(完整版)外语教学流派中文翻译(打印版).docx

（完整版）外语教学Chapter 2 Aspects of Foreign Language TeachingTeaching GuideThis chapter contains 7 parts and the main content is almost the same as that of Chapter 2 in Students’ Book except the content about syllabus design in section 2.3.2 and three new parts added. In the original chapter 2, the content concerning syllabus design (section 2.2.2) is more abstract and more macro, but the relevant content in this book is introduced in a more specific and more micro way, which can help readers to conduct the practices in a more operational way. For example, in “Implementation”we provide three activities concerning syllabus design, syllabus identification and FLT principles.2.1 Teaching ObjectivesThrough the study of this chapter, students should be able to:1. understand views of language and foreign language teaching.2. understand foreign language teaching syllabus.3. understand foreign language teaching principles.4. understand aims and objectives of foreign language teaching and learning.2.2 Interpreting Chapter ContentThis chapter mainly deals with the following four issues:2.2.1 Two Views of Language and Foreign Language Teaching1. The Structural ViewThis view sees language in terms of the bits and pieces by means of which it is put together (see the diagram on P 13 Students’ book).2. The Functional ViewThis view is concerned with language as an instrument of social interaction rather than as a system that is viewed in isolation. It considers the individual as a social being and investigates the way in which he or she acquires language and uses it in order to communicate with others in his or her social environment.According to the functionalists, language has three main functions: descriptive, expressive and social.1). The descriptive function of language is to convey factual information. This is the type of information which can be stated or denied and in some cases even tested.e.g. It must be well below ten degrees outside.2). The expressive function of language is to supply information about the speaker, his or herfeelings, preferences, prejudices, and past experiences.e.g.I’m not inviting the Smiths again.3). The social function of language serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople.e.g. Will that be all, Sir).If language teaching follows a functional view, the language content of a course will be arranged in terms of functions together with the language items needed for them.2.2.2 Foreign Language Teaching Syllabus1. Definition of SyllabusThe syllabus is a description of the contents of a course and the order in which they are to betaught. It provides the overall organizing principle for what is to be taught and learned. It may be based on grammatical items and vocabulary, the language needed for different types of situations, or the meanings and communicative functions which the learner needs to express in the target language.2. Types of SyllabusThere are many types of syllabuses such as grammatical syllabus, task-based syllabus,skill-based syllabus, topic-base syllabus, content-based syllabus, lexical syllabus, product-oriented vs. process-oriented syllabus, synthetic vs. analytic syllabus, even integrated syllabus (multi-syllabus). Of these various types, each has its own characteristics and may be applied to different courses. However, some of these different types may be overlapped in some aspects (i.e. situational vs. topic-based syllabus), and the syllabus for a course is usually based on a combination of two or more of these types. There are generally five broad types of syllabuses for foreign language teaching: A. grammar or structural; B. functional-notional; C. situational; D. skill-based; E. topic-based.A: Grammar or Structural (organized according to a list of grammatical structures and one that will readily be recognized by most English language teachers.)B: Functional-notional (based on the communicative and interpersonal uses to which language is put and, in contrast to the formal structural system of the first type, highlights what people do through language. )C : Situational (presents a set of everyday situations or settings.)D: Skill-based (focuses on language skills, and concerned with what learners do as speakers, listeners, readers, and writers.)E: Topic-based(uses topics or themes as its starting point.)3. Design of SyllabusesThe important thing to do in syllabus design is to decide what to include in the syllabus. Below is a list of possible components of syllabuses.Aims/GoalsGeneral statements about what must be accomplished by the end of the course.Objectives/Targets/RequirementsSpecific statements about what content or skills that students must master in order to attain the goals.Non-language outcomesAffect cultivation, such as confidence, motivation, interestLearning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc.Cultural understandingLearning contentsKnowledge: vocabulary list, grammar itemsSkills: listening, speaking, reading and writingFunctions and notionsTopicsCultureImplementationApproaches/methodologiesTeaching principlesTeaching suggestionsRecommendation of textbooks/materialsAssessment/Evaluation: Who, what, how and for what purposesWho should carry out assessment/evaluation?What should be evaluated?How is evaluation best done?For what purposes should evaluation be done?Proficiency tests4. Changes in Foreign Language Teaching and the ImplicationsThe major shifts in foreign language teaching are summarized in the diagram on P. 20. (Students’ book)These changes have the implication that the integration of the four skills is the most plausible approach to take within a communicative or interactive framework. Usually a lesson in an integrated English class might include:1) a pre-reading discussion of the topic to activate schemata;2) listening to a lecture or a series of informative statements about the topic of a passage to beread;3) a focus on a certain reading strategy, e.g. scanning;4) writing a paragraph of a section of the reading passage.2.2.3 Principles of Foreign Language TeachingTeaching and learning are interrelated with each other. Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the conditions for learning. Our understanding of how the learner learns will determine our philosophy of education, our teaching style, our approach, methods, and classroom techniques.According to H. D. Brown (1994), for foreign language teaching there are three broad set of principles which include 12 specific principles (see the following diagram):Cognitive principles: relate mainly to mental and intellectual functions, including automaticity, meaningful learning, the anticipation of reward, intrinsic motivation and strategic investment. Affective principles: more central to the emotional processing of human beings, including language ego, self-confidence, risk-taking and the language-culture connection.Linguistic principles:center on language itself and on how learners deal with these complex linguistic systems, including the native language effect, interlanguage and communicative competence.2.2.4 Aims and Objectives of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning1. General Aim --- to develop student’s communicative competenceForeign language teaching and learning used to focus on imparting the language knowledge to the language learners, but now its general aim is to develop students’communicative competence in the target language, which demonstrates a shift of emphasis from a narrow focus on language as a formal system to the social and cultural k nowledge which speakers need in order to understand and use linguistic forms (Hedge, 2002: 45).According to Hymes (1972), communicative competence consists of linguistic / grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociocultural competence, and strategic competence.Linguistic/Grammatical Discourse Sociocultural StrategicLinguistic competence refers to the ability to recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactic, and phonological features of a language, the sentence-level grammatical forms, and to make use of these features to interpret and form words and sentences.Discourse competence is concerned, in oral texts, with the ability to perform the turns in discourse, to maintain the conversation and to develop the topic; while in written context, theability to understand and interpret the relationships through formal devices and to create coherent written texts.Social-cultural competence refers to an ability to interact effectively with people of different social and cultural backgrounds. Socio-cultural competence comprises four components:1) Awareness of one's own socio-cultural world view;2) Attitude towards cultural differences;3) Knowledge of different social and cultural practices and worldviews;4) Cross-cultural skills. Developing cultural competence results in an ability to understand,communicate with, and effectively interact with people across culturesStrategic competence is defined as the ability to cope with authentic communicative situations and to keep the communicative channel open by using some cooperation, communicative and affective strategies.The key components of communicative competence, as identified by a number of researchers, could also be listed as: linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence and fluency (Hedge, 2002: 46-56).Linguistic Pragmatic Discourse Strategic Fluencycompetence competence competence competence Chomsky's view of linguistic competence, however, was not intended to inform pedagogy, but serve as part of developing a theory of the linguistic system itself, idealized as the abstract language knowledge of the monolingual adult native speaker, and distinct from how they happen to use and experience language.Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of four components:1) grammatical competence: words and rules2) sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness3) discourse competence: cohesion and coherence4) strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategiesCanale and Swain's definition has become canonical in applied linguistics.A more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom practice (e.g. Savignon, 1998). This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.2. Aims:Aims are descriptions of the overall purpose of a course (ie. the teaching intention and course intention), and are long-term and open-ended. The general aim of language teaching is to develop students’ communicative competence and language awareness is essential. Aims are often affected b y the following factors beyond the teacher’s control:--- community attitudes to learning English;--- educational policy within a state;--- importance of exams;--- time allotted to teaching foreign language (hours per week)--- place within curriculum (compulsory, optional, or taught only at certain level)--- students’ needs: why do they need English?