given, the target language and its culture can enhance proficiency while negative attitudes may lead to decreased motivation,input and interaction,and ultimately to unsuccessful attainment of proficiency.2) Learning MotivationMotivation in language learning can be defined as the learner’s overall goal or orientation. Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert (1972) coined the terms integrative motivation to refer to language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment (the learner wishes to identify with the culture of the target language group), and instrumental motivation for language learning for more immediate or practical goals (e.g. to get a job or to pass an examination). Another kind of motivation is task motivation, i.e. the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks. There has been a great deal of research on the role of motivation in foreign language learning. Undoubtedly, motivation is related to success in foreign language learning. But unfortunately, the research cannot indicate precisely how motivation is related to learning. We do not know whether it is the motivation that produces successful learning or successful learning that enhances motivation or whether both are affected by other factors.Task 14:What is motivation? How do you usually motivate your students in learning English?Task 15: Are learners more highly motivated because they are successful, or are they successful because they are highly motivated?5.3 Biological FactorsSome linguists believed that there is a critical period for foreign language learning, which is called the Critical Period Hypothesis. The Critical Period Hypothesis refers to the claim that human beings are only capable of learning their first language between the age of two years and the early teens. Developmental changes in the brain, it is argued, affect the nature of language acquisition. According to this view, language learning which occurs after the end of the critical period may not be based on the innate biological structures believed to contribute to first language acquisition or second language acquisition in early childhood. Rather, older learners depend on more general learning abilities—the same ones they might use to learn other kinds of skills or information. It is argued that these general learning abilities are not as successful for language learning as the more specific, innate capacities which are available to the young child. It is most often claimed that the critical period ends somewhere around puberty, but some researchers suggest it could be even earlier.The Critical Period Hypothesis has been challenged in recent years from several different points of view. Some studies of the foreign language development of older and younger learners who are learning in similar circumstances have shown that, at least in the early stages of foreign language development, older learners are more efficient than younger learners. In educational research, it has been reported that learners who began learning a foreign language at the primary school did not fare better in the long run than those who began in early adolescence. Furthermore, there are countless anecdotes about older learners who have reached high levels of proficiency in a foreign language. Does this mean that there is no critical period for second language acquisition?Task 16: Do you agree to the Critical Period Hypothesis? Why or why not?（摘自陆云、陈光伟、李晓、汤燕瑜、刘昌海，《英语教学论》，2004）。

英语国家概况1. "British history has been a history of invasion". Please illustrate this point with the examples from the text. How did each of the invasions influence English culture ?2. What are some general characteristics of Scotland ?3. Describe Wales' unification with Great Britain.4. Are there any differences between England and Wales in terms of cultural tradition ?5. Why is Northern Ireland, according to the author, so significant in the United Kingdom? What is the political problem there?6. What are some of the factors in Irish and English history that affect the situation in Northern Ireland today?7. Different parties and groups in the United Kingdom have different solutions to the political problem in Northern Ireland. Please sum up their different attitudes.8. Has the author offered a solution to the political problem in Northern Ireland?9. What is the oldest institution of government?10. What is the name of the charter of liberty and political rights granted by King John in 1215?11. Do you think Elizabethan Drama occupies a significant position in British literature? Who is the most important figure in Elizabethan Drama? What are some of his major works?12. What do we call the group of important Parliamentarians?13. Which party forms the government and who becomes Prime Minister?14. What are some of the changes that have take place recently in the Chinese attitude towards sports? How do you account for these changes?15. For how many years is a general election held once in the UK?16. Who can stand for election as an MP?17. What are the three major parties? Which party is the party that spent most time in power?18. Which party does Tony Blair belong to?19. When was the British economy dominant in the world?20. By what time was the UK overtaken by other countries, such as the US and Germany?21. Which country does it refer to as "the Jewel in the Crown"? When did it gain its independence?22. What are some of the positive