2012年中国政法大学708新闻传播学综合一考研真题(回忆版)及部分答案【圣才出品】

2012年中国政法大学政治与公共管理学院709公共管理综合一考研真题（回忆版）中国政法大学研究生院2012年硕士研究生入学考试试题科目名称：公共管理综合一科目代码：709管理学1．何谓风险型决策？举例说明风险型决策技术？（25分）2．分析科层制组织常用的制度化沟通方式，并举例说明。

（25分）3．阐述平衡积分卡的基本原理，试举例说明其运用。

（25分）公共行政原理一、简答题1．里格斯棱柱型行政模式的主要特征。

（10分）2．现代行政精神。

（15分）二、论述题：效率行政与公平行政的关系。

（25分）三、分析题：现代网络对政府行政造成了哪些压力和困境。

（25分）材料是将这几年的社会问题通过现代网络表达出来了，然后分析现代网络对政府行政的压力和影响。

2012年中国政法大学政治与公共管理学院709公共管理综合一考研真题详解中国政法大学研究生院2012年硕士研究生入学考试试题科目名称：公共管理综合一科目代码：709管理学1．何谓风险型决策？举例说明风险型决策技术？（25分）答：（1）风险型决策是指每个备择方案都有多个概率明确的可能结果的方案，方案结果的风险性是此类决策的主要特征。

风险型问题的决策应具备以下条件：明确的单一目标﹑多个备择方案﹑每个方案对应着多个概率确定的自然状态﹑不同方案在不同自然状态下的益损值可以计算出来。

风险型问题的决策一般都使用决策树技术和效用值技术。

决策树技术是一项组织展示与预期决策有关事实的管理技术，它把一系列决策环节﹑各种备择方案﹑可能出现的多种自然状态﹑概率大小﹑益损值等要素简明地绘制在一张图上，使决策问题和决策过程形象化，便于思考和研究，这种图被称为决策树。

决策树分析技术的基本程序是：①确定决策点﹑状态点和结果点，画出决策树。

决策点表示主观抉择环节，用方框表示；状态点表示客观随机环节，用圆圈代表；结果点是树梢，表示决策的终点，用三角形代表。

②将各个行动方案的投入或收益计算或估计出来，标于相应的分支线下面；计算或估计各种自然状态的概率并与自然状态的名称并列标于分支线上面；计算各个结果点的益损值，即条件结果，填在后方的括号内③计算各方案的期望值，标于状态点的上方。

2012年考研政治真题（全部答案解析完整版）一、单项选择题：1～16小题，每小题1分，共16分。

下列每题给出的四个选项中，只有一个选项是符合题目要求的。

请在答题卡上将所选项的字母涂黑。

1.恩格斯说：“鹰比人看得远得多，但是人的眼睛识别东西远胜于鹰。

狗比人具有敏锐得多的嗅觉，但是它连被人当做各种物的特定标志的不同气味的百分之一也辨别不出来。

”人的感官的识别能力高于动物，除了人脑及感官发育得更加完善之外，还因为A人不仅有感觉还有思维 B人不仅有理性还有非理性C人不仅有知觉还有想象 D人不仅有生理机能还有心理活动1.【答案】A【解析】人与动物的区别之一，从马哲角度上讲，人有思维，有意识，能对客观世界反映，发挥主观能动性，所以，本题正确答案是选项A。

2.有这样一道数学题：“90%×90%×90%×90%×90%=？其答案是约59%。

90分看似一个非常不错的成绩，然而，在一项环环相扣的连续不断的工作中，如果每个环节都打点折扣，最终得出的成绩就是不及格。

这里蕴含的辩证法道理是（）A肯定中包含否定B量变引起事变C必然性通过偶然性开辟道路D可能和现实是相互转化的2.【答案】A【解析】本题考查的知识点是量变质变规律，量变积累到一定程度必然发生质变，度是事物保持其质的量的界限，所以，本题正确答案是选项Ａ。

3、在资本主义社会里，资本家雇佣工人进行劳动并支付相应的工资。

资本主义工资的本质是（）A.工人所获得的资本家的预付资本B.工人劳动力的价值或价格C.工人所创造的剩余价值的一部分D.工人全部劳动的报酬3.【答案】B【解析】这是一道识记性考点，资本主义社会工人的工资就是劳动力的价格，劳动力已经成为一种特殊的商品，其使用价值是劳动，价值是工资。