--- students’ level: what level of English do they require?The following guidelines could be used in making aims more concrete:1. Indicate which observable activity or task the students can carry out when he has achieved theaims.2.Indicate the subject matter (learning content) with respect to which the students can carry outthe task described.3.Indicate the conditions under which the student can carry out the tasks described.4.Indicate the criteria for acceptable performance.3. Objectives:Objectives are descriptions of the steps a learner must take in order to achieve the aim. They are specific and realizable, even within one lesson. They are written in general terms (e.g. the objective is to relax the students), in terms of skills (e.g. to give students practice in extracting specific information from a text) and in terms of language ( e.g. to give students practice in the use of the past simple tense using regular and irregular verbs, questions and answers). The written objectives will be more or less specific depending on how specific the teacher’s aims are.Aims and objectives are closely related. If you want to achieve the aim, your objectives must be for the realization of it.However, defining foreign language teaching objectives is no easy matter, it entails at least: 1. specifying what students can do in the target language (behavioral specification) e.g. the students can read novels in the original, non-adapted versions; or the students can call the railway station for information about departure time.2. specifying the linguistic elements ( language forms) necessary to carry out the tasksspecified (linguistic specification). This could for instance include: providing phonetic/phonological information about the target language; compiling a vocabulary list; compiling a list of structure: etc.3. specifying the level of proficiency in listening, speaking, reading and writing.2.3 ImplementationActivity 1 When a syllabus is designed, which of the following aspects of the intended learner should be taken into account:a. the learner’s previous knowledgeb. the learner’s attitude and motivationc. the learner’s past experience of languag e learningd. the learner’s present mastery of the languagee. the learner’s goal of studyf. the gap between the learner’s present mastery of the language and his/her goalReference:Generally speaking, all of the above-mentioned aspects should be taken into account in designing a syllabus.Activity 2 The following is an excerpt from a textbook written on the basis of situational syllabus. Study the excerpt carefully and then try to describe the difference between the situational syllabus and the grammatical syllabus.Talking about WeatherWang: Oh, it is raining outside. Mark, the weather is quite different in different places. What is the weather in your hometown?Jones: It is very hot. The temperature is sometimes over 40C.Wang: Do you like the weather in Beijing?Jones: Well, I like Beijing in autumn and summer, but I don’t like it in spring.Wang: Why?Jones: It’s very windy and cold in spring.Wang: What about the weather in your wife’s hometown?Jones: It changes very quickly. A sunny day will probably become very rainy and cold.Wang: Really?Jones: One day last week, we went for walk in the country. When we started in the morning, the sky was blue and it waswarm and sunny. There were no clouds at all. But at midday, a sudden rain came. There was a strong wind, too.Wang: Oh, that’s terrible. Did you bring any raincoats?Jones: No, we didn’t bring any raincoats or umbrellas. There were no houses nearby. We walked in the rain for about half an hour.Wang: Did you catch cold in the rain?Jones: Yes, I had a bad cold after that. So people sometimes say that you can have four seasons in one day. Reference:As for the situational syllabus, the fundamental principle for the organization of the contents is situation, instead of grammar items, although which will also appear in the syllabus. Situational syllabus attaches much importance to the context within which the theme and the linguistic topics are presented; more often than not there would be a list of useful situations which learners would encounter during the course. On the contrary, a grammatical syllabus is based on the structures of a language. Learners learn grammatical structures in a sequence that reflects their complexity, rather than their use in communication. And also learners are not usually exposed to more difficult structures than the ones they are learning. The whole purposes of the grammatical syllabus was to control input to the learner so that only one item was presented at a time. Activity 3 Match Column A with Column BColumn A Column BCognitive principles risk-takingmeaningful learning,the anticipation of reward,intrinsic motivationstrategic investment.Affective principles the native language effect,the language-culture connectioncommunicative competence.Linguistic principles language ego,self-confidence,automaticityinterlanguage.Reference:1.Cognitive principles include automaticity, meaningful learning, the anticipation of reward,intrinsic motivation and strategic investment.2.Affective principles includes language ego, self-confidence, risk-taking and thelanguage-culture connection.3.Linguistic principles includes the native language effect, interlanguage and communicativecompetence.2.4 Suggested A nswers to the “Questions and T asks”(Page 28-29)1. How do you understand the two approaches to language study, the structural and the functional? How do they respectively contribute to language teaching?As for these two approaches to language study, it is not the matter of right or wrong. Both of them are contributable tolanguage. The structural approach mostly stresses the importance of all the aspects of language (i.e. word, phrase, clause, etc.) but it just considers language within language system itself and ignores the social aspects of language. The functional approach is concerned with language as instrumental of social interaction rather than as a system that is viewed in isolation, but it does not mean that it ignores the importance of the eight aspects of language, any kind of function is expressed by language items.2. Must we pay equal attention to all the eight aspects