and negative effects of non-white immigrants on British society according to the author?23. What is the general situation of racial relations in the UK?24. Why is Geoffrey Chaucer, who wrote in Middle English, still read and studied today?25. When was the term "parliament" first used officially?26. The author says that "the media are central to British leisure culture", why does the author say so?27. What are some of the characteristics of British newspaper culture? In what way is it different from the United States?28. Is the British press free from the government control and censorship? What is the relationship between the British press and politics or business?29. How does the BBC operate? How is it different from American broadcasting systems?30. What are some of the features of Romantic Literature?31. What is Modernism? Can you illustrate your points with specific books as examples?32. What is Postmodernism? Can you illustrate your points with specific books as examples?33. How has the Christian church influenced British sports? Please pick up some examples from the text.34. What is the origin of football?35. How is the violence of "football hooligans" related to the British history of football?36. Why is cricket very English? Why does the author believe that cricket was associated with a set of English moral values?37. Christmas is the biggest and best-loved British holiday? How do the British celebrate thisholiday?38. How do the British celebrate the Queen's Birthday? What is the origin of this holiday?39. Bonfire Night is one truly English holiday. How and why do the English celebrate this holiday?40. How do the Protestants and Catholics celebrate their own holidays in Northern Ireland? What traditions are behind their celebrations?41. How is Hogmanay celebrated in Scotland? What other festivals are celebrated in Scotland?42. Which are the two most important and famous universities in Britain?43. What is the goal of education in the U.K.?44. Is the British education system run by the state or the private sector?45. Where do British universities receive their funds besides students tuition?46. Why does the author say that "the way the living arrangements of a society as a whole are organized tells us something about that society"?47. What are the four main types of home in Britain? How do they reflect the cost and status of homes? What are some of the major types of home in China?48. How are people in the UK divided into different classes?49. Is the class system similar with the United States?50. What and how did the British empire end? How did the British react to this reality?51. What are the foundations of Britain's foreign policy?52. How is Britain's foreign policy made? Does the government's foreign policy represent the desires of British citizens?53. Why does the author say that the decision to join the EC was and remains controversial in Britain?54. Why does the author think that Britain has the "special relationship" with the United States? Does this relationship still exist?55. What are some of the general characteristics of Australia in terms of land, people and culture?56. Discuss the climate in Australia. What are some of the major differences between Australia and China in terms of the climate?57. What are the six states of Australia? What are some of the major similarities or differences in terms of population, early settlement and economy in the six states?58. Can you point out some main differences between the Australian government system and the British government system?59. Discuss the Australian education system. What are some of the features in the system that are specifically Australian?60. What are some of the distinct features of New Zealand's geography? Find out similarities and differences in terms of geography between New Zealand and Australia.61. What are some of the similarities between New Zealand and Britain in the government system?62. How did modern development in Europe influence the settlement of North American colonies?63. What was the unique American phenomenon ? How did it come into being? Do you think it still exists in today's American society?64. In what way did Puritanism influence American culture?65. What are the two political parties in the United States? Do you think they are fundamentally different?66. What is the Bill of Rights? Do you think that it was necessary to write the Bill of Rights explicitly into the U.S. Constitution?67. Why did the Articles of Confederation fail? Was it necessary to change the Articles of Confederation and write a new constitution for the new nation of the United States at the time?68. What is a federal system? What are some of the major differences between a federal system and a confederation?69. What are some of the major powers of each of the three branches of the U.S. government? How are the three branches supposed to check and balance each other?70. It is known to all that buying and selling stocks is a risky business. Why do you think there are still so many people involved in it?71. What promotes the diversity in American religion?72. In what way do you think that religious freedom was a historical necessity in the United States?73. What is the relationship between government and religion in America?74. What are some of the features in religion that are particularly American? What are some of the major differences between American religion and religion