所以，本题的正确选项是选项Ｂ。

4、2011年9月以来美国爆发的“占领华尔街”抗议活动中，示威者打出“我们是99%”的标语，向极富阶级表示不满。

第二部分名校考研真题详解【3小时高清视频】2012年中国政法大学法学综合二（民法学部分）考研真题及详解[视频讲解]2012年中国政法大学法学综合二（民法学部分）考研真题一、单项选择题（每小题1.5分）1．王甲有一个8岁的儿子王乙。

聪明过人，平时经常帮助王甲买些小商品，从未出现差错。

某日，王甲带着王乙，到商场购买一台电视机。

因商场人多，两人走散。

王乙看到一款正在促销的电视机，款式好看，价格便宜，遂订购了一台。

关于该合同的效力，下列选项中正确的是（）。

A．该合同使王乙纯获经济上的利益，故应认定为有效B．该合同须经王甲追认后才能有效C．王乙不具备相应的民事行为能力，该合同应当无效D．在合同被王甲追认之前，商场可以撤销该合同【答案】C【解析】根据《民法通则》第58条规定，无民事行为能力人实施的行为属于无效民事行为，本案中，王乙时年八岁属于无民事行为能力人，而且其购买彩电的行为不是纯获益的行为，因而该合同行为应当是无效的。

2．孙某有一套仿古家具，价值10万元。

2007年7月2日，赵某见到该套家具，十分喜欢。

孙某谎称该套家具系祖上传下来的。

经协商，双方以80万元的价格成交。

2008年6月2日，赵某委托某鉴定机构对该套家具进行鉴定，才知道原来是仿古家具，市价仅为10万元。

关于本案，以下说法中正确的是（）。

A．孙某的行为构成欺诈，赵某有权在2010年6月2日前撤销合同B．孙某的行为构成欺诈，赵某有权请求法院将家具的价格从80万元减少到10万元C．赵某的行为构成重大误解，赵某有权在2009年6月1日前解除合同D．赵某的行为构成重大误解，赵某可以要求法院撤销合同，但不得请求法院变更合同【答案】B【解析】孙某谎称该家具是祖传家具，从而使赵某愿意出80万的高价购买该家具，孙某的行为构成欺诈。

所谓重大误解，依《民通意见》第71条规定，“行为人因对行为的性质、对方当事人、标的物的品种、质量、规格和数量等的错误认识，使行为的后果与自己的意思相悖，并造成较大损失的，可以认定为重大误解”。

2012年同等学力申硕《新闻传播学学科综合水平考试（新闻学专业）》真题及详解2012年同等学历人员申请硕士学位学科综合水平全国统一考试新闻传播学试卷Ⅰ．新闻学一、名词解释（每小题3分，共30分）1．《中国女报》2．《每日纪闻》3．KDKA电台4．新闻传播行为5．导语6．联动型报道策划7．副题8．杂文9．蒙太奇10．广播通讯二、简答题（每小题5分，共20分）1．受众主体性的含义是什么？2．简述新闻背景在新闻报道中的作用。

3．简述新闻图片的作用。

4．简述电视新闻的发展阶段。

三、分析题（每小题10分，共20分）1．分析维新派的办报思想以及维新派报刊的历史进步作用。

2．结合新闻传播实践，分析大众传播的价值传递功能。

四、实务操作题（30分）根据以下材料写作两条不同角度的导语，每条导语（含标点）不超过80个字；制作一则复合型标题；根据所提供的材料撰写一篇600字左右的时评。

附材料：新华社记者近期赴山东省潍坊、莱芜、临沂等地市，追踪农村小卖部、批发市场、生产作坊发现，由于监管缺位等原因，一些“问题食品“专供农村市场，严重威胁农民尤其是青少年的身体健康。

记者来到潍坊市奎文区，随机找了一家公路边的农村小卖部，发现这里就是仿冒、假劣食品“专营店”——原本价格不菲的“德芙”巧克力和“喜之郎”果冻，在这里竟然仅售1元！仿照名牌食品“奥利奥”、“好丽友”，店内出现了“奥森傲”、“好利友”，后者每包仅售1元，并且包装粗糙，有的甚至已开包。

这里的“臭干子”牌辣条，透明包装内可看见白色菌落，已经发霉变质。

在临沂市白沙埠镇中心小学周边的小卖部，一些食品包装粗劣，品质低下，以较低价格吸引当地居民，特别是小学生。

“在当地农村，品质好、价格高的正规食品不好卖。

”在临沂市白沙埠镇朱泮村，一位村民说，“我们买东西不看品牌和保质期等，只要能买得起、吃得香就行。

”基于这一“现实”，一些农村小卖部经营者表示，想要挣钱，一定要经销假名牌、“高仿”“取大名”这三类食品。

1/1十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
圣才电子书
2012年中国政法大学708新闻传播学综合一考研真题（回忆版）
中国政法大学
2012年新闻传播综合一
一、简答题
1．约翰米尔顿的《论出版的自由》的内容以及意义。

