英美概况 Part One Britain2

英美概况考试重点复习材料（英国部分）Chapter 1第一章Land and People 英国的国土与人民I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。

2. Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

3. The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。

4. Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wale大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。

(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。

(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh 苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。

英美概况Chapter1-2Part Two PeoplePopulation:In total 60,209,500 in the mid-2005.In July of 2009, 61,113,205.The 3rd largest population in Europe and the 23rd largest in the world.Britain’s population is overwhelmingly urban, with about 90% living in urban areas, and 10% living in rural areas.The top five populous cities are London (7,556,000), Birmingham (1,018,000), Leeds (761,000), Glasgow (611,000), and Sheffield (530,300).Population DensityCompared with many other countries Britain is heavily populated.In 2008 the average number of people per square kilometre in Britain was 253, one of the highest in the world.England is the most densely populated part of the country, with a population density of 395 people per square kilometre, Wales (142), Northern Ireland (125) and Scotland (65).London has the highest population density with 4,700 people per square kilometre.Population Distribution:1) England: about 50 million (83.8%)(Greater London: 7 million, 11% of the country total)(other dense regions include Birmingham, Coventry and the old industrial centers)2) Wales: about 2.96 million (4.9%) (2/3 live in the industrial southern valleys)3) Scotland: about 5 million (8.5%)(3/4 live in the Central Lowlands, around Glasgow and Edinburgh)4) Northern Ireland: about 1.7 million (2.9%) (half live in Belfast and along the coast)The Origin of British People1. The English are Anglo-Saxon (tall, blond and blue-eyed)2. The Welsh, the Scots and the Irish are Celts(shorter, rounder head, most are darker hair, but many are red hair)3. Other European source:Considerable number of Italians, Greeks, Australians, and New Zealanders settled in Britain as permanent residents.4. Immigrants:Immigrants from Africa and Asia, mainly from the former colonies of the British EmpireBritain is one of the most culturally diverse countries in Europe.London is estimated that about 160 languages and dialects are spoken.Part III The English LanguageEnglish is the official language.English is an Indo-European language belonging to the West Germanic branch.The development of English language is divided into three periods:Old English, Middle English and Modern English1. Old English1) Old English: modern FrisianIn the 5th and 6th centuries, the Angles, Saxons and Jutescame to the British Isles, They gave the England its name, “Angel” land.Their language is similar to modern Frisian. (弗里西语)，now is called Old English.Frisian is the language of northeastern region of the Netherland.They drove the original Celtic-speaking people out of England into the Scotland, Wales, and Ireland.These Celtic language survive today in the Gaelic language of Scotland and Ireland, and Welsh in Wales.2) influenced by old Norse (挪威语)Old Norse is spoken by the Vikings.They invaded England in the 8th century, stamped their influence on the people andlanguage.3) adding the first wave of Latin and Greek words because of the introduction of Christianity.4) some Danish words also came into the English vocabularyThe Old English Period ended with the Norman Conquest.2. Middle English1) French replaced English1066, William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, conquered England.French, spoken by the Normans, replaced English as the official languageEnglish was only used by the lower class.Numerous French words came into the English vocabulary.2) England nobles adopted English again1204, King John lost the province of Normandy.Norman nobles in England began to adopt modified Englishas their native tongue.3) English evolved into Middle EnglishAfter Black Death, the laboring and merchant classes grew in economic and social importance, and English also increased in importance.3. Modern EnglishFrom the 15th century, the English changed into Modern English.1)1476 the printing press was introduced to England by William Caxton, who broughtstandardization to English.The Dialect of London became the standard.Spelling and grammar became fixed.2)The first English dictionary was published in 1604.Samuel Johnson’s dictionary in 1755 was influential in establishing a standard form of spelling.3)English continued to assimilate foreign words, esp. from Latin and Greek, throughoutthe Renaissance.From the early 17th century, the written material is in Modern English.(works ofShakespeare, King James Bible)4)The Industrial Revolution and the rise of technology add new words in Modern English.5)The rise of the British Empire and the growth of global trade led to the assimilation ofwords from many other languages.4. Standard EnglishStandard English is based on the speech of the upper class of southeast England, adopted as a broadcasting standard in theBritish media.It is also called Queen’s English or BBC English.It has developed and has been promoted as a model for the correct British English. Standard English also refers to the norm carried overseas for non-native speakers learning English.Today, Standard English is codified that the grammar and vocabulary of English are much the same everywhere in the world where English is used.。