of language in teaching? Why or Why not?No, it is not necessary. The eight aspects of language are equally importance in terms of language itself, but it does not mean that we should pay equal attention to all of them in teaching. How much attention should be paid to the eight aspects in language depends on many factors such as the materials, the teaching objectives, the levels of learners, etc.3. How do you understand the last feature of language-“language and language learningboth have universal characteristics”?There are numerous kinds of languages in the world such as Chinese, English, Japanese, etc. and every kind of them has its own special features. However, according to Chomsky, there is a set of rules that are shared by all languages in the world. In other words, they share some universal characteristics. For example, they are mainly used for communications, for expressing personal ideas, feelings, etc. Thus accordingly, the ways of learning one language(i.e. Chinese) will be probably suitable to learning another language (i.e. English), though thelanguages themselves do differ from each other in many aspects.4. Of the 12 teaching principles specified by Brown, which do you think have been implemented in your teaching or/ and learning experience? Which should get more attention from you as a pre-service (or in-service) teacher？Why?Different language learners may have different experiences. According to my own experiences, among the 12 teaching principles, the anticipation of reward, self-confidence, the language-culture connection, the native language effect and communicative competence have been implemented in my teaching and learning, and the rest should be given more attention. For example, as a teacher, strategic investment should be paid more attention in teaching practices, that is, we should help learners become autonomous learners, letting them “invest” certain time, effort and attention in language learning according to their own situations.5. The aims and objectives of a certain course should be made clear to both the teacher and the student. Think of a course you like, say “Advanced Reading and Writing”, and specify the aims and objectives of the course in the position of a teacher. This is for open discussion.6. If you were asked to design a syllabus for a new English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) course, what are some of the first things you would do as preparation？If I were in such a situation, some of the first things I would do as preparation are as the follows: a. the objectives of the course; b. the situations of learners; c. the situations of teachers, and etc.7. Locate three different EFL textbooks. Study the introduction and a chapter or two in each. What are some of the obvious differences in the goals of each book? In other words, what does the author of each book intend for the student to learn through the use of the book? What kinds of activities does the author provide? After studying the books, get together with a friend who has also reviewed a few texts. Take turns showing the text materials and discuss the goals of each book.This is for open discussion.2.5 Technical TermsAutomaticity: the ability to use a language using automatic processing which refers to the performance of a task without conscious or deliberate processing.Curriculum: an educational programme which states (a) the educational purpose of the programme; (b) the content, teaching procedures and learning experience which will be necessary to achieve this purpose; (c) some means for assessing whether or not the educational ends have been achieved.Interlanguage: the type of language produced by second-and foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a language and it differs form both the mother tongue and the target language.Language ego: (in SL or FL learning) the relation between people’s feelings of personal identity, individual uniqueness, and value (i.e. their ego) and aspects of their first language.Objective: a goal of a course of instruction. Two different types of objectives may be distinguished. General objectives, or aims, are the underlying reasons for or purposes of a course of instruction; specific objectives are descriptions of what is to be achieved in a course.Risk-taking: a personality factor which concerns the degree to which a person is willing toundertake actions that involve a significant degree of risk. It is said to be an important characteristic of successful SLL, since learners have to be willing to try out hunches about the new language and take the risk of being wrong.Syllabus design: the procedures for deciding what will be taught in a language programme. Syllabus: a description of the contents of a course of instruction and the order in which they are to be taught. Language-teaching syllabuses may be based on (a) grammatical items and vocabulary;(b) the language needed for different types of situations; (c) the meanings and communicative functions which the learner needs to express in the target language.2.6 Further readingBreen, M.P. (1987) “Contemporary paradigms in syllabus design” (Part I and II). Language Teaching (20.2): 81-92;(20.3):157-174.Brown, H.D. (2002) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.Crombie, W. (1985) Discourse and Language Learning: A Relational Approach to Syllabus Design. Oxford: Pergamon. Nunan, D. (1988) Syllabus Design. OUP.Widdowson, H. (1990) Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford OUP.Wilkins, D. A. (1976) Notional Syllabuses. Oxford OUP.Willis, D. (1990)The Lexical Syllabus. London: Collins Cobuild ELT.Yalden, J. (1987) The Communicative Syllabus: Evolution, Design and Implementation. Prentice-Hall International (UK).。