2．简述社会化媒体与传统大众媒体的区别。

3．结合马克思的“报刊的有机运动”来谈新闻真实性的理解。

二、材料分析题
给出了政府利用微博发布消息的材料。

结合材料，分析其中涉及的新闻学和传播学的理论知识。

三、论述题
1．论对于白岩松提出的“媒体治”的辨析以及其合理性。

2．结合实例论述谣言的产生和作用机制。

【2013年喜报】2013年育明教育学员共有18人考入中国政法大学法律硕士（非法学） 9人考入法律硕士（法学）中国政法大学法律硕士招生目录2013年复试分数线2012年复试线2011年复试线【育明教育】法律硕士考研复习专家推荐用书一、《法律硕士专业学位研究生入学全国联考考试大纲》（高等教育出版社出版，主编：教育部高校学生司和教育部考试中心）二、《法律硕士专业学位研究生入学全国联考考试分析》（人大出版社出版，主编：教育部考试中心）三、《法律硕士专业学位研究生入学全国联考考试指南》（以下简称联考指南。

中国人民大学出版社出版，总主编：曾宪义）（4）法律硕士复习练习配套必备一、《法律硕士联考考试大纲配套练习》二、《全国法律硕士研究生入学联考标准化题库》（5）《全国法律硕士研究生入学联考历年真题》三、育明教育法律硕士独家内部考研精编资料及押题卷出题人，阅卷人加盟策划汇编，打造法硕最专业最精准的考研辅导资料（1）内容的政治性（2）效力的最高性（3）立法的原则性（4）实施的多层次性9、宪法的作用？（1）保障人权（2）保障民主（3）保障法治（4）保障经济制度10、宪法发挥作用的必备条件？（1）宪法规范的科学性（2）法制的健全和完善（3）违宪审查的有效运行（4）公民的宪法意识11、制宪机关和宪法的起草机关的区别？（1）制宪机关是行使宪法制定权的国家机关，宪法的起草机关是专门的工作机构，不能独立行使制宪权（2）制宪机关是一种常设机构，而宪法的起草的机关具有临时性，一旦宪法的起草任务完成久宣告解散（3）制宪机关有权批准和通过宪法，宪法的起草机关则没有此权（4）制宪机关是经过选举产生，而宪法的起草机关往往是经过任命的方法产生（1）树立宪法的权威（2）培养公民的宪法意识（3）保障人权实现（4）保证国家权力的有效运行13、宪法制定的程序？（1）成立专门的制宪机构（2）提出宪法草案（3）宪法草案的通过（4）公布14、宪法解释的体制？（1）立法机关解释体制（起源于英国）（2）司法机关解释体制（起源于美国）（3）专门机关解释体制（起源于法国）15、宪法修改的形式？（1）全面修改。

2012年中国传媒大学708传播学理论与历史考研真题及详解一、名字解释（每题6分，共30分）1．刺激—反应理论2．达拉斯·斯密塞3．发展传播学4．乔治·赫伯特·米德5．双重行动模式二、简答题（每题15分，共30分）1．社会心理学家库尔特·卢因对传播学研究的主要贡献是什么？结合实际谈谈其理论的意义。

2．何谓健康传播？其基本内容有哪些？简述我国健康传播研究的现状及趋势。

三、论述题（每题30分，共90分）1．什么是媒介专业主义？结合实际论述其形成历史及基本原则。

2．新媒介的发展为人类的传播活动带来了巨大的变革，如何认识新媒介对人类传播活动和人类社会的推动作用。

尝试以Twitter、Facebook，微博为例，分析新媒体对人际交流等。

3．2011年年初，国务院新闻办公室组织制作了国家形象片在海外媒体对外播出，覆盖澳大利亚、新西兰、印度、新加坡、韩国、泰国、印尼等亚太国家。

请运用传播学理论评述我国政府的国家形象建构策略。

参考答案：一、名字解释（每题6分，共30分）1．刺激—反应理论【分析】作为大众传播效果发展的第一个历史阶段，需要考生总结该理论对于大众传媒效果的主要认识及其实证支撑，《火星人入侵地球》和“潘恩基金研究会”的研究成为了该理论强有力的佐证。