英美概况Unit1-2Summary英美概况Unit1-2 A Brief Introduction to the United Kingdom1. It is an island country by the sea.Northwest Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east. 2. Geographical NAMESthe British Isles Great Britain England the United Kingdom (UK) 3.The British Isles:the island of Great Britainthe island of Irelandsurrounding islesUK=Great Britain + Northern IrelandGreat Britain =England +Scotland + Wales4.Official name:the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland5. Other names:the British Empire (大不列颠帝国)British Commonwealth of Nations（英联邦国家）England6.London1) Capital city Largest city Largest port2) Largest population (one seventh of the nation’s population)3) Financial and Commercial centre4) Culture (host the Olympic Games in 1908 ,1948, 2012)7.Political centre1) Westminster central government administrative area2)Palace of Westminster Houses of parliament (Big Ben)3)Westminster Abbey ancient church4)Whitehall (street)8.Downing street, the house of No.10 official residence of the Prime Minster9. Buckingham palace royal residence of the Queen10.A complicated country1) imperial country2)Commonwealth of Nations3) member of European Union4) a member of Group of Seven5) multiracial6) a society with a class structure7) region difference (just like China)11 The people1) Total population : about 60 million2) unevenly distributed3) Highly urbanized4) Mutiracial/Mutinational12.The origins or ancestors of the people:Anglo-Saxons →the EnglishCelts →the Scots, Welsh and Irishnon-European ethnicity →( Indian, Pakistan, Caribbean, etc.) immigrants/doc/062589667.html,mon characteristics1) Cautious 2) Adaptable 3) Conservative4)Have strong national consciousness14.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.(2) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff(3) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north；the Central lowlands；the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK.Capital: Belfast15.A History of invasionsEngland was occupied by Celtic people.1) in 43AD →the Roman empire2) The 5th century AD →the Angle-Saxon3) The late 8th centu ry →the Vikings and Danes4) 1066 The Norman →the important battle of Hastings Scotland The second largest nationHave the most strong national confidence.Topography: the most rugged part three natural zonesthe Highland in the north, the central Lowlands, and the Southern Uplands.1.The history of invasionsa. Scotland was not conquered by the Romans.b. Most of Scotland wasn’t conquered by Anglo- Saxons.c. In 9th century the Vikings invaded Scotland.2.PoliticsIn 1707, Scotland joined the Union by agreement of the English and the Scottish parliament.3.PartyThe Labour PartyThe Scottish National PartyThe Conservative PartyWales In the west of Great Britain.The smallest on British mainland, larger than Northern Ireland Topography: Pasture Capital: Cardiff(320,000 people) Language: English/Welsh(19%), Localism is deep-rooted. Economy: Traditional industry: Coal-mining, coal and steel New industries by attracting investment.1.History of invasiona. Wales was conquered by the Romans.b. Wales wasn’t c onquered by Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings.c. Wales was invaded by the NormansNorthern IrelandOld name: Ulster the smallest in area and population Topography: Low hills and lake district, rugged coastlines Landmark: Giant’s CausewayCapital: Belfast (about 480 000 people, Titanic was built there ) Industry: shipbuilding and aircraft manufacture Economy: stagnant forLow crime and murder rateLow wealth per headLow living cost1.Partylegal: a. the Sinn Fein partyb. SDLP: Social Democratic and Labour Party Illegal: IRA: Irish Republican Army2.Results: most of the casualties of civilians1) 1969 event2) The Provisional IRA3) Paramilitary groups4) Gettoes in Northern Irish cities5) The policy of Internment6) The Bloody Sunday。