in Europe?75. What is the main theme in American literature according to the author? How does the author illustrate his point?76. Why did Mark Twain win so many readers both at home and abroad?77. What are the major characteristics of education in America?78. What are some of the major themes in novels written by the "Lost Generation"?79. What is the goal of education in the United States? Discuss the similarities and differences in Great Britain, the United States and China concerning the goals of education.80. What does an American student learn?81. What were the major social movements of the 1960s? And what was the historical background of the social movements of that decade?82. The black political movement that began as a force for integration changed course in the mid-1960s and began to emphasize black uniqueness and even black separatism. What caused this transformation?83. Draw analogies between the black revolution and the women's movement. What common assumptions do they share?84. The author says that the United States was founded on the principle of human equality, but in practice the nation has fallen far short of that ideal. Illustrate this point with what you have learned from this book.85. What does poverty mean in the United States ? Why is poverty a social problem in America?86. Why does the author emphasize that the invention of one technology has to be supported by a number of related technologies which form a supporting system? Give examples.87. When are the American football matches held?88. Why did a musical form of black origin gain acceptance in all classes in America and spread throughout the country?89. What are the contributions made by Louis Armstrong to the early jazz music?90. Why Canada is regularly rated as having the best standard of living in the world?91.What is the distinct feature in Canadian modern literature?92. Discuss the similarities and differences in the government systems between the U.K. and Canada.93. What are some of the characteristics of the Canadian party system?94. What are some of the things that make Canada a unique and interesting country?95. How do you understand "multiculturalism"?96. Why do you think the author says that Canada has avoided the worst excesses of intolerance and prejudice?97. What is the Canada's Place in the World Economy?98. Do you think the Canadian government should subsidize the inefficient Canadian farmers or import foodstuff from neighbouring American states?99. Why is the idea of survival thought of as the central symbol of Canadian literature? What does cultural survival mean in Canadian literature?100. What are the major reasons for Canada's active role in international organizations? And how does Canada play its active role?外国语学院：曾倩英语国家概况（1）（2）问题库答案1. British history has been a history of invasions. Before the first century AD Britain was made up of many tribal kingdoms of Celtic people: a powerful culture originating in central Europe. Then in 43AD Britain was invaded by the Roman empire, and England and Wales (though not Scotland or Ireland) became a part of the Roman empire for nearly 400 years.Two more groups of invaders were to come after the English: from the late 8th century on, raiders from Scandinavia, the ferocious Vikings, threatened Britain's shores….2. Scotland is the second largest of the four nations, both in population and in geographical area. It is also the most confident of its own identity because alone amongst the non-English components of the UK it has previously spent a substantial period of history as a unified state independent of the UK. Thus it is not a big leap for the Scottish to imagine themselves independent again.Physically, Scotland is the most rugged part of the UK, with areas of sparsely populated mountains and lakes in the north (The Highlands), and in the south (The Southern Uplands). Three-quarters of the population lives in the lowland zone which spans the country between these two highland areas. The largest city is Glasgow, in the west of this zone. Scotland's capital city is Edinburgh, on the east coast forty miles away from Glasgow. It is renowned for its beauty, and dominated by its great castle on a high rock in the centre of the city. Both cities have ancient and internationally respected universities dating from the 15th century.3. Wales was always under pressure from its English neighbours, particularly after the Norman conquest, when Norman barons set up castles and estates in Wales under the authority of the English Crown. Some brief campaigns are the only times in history when Wales has existed as a unified independent nation.4.Y es, there are. The close long-standing relationship means that modern Wales lacks some of the outward signs of difference which Scotland possesses—its legal system and its education system are exactly the same as in England. Often official statistics are given for "England and Wales". However, Wales is different, and one of the key markers of that difference is the Welsh language—the old British Celtic tongue which is still in daily use.5. Until 1921 the full name of the UK was "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", not only "Northern Ireland", because the whole island of Ireland was politically integrated with Great Britain, and had been since 1801, while Britain's domination of the Irish dated back centuries even before that date. But Irish desires for an independent