这是送分题。

答：刺激—反应理论是大众传播效果研究的早期理论之一，认为大众媒介发出的信息能轻而易举让观众接受，这种理论被形象地称之为“枪弹理论”或“皮下注射理论”。

“刺激—反应”机制和媒介效果强大的信念是该理论形成的基础。

早期的传播学者认为，受众在“刺激—反应理论”机制作用下任凭传播内容摆布，只要把价值、思想与信息直接“注射”到每个被动的、原子式的受众个体身上，便可产生一种直接的、不经任何中介环节的效果，因此，媒介效果的实现完全取决于媒介所传播的内容。

大众媒介有着不可抗拒的巨大力量，受众对大众媒介的信息产生大致相同的反应。

2012年中国政法大学701法学综合一（行政法学部分）考研真题及详解中国政法大学研究生院2012年硕士研究生入学考试试题招生专业：法学一级学科各专业考试科目：701法学综合一（法理学、宪法学、国际法学各占40分，行政法学30分）考试日期：1月6日上午考生须知：1．所有客观题均在机读卡上作答，所有主观题均在答题上写清号作答，在试题上答题不给分。

书写字迹清楚。

2．将机读卡、答题纸和试题一起交回，否则以零分记。

一、单项选择题（请将答案涂在机读卡上，在试卷或答题纸上作答无效。

每小题1.5分，共60分）31．根据《行政处罚法》的规定，罚款、没收违法所得或者没收非法财物拍卖所得款项，应（）。

A．全部上缴国库B．交本级政府财政部门，列为本级政府财政收入C．交处罚决定机关做办公经费D．扣除行政处罚决定机关为此支付的费用后，剩余部分上缴国库32．烟草专卖属于（）。

A．一般许可B．特许C．认可D．登记33．根据《立法法》的规定，下列选项中（）只能制定法律。

A．涉及有限自然资源开发利用的行政许可B．较大数额的罚款C．对非国有财产的征收D．直接关系公共利益的特定行业的市场准入等34．根据《公务员法》的规定，公务员担任（）主要领导职务的，应当实行地域回避，法律另有规定的除外。

A．厅局级机关B．乡级机关、县级机关及其有关部门C．省级机关及其有关部门D．处级以上35．下列选项中，（）是我国行政复议基本制度。

A．行政复议委员会B．行政复议期间具体行政行为不停止执行C．书面复议制度D．听证36．下列选项中，（）属于派出机关。

A．丰台区洋桥派出所B．海淀区法制办C．锡林郭勒盟D．四季青乡税务所37．下列选项中，（）是“撤销”的正确表述。

A．行政行为因存在重大且明显的违法，自始不发生法律效力B．行政行为作出时违法，有权机关经法定程序对其违法加以确认，并将其效力追溯性地予以消除C．行政行为作出时并无瑕疵，但行政机关根据后来的情况变化，将其对将来的效力予以消除D．行政行为不成立38．某建设单位的工程设施建设严重影响防洪，水行政部门决定强行予以拆除，所需费用由该建设单位承担。