Section one：Origin of the English NationThe native Celts●The Celtic tribes are ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh. And the Celtic language is thebasis of Welsh and Gaelic.●Religion: Druidism.●Stonehenge: the circular arrangement of large stones in Wiltshire, near Salisbury, England, was probably builtbetween about 3000 and 1000 B.C by Celts, but its function remains unknown.Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)●Romans got possession of England by driving native Celts into Scotland and Wales. They failed to conquerScotland. They built two great walls: the Hadrian's Wall, the Antonine Wall, along the northern border of England to prevent Picts in Scotland from invading England.●Many towns’ names end with: ster, cester, and shire. e.g., Lancast er, Winchester, Y orkshire, deriving fromcastra (Latin word for camp).●Religion: Christianity.The Anglo-Saxon Conquest (446-871)(mainly occupied the Lowland Zone)●New invader: Jutes (now the county of Kent), became the king of Kent. Soon after their relat ives and othertribes came trooping after them——●It is a collective name for the seven Anglo—Saxon kingdoms from the 7th century to the 9th century. They areKent, Essex, Sussex, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia and North Umbria. After the 9th century, the seven kingdoms were conquered one after another by the invading Danes.●Saxons and Angles came from northern Germany. After they had taken possession of all the England, theywere divided into 7 principal kingdoms, known as Heptarchy. those tribes were constantly at war with one another, each trying to get the upper hand.(hero: King Arthur)●Religion: Teutonic, practicing multi-goddism. Tiu(the god of war, Tuesday), Woden(heaven, Wednesday),Thor(storms, Thursday),Freya(peace, Friday)●Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine to convert the English to Christianity. With the help of the king of Kent, hebecame the first Archbishop of Canterbury.●The A-S nominated local officials: sheriffs.●Open-field farming system: 3 big fields+commons. This system is the basis of the English agrarian civilizationand subsistence farming.●Witan: the A-S created the Witan (a group of wise man) to advice the king, the Witan was the forerunner of thepresent-day Privy Council.●Alfred the Great: the father of the British Navy & his writings were the beginning of prose literature. Made atreaty with Danes----Dane law.●Viking invasions: in the 8th, 9th, 10th centuries A.D. V ikings from North Europe, brought a new wave ofinvasion and colonization which produced lasting influence on parts of Briton.●Canute: Witan chose the Danish leader, as king of England. he included England part of a Scandinavianempire(inc luded Norway and Denmark)●Edward the Confessor: built Westminster Abbey.The Norman Conquest (1066)●William the Conqueror: the first Anglo-Norman king of England.●Battle of Hastings: ?Influence of the Norman Conquest●Feudalism: the nobles got fief, from the sovereign. But they were obliged to pay certain dues and armed manaccording to their estates to the king. They (known as barons or the king's tenants=in -chief, made up the upper landed class. They give fiefs to sub-vassals (known as lesser nobles, knights, and free man).They should take oaths of loyalty to the king directly as well as to their immediate overlords.●William built the Tower of London as a military fortress. He replaced the Witan with the Great Council thatwas composed of his tenants-in-chief.●Domesday Book: in order to have a reliable record of all lands and discover how much his tenants-in-chiefcould be called upon to pay by way of taxes, William sent his clerks to make investigations. These clerks finally compiled a property record known as Domesday Book in 1085.this book stated the extent, value, population, and ownership of the land.Section two：The Great Charter and Beginning of ParliamentHenry II 'Reforms●William died and left his Normandy to Robert, England to William Rufus, all his money to Henry. William IIwas killed when hunting, Henry I succeeded him.●Henry I had no male heir, his nephew Henry II became the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty金雀花王朝.●The new king strengthened the Great Council. Chancellor is the chief number, in charge of the administrativeand judicial system. The present day Lord Chancellor is his successor.●Administrative reform：Replaced the traditional land tax based on hides with a new tax based on annual rentsand chatells.●Judicial reform: divided the country into 6 circuits. Itinerant judges focused their attention on baron’s propertyand abuse of privileges. Decisions made by a circuit court was regarded as a precedent judgment, becoming the basis of the Common Law习惯法.