Irish state were never lost, andone of the key issues in late nineteenth century British politics was a campaign in parliament for what was called "home-rule"—Irish political control of Irish affairs. The Home Rule Bill was finally passed in 1914, but the process was overtaken by the First World War and was suspended for the duration of the war.6. Along with the political campaign for home-rule there were groups who followed a more direct method of pursuing Irish independence, engaging in guerilla or terrorist activities against British institutions and the British military forces. During the First World War and immediately after, this activity increased, sometimes brutally suppressed by British forces.7. Margaret Thatcher's government did not give in to this demand for political status and 11 prisoners starved to death. This event revitalised the political campaign of Sinn Fein, the legal political party which supports the IRA's right to fight. Its leaders spoke of a twin campaign for union with Ireland, both political and military, which they called the policy of "The Bullet and the Ballot Box".8. The problem lay in the "commitment to peaceful methods" aspect of the possible talks. Province-wide elections are planned under a complex formula to ensure a wide range of representation on the body which will carry out these talks, in an attempt to give them legitimacy. Without the participation of Sinn Fein and the IRA it is hard to see them succeeding. Northern Ireland is poised on the brink—a new peaceful future, or a return to the violence that has claimed 3150 lives so far.9. The oldest institution of government is the Monarchy (rule by the king).10. It was a gang of feudal barons and the Church which opposed some of King John's (1199—1216) policies. This opposition was so powerful that the king finally granted them a charter of liberty and political rights, still known by its medieval Latin name of Magna Carta. Magna Carta placed some limits on the king's ability to abuse his royal power. This is still regarded as Britain's key expression of the rights of citizens against the Crown.11. Shakespeare is the most important figure at that time. He excels in each kind. The tragedies include Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. Among the comedies are The Taming of the Shrew, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Twelfth Night, and The Tempest. His history plays, based on English history, include Richard III, Richard II, Henry IV, and Henry V.Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra are tragedies on classical themes.12. The House of Commons.13. The party that wins most votes in general election and the leader of this winning party would become Prime Minister.14. They more and more like sports….15. For five years.16. Anyone who is eligible vote to can stand as an MP. It is necessary only to make a deposit of 500 pounds (a quite easily obtainable amount in the UK) which is lost if the candidate does not receive at least 5% of the vote.17. There are three major national parties: The Conservative party and the Labour party are the two biggest, and any general election is really about which of those two is going to govern. But there is a third important party, the Liberal Democrats, who usually receive up to about 20% of the votes: not enough to form a government, but enough to have a big impact on which of the other two parties does so. The Conservative Party spent most time in power18. Tony Blair belong to Labor Party.19. By the 1880s the British economy was dominant in the world, producing one third of the world's manufactured goods, half its coal and iron, half its cotton.20. But even by 1900 this was no longer the case, the UK having been overtaken by both the United States and Germany; and certainly from 1945 until the present, the story of the UK economy is usually thought of as one of decline.21. India, popularly known as "The Jewel in the Crown" of the British Empire, gained its independence in 1947.22. This has a number of consequences for British society, mainly positive, though with some indirect negative effects. On the positive side such immigrant groups bring their culture with them,which increases the variety and interest within British culture: for example, the UK, which used to have a bad reputation for food, now has a cuisine as varied as any, with Indian and Chinese restaurants in every community, as well as many other varieties in bigger cities. This variety in restaurant food has resulted in more experimentation at home, so that shops now carry a much wider variety of goods to supply the demand, and there are many TV programmes and books devoted to all kinds of different cooking. The negative side of things lies largely in the attitude of some of their white neighbours.23. While there is a growing ethnic minority middle-class, and many individual success stories, by most measures the immigrant population is worse-off economically speaking than the white population as a whole. Individuals from ethnic minorities are more likely to be unemployed; and they are under-represented in politics too, though there are now a number of black and Asian MPs. But there are also a number of small political parties in the UK with overtly racist policies.24. With the Norman Conquest in 1066 Britain entered the Middle Ages (1066—1485), and the language of the royal court became French. So literature