2012年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语（一）The ethical judgments of the Supreme Court justices have become an important issue recently. The court cannot _1_ its legitimacy as guardian of the rule of law _2_ justices behave like politicians. Yet, in several instances, justices acted in ways that _3_ the court’s reputation for being independent and impartial.Justice Antonin Scalia, for example, appeared at political events. That kind of activity makes it less likely that the court’s decisions will be _4_ as impartial judgments. Part of the problem is that the justices are not _5_by an ethics code. At the very least, the court should make itself _6_to the code of conduct that _7_to the rest of the federal judiciary.This and other similar cases _8_the question of whether there is still a _9_between the court and politics.The framers of the Constitution envisioned law _10_having authority apart from politics. They gave justices permanent positions _11_they would be free to _12_ those in power and have no need to _13_ political support. Our legal system was designed to set law apart from politics precisely because they are so closely _14_.Constitutional law is political because it results from choices rooted in fundamental social _15_ like liberty and property. When the court deals with social policy decisions, the law it _16_ is inescapably political-which is why decisions split along ideological lines are so easily _17_ as unjust.The justices must _18_ doubts about the court’s legitimacy by making themselves _19_ to the code of conduct. That would make rulings more likely to be seen as separate from politics and, _20_, convincing as law.1. [A]emphasize [B]maintain [C]modify [D] recognize2. [A]when [B]lest [C]before [D] unless3. [A]restored [B]weakened [C]established [D] eliminated4. [A]challenged [B]compromised [C]suspected [D] accepted5. [A]advanced [B]caught [C]bound [D]founded6. [A]resistant [B]subject [C]immune [D]prone7. [A]resorts [B]sticks [C]loads [D]applies8. [A]evade [B]raise [C]deny [D]settle9. [A]line [B]barrier [C]similarity [D]conflict10. [A]by [B]as [C]though [D]towards11. [A]so [B]since [C]provided [D]though12. [A]serve [B]satisfy [C]upset [D]replace13. [A]confirm [B]express [C]cultivate [D]offer14. [A]guarded [B]followed [C]studied [D]tied15. [A]concepts [B]theories [C]divisions [D]conceptions16. [A]excludes [B]questions [C]shapes [D]controls17. [A]dismissed [B]released [C]ranked [D]distorted18. [A]suppress [B]exploit [C]address [D]ignore19. [A]accessible [B]amiable [C]agreeable [D]accountable20. [A]by all mesns [B]atall costs [C]in a word [D]as a resultCome on –Everybody’s doing it. That whispered message, half invitation and hal f forcing, is what most of us think of when we hear the words peer pressure. It usually leads to no good-drinking, drugs and casual sex. But in her new book Join the Club, Tina Rosenberg contends that peer pressure can also be a positive force through what she calls the social cure, in which organizations and officials use the power of group dynamics to help individuals improve their lives and possibly the word.Rosenberg, the recipient of a Pulitzer Prize, offers a host of example of the social cure in action: In South Carolina, a state-sponsored antismoking program called Rage Against the Haze sets out to make cigarettes uncool. In South Africa, an HIV-prevention initiative known as LoveLife recruits young people to promote safe sex among their peers.The idea seems promising，and Rosenberg is a perceptive observer. Her critique of the lameness of many pubic-health campaigns is spot-on: they fail to mobilize peer pressure for healthy habits, and they demonstrate a seriously flawed understanding of psychology.” Dare to be different, please don’t smoke!” pleads one billboard campaign aimed at reducing smoking among teenagers-teenagers, who desire nothing more than fitting in. Rosenberg argues convincingly that public-health advocates ought to take a page from advertisers, so skilled at applying peer pressure.But on the general effectiveness of the social cure, Rosenberg is less persuasive. Join the Club is filled with too much irrelevant detail and not enough exploration of the social and biological factors that make peer pressure so powerful. The most glaring flaw of the social cure as it’s presented here is that it doesn’t work very well for very long. Rage Against the Haze failed once state funding was cut. Evidence that the LoveLife program produces lasting changes is limited and mixed.There’s no doubt that our peer groups exert enormous influence on our behavior. An emerging body of research shows that positive health habits-as well as negative ones-spread through networks of friends via social communication. This is a subtle form of peer pressure: we unconsciously imitate the behavior we see every day.Far less certain, however, is how successfully experts and bureaucrats can select our peer groups and steer their activities in virtuous directions. It’s lik e the teacher who breaks up the troublemakers in the back row by pairing them with better-behaved classmates. The tactic never really works. And that’s the problem with a social cure engineered from the outside: in the real world, as in school, we insist on choosing our own friends.21. According to the first paragraph, peer pressure often emerges as[A] a supplement to the social cure[B] a stimulus to group dynamics[C] an obstacle to school progress[D] a cause of undesirable behaviors22. Rosenberg holds that public advocates should[A] recruit professional advertisers[B] learn from advertisers’ experience[C] stay away from commercial advertisers[D] recognize the limitations of advertisements23. In the author’s view, Rosenberg’s book fails to[A] adequately probe social and biological factors[B] effectively evade the flaws of the social cure[C] illustrate the functions of state funding[D]produce a long-lasting social effect24. Paragraph 5shows that our imitation of behaviors[A] is harmful to our networks of friends[B] will mislead behavioral studies[C] occurs without our realizing it[D] can produce negative health habits25. The author suggests in the last paragraph that the effect of peer pressure