• 其优点是： 1. 培养学生敢于大胆主动地使用所学语言进 行交谈，口语能力较强； 2. 句型操练对初学者帮助很大，语言规范； • 其缺点是： 1. 大量的模仿和机械操练不利于发展学生的 创造性思维； 2. 脱离语言内容和语境的句型操练不利于学生 对语言的灵活运用。 3. 放松读写训练，不利于学生全面发展实践能 力。
直接法也叫自然法(Natural Method)、心理法(Psychological Method)、口语法(Oral Method)、改 良法(Reformed Method)。 针对翻译法不能培养学生听说能力 的缺点，直接法于19世纪末在欧洲产 生。 它包含三个方面的意思：直接学习、 直接理解和直接应用。其主要特点是： 不允许使用母语，用动作和图画等直 观手段解释词义和句子。
直接法流行甚广，其优点是： 1. 采用各种直观教具，广泛运用接近实际生活的教 学方式，有助于培养用外语思维的能力； 2. 强调直接学习和直接应用，注重语言实践练习， 学生学习积极性高，学习兴趣浓厚； 3. 重视口语和语音教学，能有效地培养学生的语言 运用能力。 其缺点是： 1. 排斥母语，使学生对一些抽象和复杂的概念难以 理解； 2. 没有明晰的语法解释，导致学生说出的话语法错 误较多。
三、听说法(Audiolingualism, Audiolingual Method)
• 听说法于20世纪40至60年代盛行于美国。二战爆发 后，美国需要派大量的士兵出国作战 ，士兵们需要 掌握所去国家的语言，政府临时抽调外语教学法和 语言学专家以及有经验的外语教师，成立了外语训 练中心，研究外语速成教学方法，以六至八个月为 一期，培训士兵，其训练方法就是听和说，听说法 就这样产生了。 • 它吸收了直接法的许多优点，又受结构主义语言学 和行为主义心理学的影响。认为外语学习是习惯的 形成，采取模仿、机械练习和记忆的方法强化学生 的反应；课堂上学生做大量的句型操练，不考虑意 思和语境。