of that period was written in French or Latin. But one work from these times often studied today by middle school and college students is The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer (1343—1400). He was the first court poet to write in English.25. The word "parliament" comes from the verb "to parley", that is, to discuss or talk. The term was first used officially in 1236 to describe the gathering of feudal barons and representatives from counties and towns which the king occasionally summoned if he wanted to raise money.26. On an average day, 90 per cent of Britons over the age of 15 read a national or local paper. And in the evening, most Britons settle down to watch some television: 96 percent of the population watch TV at least once a week, making it Britain's most popular leisure activity. The third most popular pastime, after watching telly and reading newspapers, is listening to the radio, an activity in which 73 per cent of the population engages in on a weekly basis. It is obvious, then, that the media are central to British leisure culture.27. British newspaper culture is unusual in the extent to which class and educational differences are reflected in the newspapers people read. In other developed countries like Japan and the United States, newspaper reading is a mainly middle-class habit, but in Britain the "lower classes" are also regular readers.28. While officially speaking the British press is "free" from government control and censorship and can print what it likes, there are limits to what will appear in the daily paper.29. The British Broadcasting Corporation - more familiarly known as the BBC or even "the Beeb" - is Britain's main public service broadcaster The BBC is funded by licence fees and viewers must buy a license each year for their TV set.30. Roughly the first third of the 19th century makes up English literature's romantic period. Writers of romantic literature are more concerned with imagination and feeling than with the power of reason, which marked the 18th century. Perhaps the rather violent and ugly world about them drove 19th-century writers to a literary refuge.31. Modernism in literature can be seen as a reaction against the nineteenth century forms discussed above, which can be thought of as assuming understanding between writer and reader, resulting in the simple communication of an agreed version of the "world". This approach to writing is known as "Realism." Instead, Modernist writers express the difficulty they see in understanding and communicating how the world works. Often, therefore, Modernist writing seems disorganized, hard to understand. It often portrays the action from the viewpoint of a single confused individual, rather than from the viewpoint of an all-knowing impersonal narrator outside the action….32. Postmodernists can be thought of as abandoning that search. Meaning does not exist outside of the human head, likewise it does not exist inside a book, waiting to be discovered, instead it is made in the process of reading a book, or of making sense of the world….33. Tennis was invented in Britain and it owes its origins, literally, to the Church. Church records indicate that by the mid-fifteenth century, people were making a game of bouncing a ball off the side of their local churches or cathedrals, first using the hand, and later a racquet. This was called "tenys". Such antics sometimes offended the clergy who complained that the dignity and tranquility of the church was shattered by such games, but they also illustrate how central the church was to community life.34. There are legends that suggest that games like football and rugby actually derived from the "sport" of ancient warriors celebrating victory by kicking around the decapitated head of an enemy.There is a similar grisly tale told about origins of bowling: it is said that in ancient times, Scottish warriors rolled the skulls of their enemies along the grass for sport.35. Today, violence is still associated with football. "Football hooligans", supporters of rival teams, sometimes clash before, during and after matches and occasionally run riot through the town, breaking windows and beating each other up. Some football fans paint their faces and sing or chant football songs and it is not too difficult to imagine their warrior-ancestors.36. As generations of public school boys grew up to become the civil servants and rulers of the UK and its colonies, cricket became associated with a set of moral values, in particular the idea of "fair play" which characterised British government. Sir Ian Bancroft, a high level civil servant in the 1980s, remembered that when he began his career in Whitehall, one day his government minister was so angry that he threw the telephone at him. Sir Ian said he knew exactly how to respond: "having played cricket I was able to catch it and hand it back to him politely."37. Y es. Nowadays, Christmas is celebrated by most Britons by exchanging gifts and Christmas cards, preparing holiday foods, and decorating homes and workplaces with coloured lights, Christmas trees and ornaments.38. One of Britain's most impressive and colourful festivals happens on the second Saturday in June when the Queen's Birthday is officially celebrated by "trooping the colour" around Buckingham Palace in London.39. The English do not celebrate their famous writers or battles or patron saints, although they have all