is[A] harmful[B] desirable[C] profound[D] questionableA deal is a deal-except, apparently ,when Entergy is involved. The company, a major energy supplier in New England, provoked justified outrage in Vermont last week when it announced it was reneging on a longstanding commitment to abide by the strict nuclear regulations.Instead, the company has done precisely what it had long promised it would not challenge the constitutionality of Vermont’s rules in the federal court, as part of a desperate effort to keep its Vermont Yankee nuclear power plant running. It’s a stunning move.The conflict has been surfacing since 2002, when the corporation bought Vermont’s only nuclear power plant, an aging reactor in Vernon. As a condition of receiving state approval for the sale, the company agreed to seek permission from state regulators to operate past 2012. In 2006, the state went a step further, requiring that any extension of the plant’s license be subject to Vermont legislature’s approval. Then, too, the company went along.Either Entergy never really intended to live by those commitments, or it simply didn’t foresee what would happen next. A string of accidents, including the partial collapse of a cooling tower in 207 and the discovery of an underground pipe system leakage, raised serious quest ions about both Vermont Yankee’s safety and Entergy’s management–especially after the company made misleading statements about the pipe. Enraged by Entergy’s behavior, the Vermont Senate voted 26 to 4 last year against allowing an extension.Now the company is suddenly claiming that the 2002 agreement is invalid because of the 2006 legislation, and that only the federal government has regulatory power over nuclear issues. The legal issues in the case are obscure: whereasVermont case will offer a precedent-setting test of how far those powers extend. Certainly, there are valid concerns about the patchwork regulations that could result if every state sets its own rules. But had Entergy kept its word, that debate would be beside the point.The company seems to have concluded that its reputation in Vermont is already so damaged that it has noting left to lose by going to war with the state. But there should be consequences. Permission to run a nuclear plant is a poblic trust. Entergy runs 11 other reactors in the United States, including Pilgrim Nuclear station in Plymouth. Pledging to run Pilgrim safely, the company has applied for federal permission to keep it open for another 20 years. But as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) reviews the company’s application, it should keep it mind what promises from Entergy are worth.26. The phrase “reneging on”(Line 3.para.1) is closest in meaning t o[A] condemning.[B] reaffirming.[C] dishonoring.[D] securing.27. By entering into the 2002 agreement, Entergy intended to[A] obtain protection from Vermont regulators.[B] seek favor from the federal legislature.[C] acquire an extension of its business license .[D] get permission to purchase a power plant.28. According to Paragraph 4, Entergy seems to have problems with its[A] managerial practices. [B] technical innovativeness.[C] financial goals. [D] business vision29. In the auth or’s view, the Vermont case will test[A] Entergy’s capacity to fulfill all its promises.[B] the mature of states’ patchwork regulations.[C] the federal authority over nuclear issues .[D] the limits of states’ power over nuclear issues.30. It can be inferred from the last paragraph that[A] Entergy’s business elsewhere might be affected.[B] the authority of the NRC will be defied.[C] Entergy will withdraw its Plymouth application.[D] Vermont’s reputation might be damaged.In the idealized version of how science is done, facts about the world are waiting to be observed and collected by objective researchers who use the scientific method to carry out their work. But in the everyday practice of science, discovery frequently follows an ambiguous and complicated route. We aim to be objective, but we cannot escape the context of our unique life experience. Prior knowledge and interest influence what we experience, what we think our experiences mean, and the subsequent actions we take. Opportunities for misinterpretation, error, and self-deception abound.Consequently, discovery claims should be thought of as protoscience. Similar to newly staked mining claims, they are full of potential. But it takes collective scrutiny and acceptance to transform a discovery claim into a mature discovery. This is the credibility process, through which the individual researcher’s me, here, now becomes the community’s anyone, anywhere, anytime. Objective knowledge is the goal, not the starting point.Once a discovery claim becomes public, the discoverer receives intellectual credit. But, unlike with mining claims, the community takes control of what happens next. Within the complex social structure of the scientific community, researchers make discoveries; editors and reviewers act as gatekeepers by controlling the publication process; other scientists use the new finding to suit their own purposes; and finally, the public (including other scientists) receives the new discovery and possibly accompanying technology. As a discovery claim works it through the community, the interaction and confrontation between shared and competing beliefs about the science and the technology involved transforms an individual’s discovery claim into the community’s credible discovery.Two paradoxes exist throughout this credibility process. First, scientific work tends to focus on some aspect of prevailing Knowledge that is viewed as incomplete or incorrect. Little reward accompanies duplication and confirmation of what is already known and believed. The goal is new-search, not re-search. Not surprisingly, newly published discovery claims and credible discoveries that appear to be important and convincing will always be open to challenge and potential modification or refutation by future researchers. Second, novelty itself frequently provokes disbelief. Nobel Laureate and physiologist Albert Azent-Gyorgyi once described discovery as “seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.” But thinking what nobody else has thought and telling others what they have missed may not change their views. Sometimes years are required for truly novel discovery claims to be accepted and appreciated.In the end, credibility “happens” to a discovery claim – a process that corresponds to what philosopher Annette Baier has described as the commons of the mind. “We reason together, challenge, revise, and complete each other’s reasoning and each other’s conceptions of reason.”31. According to the first paragraph, the process of discovery is characterized by its[A] uncertainty and complexity.