外语教学法流派：暗示法（Suggestopedia）暗示法（Suggestopedia）是由保加利亚精神病疗法心理学家罗札诺夫（G.Lozanov）于6 0年代中期创立的。

暗示法主张创造高度的动机，建立激发人的潜力，把各种无意识暗示因素组织起来，以便有效地完成学习伍务。

暗示法由此而得名。

另外，暗示法采用加速的方法进行外语教学，所以，它又称为暗示速成教学法（Suggestive-Ace1eratively Learning an d Teachinhg，简称SALT）。

暗示法的主要教学原则如下：1．语言材料的大量输入暗示教学的教学大纲所规定的语言材料量比常规的外语教学法所规定的量要多好几倍。

据试验，120个学时可学2000个词。

2．有意识和无意识相统一外语学习过程是大脑思维活动和情感同时作用的过程。

脑子的左半球主管语言和逻辑思维，右半球主管非语言和形象思维。

如果在学习外语时，采取措施，使两个半球同时发挥作用，就比用一个左半球好。

有意识活动和无意识活动联系越紧密，效果就越好。

暗示法的创新之处就在于，它集中无意中得到的信号去达到一个有意义的目的。

3．创造心情舒畅的气氛外语学习环境幽雅。

舒适的软椅排成半圆形，光线柔和，有音乐伴奏。

语言材料的输入采用戏剧、诗歌等方式，并伴随着丰富的表情和手势。

在这种和谐的环境里，学生的紧张心理消除了，心情舒畅，充满乐趣，善于想象。

这种环境可以激发学生的超级记忆能力，加速记忆效能，提高学习效果。

4．借助母语翻译和对比在学习过程中借助母语翻译，并对比两种语言的异同，开发学生的智力。

5．建立高度的自信心鼓励大胆说外语，尽量少纠错，避免造成紧张气氛。

6．创造自然的情境暗示法在学习过程中创造了十几个自然的情境，让学生把所学的语言材料应用到交际情境中去。

选自：盛炎著《语言教学原理》外语教学法流派：认知法（Cognitive Approach）认知法又称认知－符号法（Cognitive-Code Approach），产生于60年代的美国，代表人物是卡鲁尔、布鲁纳。

外语教学法流派：暗示法（Suggestopedia）暗示法（Suggestopedia）是由保加利亚精神病疗法心理学家罗札诺夫（G.Lozanov）于6 0年代中期创立的。

暗示法主张创造高度的动机，建立激发人的潜力，把各种无意识暗示因素组织起来，以便有效地完成学习伍务。

暗示法由此而得名。

另外，暗示法采用加速的方法进行外语教学，所以，它又称为暗示速成教学法（Suggestive-Ace1eratively Learning an d Teachinhg，简称SALT）。

暗示法的主要教学原则如下：1．语言材料的大量输入暗示教学的教学大纲所规定的语言材料量比常规的外语教学法所规定的量要多好几倍。

据试验，120个学时可学2000个词。

2．有意识和无意识相统一外语学习过程是大脑思维活动和情感同时作用的过程。

脑子的左半球主管语言和逻辑思维，右半球主管非语言和形象思维。

如果在学习外语时，采取措施，使两个半球同时发挥作用，就比用一个左半球好。

有意识活动和无意识活动联系越紧密，效果就越好。

暗示法的创新之处就在于，它集中无意中得到的信号去达到一个有意义的目的。

3．创造心情舒畅的气氛外语学习环境幽雅。

舒适的软椅排成半圆形，光线柔和，有音乐伴奏。

语言材料的输入采用戏剧、诗歌等方式，并伴随着丰富的表情和手势。

在这种和谐的环境里，学生的紧张心理消除了，心情舒畅，充满乐趣，善于想象。

这种环境可以激发学生的超级记忆能力，加速记忆效能，提高学习效果。

4．借助母语翻译和对比在学习过程中借助母语翻译，并对比两种语言的异同，开发学生的智力。

5．建立高度的自信心鼓励大胆说外语，尽量少纠错，避免造成紧张气氛。

6．创造自然的情境暗示法在学习过程中创造了十几个自然的情境，让学生把所学的语言材料应用到交际情境中去。

选自：盛炎著《语言教学原理》外语教学法流派：认知法（Cognitive Approach）认知法又称认知－符号法（Cognitive-Code Approach），产生于60年代的美国，代表人物是卡鲁尔、布鲁纳。