✓the Common Law is a judge-made or case-made law based on the various of local customs of the A-S, it was common to the whole people as distinct from law governing only a little community;✓Lead to the founding of the jury system, (the juries were chosen from among local freeman to help circuit judges from London. Function: bring accusation against malefactors and swear to the innocence of the accused, the judge gave verdict at first but gradually the jury was empowered to give verdict. Principle: no free man should be punished without a just trial by his peers.✓It replaced the primitive English trials----by ordeals or battles. Abolished the benefit of clergy.●Thomas Becket: the king’s chief secretary. In 1162, Henry made him the Archbishop of Canterbury, hoping hewould assist him in church reforming. But Thomas was against the king, and finally he was killed by the King.After his death, he was put upon the list of English saints as a martyr to the church.●Geoffrey Chaucer wrote “The Canterbury Tales”(24 tales)King John●Many people believed that Robin Hood, a legendary outlaw, was a contemporary of John.●In fear of the Pope suspend public services, John promised to send a yearly tribute to him; John became avassal of the Pope.The great charter 大宪章P93●In 1215, the insurgent nobles met the king at Runnymede, and forced his to sign: the Great Charter (the MagnaCarta), the most important documents in English history.Beginning of Parliament●After John died, his 9 years old boy Henry III was put on the throne.和父亲是一丘之貉●Simon de Montfort, the king’s brother in law, was the defender of the Great Charter. But king refused to acceptthe Provisions of Oxford was finally put into prison. In 1265,.each county sent two knights, and each town tworepresentatives to join the meeting at Westminster,(the earliest English parliament)●Edward I succeeded, conquered Wales, gave his new-born son the title Prince of Wales, a title held by the heirto the throne ever since.Section 3: decline of feudalism of EnglandThe hundred years’ war (1337—1453)●This war refers to the war between France and England, and ended in victory for the French, leading toexpulsion of English from France. The reason of the war: territorial and economic disputes.（direct course:Edward 3 claimed his succession to French throne, but being denied）●Joan of Arc圣女贞德: A national heroine in French history during the hundred year's war. She leaded peasantssuccessfully to drive the English out of France.●The war sped up the decline of feudalism. Gunpowder is a blow to the knights, who are pillars of feudal orderand the “flower of feudalism”.●The Black Death: It is a modern name given to the deadly bubonic plague, an epidemic disease spread throughEurope in the fourteenth century particularly in 1348-1349. It came without warning, and without any cure. In England, it killed almost half of the total population, causing far-reaching economic consequences. (change serfdom农奴身份to paid labour)●The government issued a Statute of Labour, saying it is a crime for peasants to ask more wages. Otherwise,they will be branded with the letter“F” on their forehead.The peasant uprising (1381)●The government imposed a flat rate poll tax to fund the hundred years’ war. Wat Tyler led the rebels. Theuprising dealt a telling blow to villeinage隶农制. A whole new class of yeomen farmers 自耕农emerged, paving the way for the development of capitalism.The wars of the Roses (1455-1485)●The wars of Roses ：After the Hundred Y ear's War, in order to decide who would rule England, a war brokeout between the House of Lancaster （won）and the House of Y ork, which were symbolized by the red and white roses respectively. The war lasted from 1455 to 1485. In nature it was a war between the commercial-minded gentry in the south and the backward landowners in the north and west. It is usually regarded as the end of English Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern world history.Section 4:the Tudor Monarchy and the Rising BourgeoisieThe new monarchy●Henry VII is the founder of the Tudor Monarchy, served as the transitional stage from feudalism to capitalismin English history.●American was discovered.Henry VIII and reform of the church●Henry VIII: the quintessential Renaissance sovereign famous for founding the Church of England.●Martin Luther desired the reform of the church.●The reform of the church coincided with the Renaissance. The immediate course was Henry VIII’s divorcecase.●Henry didn’t want to alter theology in any way. What he did was only to get rid of Papal interferences inEngland’s internal affairs.●Henry VIII was followed by Edward VI, switching to Protestant theology and his drastic reform has beencalled “the Reformation” in English history.●Bloody Mary: Mary was Henry VIII’s daughter and she was a Catholic. After she became Queen, about 300Protestants were burnt as heretics, for they held Protestant views. As a result, people call her "Bloody Mary". Elizabeth 1(1533-1603)●Externally, Elizabeth successfully played off against each other two great Catholic powers, France and Spain.