[B] misconception and deceptiveness.[C] logicality and objectivity.[D] systematicness and regularity.32. It can be inferred from Paragraph 2 that credibility process requires[A] strict inspection. [B]shared efforts.[C] individual wisdom. [D]persistent innovation.33.Paragraph 3 shows that a discovery claim becomes credible after it[A] has attracted the attention of the general public.[B]has been examined by the scientific community.[C] has received recognition from editors and reviewers.[D]has been frequently quoted by peer scientists.34. Albert Szent-Györgyi would most likely agree that[A] scientific claims will survive challenges.[B]discoveries today inspire future research.[D]scientific work calls for a critical mind.35.Which of the following would be the best title of the test?[A] Novelty as an Engine of Scientific Development.[B]Collective Scrutiny in Scientific Discovery.[C] Evolution of Credibility in Doing Science.[D]Challenge to Credibility at the Gate to Science.If the trade unionist Jimmy Hoffa were alive today, he would probably represent civil servant. When Hoffa’s Teamsters were in their prime in 1960, only one in ten American government workers belonged to a union; now 36% do. In 2009 the number of unionists in America’s public sector passed that of their fellow members in the private sector. In Britain, more than half of public-sector workers but only about 15% of private-sector ones are unionized.There are three reasons for the public-sector unions’ thriving. First, they can shut things down without suffering much in the way of consequences. Second, they are mostly bright and well-educated. A quarter of A merica’s public-sector workers have a university degree. Third, they now dominateleft-of-centre politics. Some of their ties go back a long way. Britain’s Labor Party, as its name implies, has long been associated with trade unionism. Its current leader, Ed Miliband, owes his position to votes from public-sector unions.At the state level their influence can be even more fearsome. Mark Baldassare of the Public Policy Institute of California points out that much of the state’s budget is patrolled by unions. The teachers’ unions keep an eye on schools, the CCPOA on prisons and a variety of labor groups on health care.In many rich countries average wages in the state sector are higher than in the private one. But the real gains come in benefits and work prac tices. Politicians have repeatedly “backloaded” public-sector pay deals, keeping the pay increases modest but adding to holidays and especially pensions that are already generous.Reform has been vigorously opposed, perhaps most egregiously in education, where charter schools, academies and merit pay all faced drawn-out battles. Even though there is plenty of evidence that the quality of the teachers is the most important variable, teachers’ unions have fought against getting rid of bad ones and promoting good ones.As the cost to everyone else has become clearer, politicians have begun to clamp down. In Wisconsin the unions have rallied thousands of supporters against Scott Walker, the hardline Republican governor. But many within the public sector suffer under the current system, too.John Donahue at Harvard’s Kennedy School points out that the norms of culture in Western civil services suit those who want to stay put but is bad for high achievers. The only American public-sector workers who earn well above $250,000 a year are university sports coaches and the president of the United States. Bankers’ fat pay packets have attracted much criticism, but a public-sector system that does not reward high achievers may be a much bigger problem for America.36. It can be learned from the first paragraph that[A] Teamsters still have a large body of members.[B] Jimmy Hoffa used to work as a civil servant.[D]the government has improved its relationship with unionists.37. Which of the following is true of Paragraph 2?[A] Public-sector unions are prudent in taking actions.[B] Education is required for public-sector union membership.[C] Labor Party has long been fighting against public-sector unions.[D]Public-sector unions seldom get in trouble for their actions.38. It can be learned from Paragraph 4 that the income in the state sector is[A] illegally secured. [B] indirectly augmented.[C] excessively increased. [D]fairly adjusted.39. The example of the unions in Wisconsin shows that unions[A]often run against the current political system.[B]can change people’s political attitudes.[C]may be a barrier to public-sector reforms.[D]are dominant in the government.40. John Donahue’s a ttitude towards the public-sector system is one of[A]disapproval.[B]appreciation.[C]tolerance.[D]indifference.Think of those fleeting moments when you look out of an aeroplane window and realise that you are flying, higher than a bird. Now think of your laptop, thinner than a brown-paper envelope, or your cellphone in the palm of your hand. Take a moment or two to wonder at those marvels. You are the lucky inheritor of a dream come true.The second half of the 20th century saw a collection of geniuses, warriors, entrepreneurs and visionaries labour to create a fabulous machine that could function as a typewriter and printing press, studio and theatre, paintbrush and gallery, piano and radio, the mail as well as the mail carrier. (41)The networked computer is an amazing device, the first media machine that serves as the mode of production, means of distribution, site of reception, and place of praise and critique. The computer is the 21st century's culture machine.But for all the reasons there are to celebrate the computer, we must also tread with caution. (42)I call it a secret war for