these things. However, one truly English holiday is Bonfire Night—sometimes called Guy Fawkes Night—celebrated in the early autumn.40. Another festival which comes from the 17th century battles between Catholics and Protestants is the Protestant celebration of their victory at the Battle of the Boyne (12 July) in 1690. Northern Irish Catholics celebrate the birthday of the patron saint of Ireland, St Patrick, on March 17 each year.41. While most British people welcome the coming of the New Y ear with parties, in Scotland, New Y ear's Eve called Hogmanay (31 December)—is the major winter celebration, and overshadows Christmas (called Y ule in Scotland) which is a very quiet affair. How Hogmanay iscelebrated varies throughout Scotland, but one widely practised custom is "first footing". There is a superstitious belief that the first person to cross the threshold of a household in the New Y ear can bring luck and prosperity: the appearance of a young, preferably dark haired and handsome man, is considered particularly lucky. First footers often bring a bottle of spirits, alcohol, a lump of coal or a peat as a gift and are given a "dram of whisky" as their reward.42. Cambridge University and Oxford University.43. The goal of British education is to socialize children.44. The British education system run by the state.45. In the UK, the amount of funding each university receives is based on its size, the number of students it teaches, and the research it conducts. So far, the UK has only one privately funded university, the University of Buckingham.46. For individual members of any society the home they live in is of great importance in their lives. The way the living arrangements of a society as a whole are organized tells us something about that society—its standard of living, its social and familial structure, the distribution of wealth in a society—both in terms of geography and social hierarchy—and even something about that society's values and dreams.47. There are, broadly speaking, four main types of home. The first kind are "flats" (or apartments), of varying size, often in modern multi-storey purpose-built buildings, though sometimes made by sub-dividing big old houses. Flats are often publicly owned. The second kind are "terraced" houses: that is, individual two-storey houses built joining on to each other at each side in a terrace or row. The second kind are "terraced" houses: that is, individual two-storey houses built joining on to each other at each side in a terrace or row; the fourth one is “detached.”48. The British people are divided into classes economically, culturally, educationally and etc.49. What is distinctive about the British class-system, and which marks it as different from the American or Chinese social structure, is that it has also retained a hereditary aristocracy.50. Two world wars had seriously influenced its empire position. The end of the great British empire was surprisingly rapid. In 1946, Jordan, in the Middle East, was granted independence.The following year, India and Pakistan followed suit. In 1948, Burma and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) were granted independence and left the Commonwealth as well, refusing to recognise the British monarch as the head of their new states. Throughout the next few decades, the process of decolonisation continued as other territories and possessions received their independence or were returned to their rightful rulers.51. The contemporary foreign policy of the UK is greatly influenced by its imperial history and also by its geopolitical traits. Perhaps the most important single factor which influences British policy-makers is its history.52. The Prime Minister and Cabinet decide on the general direction of Britain's foreign policy. The main government department involved is of course the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO), but many other government ministries also play a part in formulating and executing the government's decisions.53. The decision to join the EEC was very controversial; and today, Britain's participation in the European Union, as it is now called, remains controversial. At the centre of the controversy is the fact that it is not clear what the European Union(EU) is and what it will become. The UK has always been very interested in encouraging free trade between countries and is therefore very supportive of the EU as a free trade area.However, the UK has always been less enthusiastic about giving up its national sovereignty (that is, its control over national decision-making) to a European government.54. Another major factor which influences British foreign policy is its relationship with the United States. This was quite natural, as the two were closely allied during World War II, and continued to work together closely in the post war years because they shared many of the same worries about the Soviet Union. Even today, in many respects British and American policy-makers agree generally on, for example, how the global economy should be managed, how a warlike state should be dealt with, issues about arms control and so on.55. Australia is the world's smallest continent and largest island, a relatively young nation established in an ancient land. Its development represents a triumph over remoteness and a harsh landscape…56. Australia is the driest inhabited continent and its rainfall varies extremely geographically and。