●Establish charter companies, such as East India Company.●The Spanish king Philip finally made war with Armada (the Invincible Fleet).Elizabeth was regarded as thefoundation-layer of the British Empire.●Elizabeth Age refers to the English golden age.Section five: the English civil war(Bourgeois Revolution)Background of Revolution●Enclosures and the peasant uprising created a new working class, proletariat.●James 6 of Scotland was welcomed to the throne as James 1.this marks the major step to the unification of the two kingdoms.James 1(1603-1625) and the parliament●James said:"no bishop, no king", relations between the Puritans and the king deteriorated.●The Catholics were also opposed to the king for his staunch support of the Church of England. The night bonfire festival is celebrated on November 5, with fireworks and bonfire on which Guy Fawkes was burnt in effigy to remember the day Gunpowder Plot of 1605,reminding the English people the danger of Catholic restoration.●Many puritans refused to conform the King James V ersion, so they became "nonconformists", in 1620,201 nonconformists sailed from Plymouth in a ship named Mayflower. They were called Pilgrims.●James 1 believed "Divine Right of Kings", dissolved the parliament for 7 years. He was called the wisest fool. Charles 1●He followed a pro-Catholic ism policy.(In Elizabethan times, puritans were popular)●The puritans were noted for simple dress, high moral standards, demand of equality, and egalitarian [i,ɡæli'tεəriən]attitudes.The civil wars●The puritans made up the most revolutionary section. So the Bourgeois Revolution was also known as the Puritan Revolution.●The left wing of the revolutionary forces found a leader: Oliver Cromwell.●Oliver Cromwell was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658.●"Roundhead" was the nickname given to the supporters of Parliament during the English Civil War. Also known as Parliamentarians, they fought against King Charles I who claimed absolute power and the divine right of kings.●The civil war is the beginning of modern world history.Restoration●Charles II put an end to the Republic. They took over Manhattan Island from Dutch and named it New Y ork.●His brother James 2 succeeded, reviving Catholicism.●Glorious Revolution of 1688 also called the White Revolution, because it caused no bloodshed. It was the overthrow of King James II of England in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians . Finally, William III (Jamea’2 son in law)and Mary ascended the English throne.●W and M childless. Mary’s sister succeeded. Scots accepted the Act of Union, in1707, Great Britain was born.Hanover dynasty.Section six: the industrial revolution and the chartist movementBackground of industrial revolution●The new class managed to accomplish “primitive accumulation of capital” through plunder and exploitation. It plundered America and Africa through colonization and the notorious triangular trade.●James watt made the steam engine practiced for industrial use.●Enclosure movement: to make a profit by selling grain, landowners began to replace the small“open fields” with hedge-divided large fields. (A new system of crop rotation was introduced.) Under enclosure, such land is fenced (enclosed) and deeded or entitled to one or more owners. Tenants were driven off their lands.●Farmer George.Effects of the industrial revolution (1750-1850)●The workshop of the world.●As a result, class contradiction between the capitalists and the proletariat, or capital and labour, became the major problem.●The forests of chimneys turned Birmingham to “Black C ountry”●The transition from an agrarian civilization to industrial civilization was criticized by Luddites.●Theory: social Darwinism (Origin of Species---natural selection) and Malthusianism and Adam Smith (laissez-fair).The chartist movement (1836-1848,3times)●The chartist movement Was a mass movement of working class to fight for equal political and social rights.●Document: the People’s Charter人民宪章，drawn by London Workingmen’s Association.●Two groups: moral force chartists and physical force chartists.Queen Victoria (“the grandmother of Europe”, suffered hemophilia ) “The Polite Society”●The V ictoria Age: a time of industrial, political, and military progress within the United Kingdom. The 63-year reign of Victoria was the longest of any monarch in British history. She was official head of state not only of the United Kingdom but also the British Empire, which included Canada, Australia, India, New Zealand, and large parts of Africa.●In 1840,the Opium War against China.●The trade union act of 1871 legalized the trade unions, ------- set up Labor Representation Committee (LRC) ----------- it changed this name to Labor Party.。