two reasons. First, most people do not realise that there are strong commercial agendas at work to keep them in passive consumption mode. Second, the majority of people who use networked computers to upload are not even aware of the significance of what they are doing.All animals download, but only a few upload. Beavers build dams and birds make nests. Yet for the most part, the animal kingdom moves through the world downloading. Humans are unique in their capacity to not only make tools but then turn around and use them to create superfluous material goods - paintings, sculpture and architecture - and superfluous experiences - music, literature, religion and philosophy. (43)For all the possibilities of our new culture machines, most people are still stuck in download mode. Even after the advent of widespread social media, a pyramid of production remains, with a small number of people uploading material, a slightly larger group commenting on or modifying that content, and a huge percentage remaining content to just consume. (44)Television is a one-way tap flowing into our homes. The hardest task that television asks of anyone is to turn the power off after he has turned it on.What counts as meaningful uploading? My definition revolves around the concept of "stickiness" - creations and experiences to which others adhere.[A] Of course, it is precisely these superfluous things that define human culture and ultimately what it is to be human. Downloading and consuming culture requires great skills, but failing to move beyond downloading is to strip oneself of a defining constituent of humanity.[B] Applications like , which allow users to combine pictures, words and other media in creative ways and then share them, have the potential to add stickiness by amusing, entertaining and enlightening others.[C] Not only did they develop such a device but by the turn of the millennium they had also managed to embed it in a worldwide system accessed by billions of people every day.[D] This is because the networked computer has sparked a secret war between downloading and uploading - between passive consumption and active creation - whose outcome will shape our collective future in ways we can only begin to imagine.[E] The challenge the computer mounts to television thus bears little similarity to one format being replaced by another in the manner of record players being replaced by CD players.[F] One reason for the persistence of this pyramid of production is that for the past half-century, much of the world's media culture has been defined by a single medium - television - and television is defined by downloading.[G]The networked computer offers the first chance in 50 years to reverse the flow, to encourage thoughtful downloading and, even more importantly, meaningful uploading.Part CSince the days of Aristotle, a search for universal principles has characterized the scientific enterprise. In some ways, this quest for commonalities defines science. Newton’s laws of motion and Darwinian evolution each bind a host of different phenomena into a single explicatory frame work.(46)In physics, one approach takes this impulse for unification to its extreme, and seeks a theory of everything—a single generative equation for all we see.It is becoming less clear, however, that such a theory would be a simplification, given the dimensions and universes that it might entail, nonetheless, unification of sorts remains a major goal.This tendency in the natural sciences has long been evident in the social sciences too. (47)Here, Darwinism seems to offer justification for it all humans share common origins it seems reasonable to suppose that cultural diversity could also be traced to more constrained beginnings. Just as the bewildering variety of human courtship rituals might all be considered forms of sexual selection, perhaps the world’s languages, music, social and religious customs and even history are governed by universal features. (48)To filter out what is unique from what is shared might enable us to understand how complex cultural behavior arose and what guides it in evolutionary or cognitive terms.That, at least, is the hope. But a comparative study of linguistic traits published online today supplies a reality check. Russell Gray at the University of Auckland and his colleagues consider the evolution of grammars in the light of two previous attempts to find universality in language.The most famous of these efforts was initiated by Noam Chomsky, who suggested that humans are born with an innate language—acquisition capacity that dictates a universal grammar. A few generative rules are then sufficient to unfold the entire fundamental structure of a language, which is why children can learn it so quickly.(49)The second, by Joshua Greenberg, takes a more empirical approach to universality identifying traits (particularly in word order) shared by many language which are considered to represent biases that result from cognitive constraintsGray and his colleagues have put them to the test by examining four family trees that between them represent more than 2,000 languages.(50)Chomsky’s grammar should show patterns of language change that are independent of the family tree or the pathway tracked through it. Whereas Greenbergian universality predicts strong co-dependencies between particular types of word-order relations. Neither of these patterns is borne out by the analysis, suggesting that the structures of the languages are lireage-specific and not governed by universalsSection III WritingSome internationals students are coming to your university. Write them an email in the name of the Students’Union to1) extend your welcome and2) provide some suggestions for their campus life here.You should write about 100 words on ANSWER SHEET2.Do not sign your name at the end of the letter. Use “Li Ming”instead.Do not write the address(10 points)Part B52. Directions: write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay you should1) describe the drawing briefly2) explain its intended meaning, and3) give your commentsYou should write neatly on ANSWER SHEET2.（20 points）1.【答案】B【解析】从空后信息可以看出，这句表达的是“_ _法官表现得像政治家”的情况下，法庭就不能保持其作为法律法规的合法卫士的形象，所以应该选C,maintain“维持，保持”，其他显然语义不通。