British Political SystemThe British political system of government is basedon the theory of triumvirate,according to which thestate power is divided into three：the legislation, theadministration and the jurisdiction. Actually,in GreatBritain,the legislation and the administration arejammed together and the organ of state power is inCabinet, whose head（the Prime Minister) andmembers must be Parliament Members. For manycenturies, Britain has kept its old-fashionedgovernment, which is shared by three supremeauthorities：the Monarch（the King or Queen）, theLords (the hereditary nobility), and the Commons（the ordinary people）.The Constitutional MonarchyThe United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, meaning that the power of the monarch is limited by the country’s constitution. The head of state is a king or queen, whose power has been greatly reduced since the Glorious Revolution of 1688. In practice, the Sovereign reigns, but does not rule. The U.K. is governed by His or Her Majesty’s Government —a body of Ministers who are the leading members of the political party that wins the general election.The British Monarchy with hereditary tradition stands forthe continuity of British history dating back to Anglo-Saxontimes. The monarchy is the oldest institution of government.The Constitutional Monarchy started at the end of the 17thcentury. Succession is founded on the hereditary principle.Sons of the Sovereign have precedence over daughters insucceeding to the throne. The order of succession can bealtered only by common consent given by the countries of theCommonwealth. The direct line of succession, whichguaranteed the continuity of the monarchy, has been lastingfor about 1000 years, with only one break between 1649 and1660 when a republic was established under Oliver Cromwelland his son.The Queen—Elizabeth IIThe present Sovereign, QueenElizabeth II was born in Londonon April 21,1926，and came tothe throne on February 6, 1952,and was crowned on June 2,1953.. Her full name is ELIZABETHALEXANDRA MARY. She marriedPrince Philip, the Duke ofEdinburgh,on November 20, 1947,and a year later gave birth to a son,Charles.The QueenHer title in the United Kingdom is “Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her Other Realms and Territories, Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.”Powers of the QueenThe Queen is the head of state. the government is called Her Majesty's Government and even the government's envelops are marked with "On Her Majes ty's Service".The Queen is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. She concludes treaties and declares war.She is Supreme Governor of the Church of England.She appoints ministers and important officials and officers.The powers of the Queen are nowhere exactly defined. Theoretically every act of the state is done in her name and she enjoys enormous powers.But, in reality, except for her act in appointing a new Prime Minister, everything she does is done “on the advice of her ministers”, everything has been decided in advance by the Parliament or the Prime Minister together with his Cabinet. The Monarch has no alternative but to agree automatically. The real work of the Monarchy consists largely of signing papers. Today the British Monarchy serves as a figurehead for the state.British ConstitutionA constitution is a body of rules or laws thatgoverns the affairs of a state.British constitution is not a written constitution :it is not a systematic written statement of law,but consists of a body of statutory law,customs, and judicial interpretations.Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy with an unwritten constitution consisting of1）historic documents；2）statute laws, that is, laws passed by Parliament；3）the common laws （judicial precedents）, which are laws which have been established through common practice in the courts；4）custom and conventions, which are rules and practices which do not exist legally, but are nevertheless regarded as vital to the workings of government;5）authoritative opinion.Great CharterGreat Charter was signed by King John in 1215.It consists of sixty-three clauses. Important provisions :(1)no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council;(2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property;(3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections;(4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges;(5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country.(全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡.)The Magna Carta（the Great Charter) was the constitutional document that took away some of the sovereign’s power. This Charter limited the monarchical power and put it under the control of the feudalist law, thus laying a foundation for later parliament.The Great Charter was essentially a feudaldocument. It was made in the interests of the feudallords, but it granted to the townspeople freedom oftrade and self-government. The merchants andcraftsmen in England appeared for the first time asnew political force.The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)Reasons for parliamentary reforms.(1)Power was monopolized by thearistocrats.(2) Representation of town and country,and North and South was unfair.(3) There were also various so-calledrotten or pocket boroughs.(还有各种称之为衰败或口袋选区的选区。

PART TWO The United States of American1.Population, race and ethnic groups 人口和种族1)introduction 概要①the third most populous country in the world,with 255.5 million people.②a nation of immigrants.Immigration accounts for a major source of population growth.Thereare many racial and ethnic groups. Between 80% and 90% of immigration ot the United States now is from Asian and Hispanic counties.The first immigrants in American history came from England and Netherlands. Population movements are common in America.移民是人口增长的一个主要原因。

到目前80%-90%的移民来自亚洲和西班牙语国家。

美国历史上最早的移民来自于英格兰和荷兰。

人口迁徙在美国很普遍。

2)Black people and the Civil Rights Movement①blacks and slaverythe largest of the racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S., which 12.1 per cent of the population; the first blacks were brought to North America as slaves in 1619.美国最大的少数人种是黑人，占人口的12。